UNITED
NATIONS
BRIEFING NOTES FOR
SUDAN
Background Information and Living Conditions for
Civilian Personnel
ROUGH DRAFT (Internal Use Only)
OFFICE OF MISSION SUPPORT
DEPARTMENT OF PEACE-KEEPING OPERATIONS
July 2004
Briefing Notes for Sudan July 2004
About this document:
1. These briefing notes are for information purposes only and should not be
construed as having any legal, financial or other commitment on the part of the
United Nations. Similarly, they are not meant to replace the Staff Rules and
Regulations or other Personnel instructions.
It is the responsibility of personnel to consult the appropriate documentation to
determine his/her entitlements and the conditions of employment. The Personnel
Officer at the mission will have the relevant documents available and may be
consulted on the subject.
2. The information in this document is subject to change at short notice. Although
it will be revised as necessary, international personnel are advised to check
before their departure on the current Government rules and regulations
concerning currency control, customs, rents, hotel charges, etc., which are also
subject to change.
2
Briefing Notes for Sudan July 2004
Table of Contents
I. Introduction to Sudan
Orientation
Current Crisis
Security
Crime and Penalties
Local Laws and Customs
Road Safety
Natural Disasters
Photography
General Security Tips
Land Mines and UXO
Health
4
4
7
7
7
8
9
9
9
11
12
II. Life on Mission in the Sudan
Weather
What to Bring
Banking and Finances
Insurance
15
16
17
17
III. Basic Facts
People
Ethnic Groups
National Holiday
Currency
Religion
Time Zone
Geography/Environment
Languages
Economy
Major Cities
16
18
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
IV. Political and Historical Background
21
V. Further Reading and Web Sites
24
ANNEX I – Equipment List
25
3
Briefing Notes for Sudan July 2004
I. INTRODUCTION TO SUDAN
ORIENTATION
Military regimes favoring Islamic-oriented governments have dominated national
politics since independence from the United Kingdom in 1956. Sudan has been
embroiled in a civil war for all but 10 years of this period (1972-82). The wars are
rooted in northern economic, political, and social domination of non-Muslim, nonArab southern Sudanese. Since 1983, the war and famine-related effects have led to
more than 2 million deaths and over 4 million people displaced. The ruling regime
came to power in a 1989 coup. Some northern opposition parties have made
common cause with the southern rebels and entered the war as a part of an antigovernment alliance. Peace talks gained momentum in 2002-03 with the signing of
several accords, including a cease-fire agreement.
CIVIL STRIFE IN SUDAN
In 1955, southern resentment of northern Muslim Arab domination culminated in a
mutiny among southern troops in Equatoria Province. For the next 17 years, the southern
region experienced civil strife, and various southern leaders agitated for regional
autonomy or outright secession.
This chronic state of insurgency against the central government was suspended in 1972
after the signing of the Addis Ababa Accords granting southern Sudan wide regional
autonomy on internal matters. But a 1983 decree by President Nimeiri that declared his
intention to transform Sudan into a Muslim Arab state, and divided the south into three
regions and instituted Shari’a law, revived southern opposition and militant insurgency.
After the 1985 coup, the new government rescinded this decree and made other
significant overtures aimed at reconciling north and south but did nor rescind the socalled September Laws of the Nimeiri regime instituting Shari’a Law. In May 1986, the
Sadiq al-Mahdi government began peace negotiations with the rebel Sudan People’s
Liberation Army (SPLA), led by Col. John Garang de Mabior. In that year the SPLA and
a number of Sudanese political parties met in Ethiopia and agreed to the “Koka Dam”
declaration, which called for abolishing Islamic law and convening a constitutional
conference. In 1988, the SPLA and the DUP agreed on a peace plan calling for the
abolition of military pacts with Egypt and Libya, freezing of Islamic law, an end to the
state of emergency, and a cease-fire. A constitutional conference would then be
convened.
Following an ultimatum from the armed forces in February 1989, the Sadiq al-Mahdi
government approved this peace plan and engaged in several rounds of talks with the
SPLA. A constitutional conference was tentatively planned for September 1989. The
military government, which took over on 30 June 1989, however, repudiated the
4
Briefing Notes for Sudan July 2004
DUP/SPLA agreement and state it wished to negotiate with the SPLA without
preconditions. Negotiating sessions in August and December 1989 brought little progress.
The SPLA is in control of large areas of Equatoria, Bahr al Ghazal, and Upper Nile
provinces and also operates in the southern portions of Darfur, Kordofan, and Blue Nile
provinces. The government controls a number of the major southern towns and cities,
including Juba, Wau, and Malakal. An informal cease-fire in May broke down in October
1989, and fighting has continued since then.
In August 1991, internal dissention among the rebels led opponents of Colonel Garang’s
leadership of the SPLA to form the so-called Nasir faction of the rebel army. Osama bin
Laden and his Al Qaida organization moved to Sudan in 1991. Osama brought some
wealth to Sudan while he directed some of his first terrorist attacks out of Sudan.
In September 1992, William Nyuon Bany formed a second rebel faction, and in February
1993, Kerubino Kwanyin Bol formed a third rebel faction. On 5 April 1993, the three
dissident rebel factions announced a coalition of their groups called SPLA United at a
press conference in Nairobi, Kenya. After 1991, the factions clashed occasionally and
thus, the rebels lost much of their credibility with the West.
Since 1993, the leaders of Eritrea, Ethiopia, Uganda, and Kenya have pursued a peace
initiative for the Sudan under the auspices of the Intergovernmental Authority for
Development (IGAD), but results have been mixed. Despite that record, the IGAD
initiative promulgated the 1994 Declaration of Principles (DOP) that aimed to identify
the essential elements necessary to a just and comprehensive peace settlement; i.e., the
relationship between religion and the state, powersharing, wealthsharing, and the right of
self-determination for the south. The Sudanese Government did not sign the DOP until
1997 after major battle field losses to the SPLA.
In 1995, a coalition of internal and exiled opposition parties in the north and the south
created the National Democratic Alliance as an anti-government umbrella group. This
development opened a northeastern front to the civil war, making it more than before a
center-periphery rather than simply a north-south conflict. The SPLA, DUP, and Umma
Parties were the key groups forming the NDA, along with several smaller parties and
northern ethnic groups.
In 1996, Osama bin Laden was expelled from Sudan, and he moved his organization to
Afghanistan.
Also in 1997, the government signed a series of agreements with rebel factions, led by
former Garang Lieutenant Riek Machar, under the banner of “Peace from Within.” These
included the Khartoum, Nuba Mountains, and Fashoda agreements that ended military
conflict between the government and significant rebel factions. Many of those leaders
then moved to Khartoum where they assumed marginal roles in the central government,
or collaborated with the government in military engagements against the SPLA. These
5
Briefing Notes for Sudan July 2004
three agreements paralleled the terms and conditions of the IGAD agreement, calling for
a degree of autonomy for the south and the right of self-determination.
In July 2000, the Libyan/Egyptian Joint Initiative on the Sudan was mooted, calling for
the establishment of an interim government, powersharing, constitutional reform, and
new elections. Southern critics objected to the joint initiative because it neglected to
address issues of the relationship between religion and the state and failed to mention the
right of self-determination. It is unclear to what extent this initiative will have a
significant impact on the search for peace, as some critics view it as more aimed at a
resolution among northern political parties and protecting the perceived security interests
of Egypt in favor of the unity of the Sudan.
The ongoing civil war has displaced more than 4 million southerners. Some fled into
southern cities, such as Juba; others trekked as far north as Khartoum and even into
Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Egypt, and other neighboring countries. These people were
unable to grow food or earn money to feed themselves, and malnutrition and starvation
became widespread. The lack of investment in the south resulted as well in what
international humanitarian organizations call a “lost generation” who lack educational
opportunities, access to basic health care services, and little prospects for productive
employment in the small and weak economies of the south or the north.
Peace talks between the southern rebels and the government made substantial progress in
2003 and early 2004, although skirmishes in parts of the south have reportedly continued.
The two sides have agreed that, following a final peace treaty, southern Sudan will enjoy
autonomy for six years, and after the expiration of that period, the people of southern
Sudan will be able to vote in a referendum on independence. Furthermore, oil revenues
will be divided equally between the government and rebels during the six-year interim
period. The ability or willingness of the government to fulfill these promises has been
questioned by some observers, however, and the status of three central and eastern
provinces remains a point of contention in the negotiations.
A new rebellion in the western province of Darfur began in early 2003. The rebels accuse
the central government of neglecting the Darfur region, although the two rebel groups
fighting there appear to be divided on the question of whether to seek secession from the
Sudan or the overthrow of the government in Khartoum. Both the government and the
rebels have been accused of atrocities in this war, although most of the blame has fallen
on Arab militias allied with the government. The rebels have alleged that these militias
have been engaging in ethnic cleansing in Darfur, and the fighting has displaced hundreds
of thousands of people, many of them seeking refuge in neighboring Chad. In February
2004, the government declared victory over the rebellion shortly after capturing Tine, a
town on the border with Chad, but the rebels say they remain in control of rural areas.
Reports as of April 2004 indicate that widespread fighting continues.
For more information on Sudan, please see the latest Secretary-General’s report and
Security Council resolutions.
6
Briefing Notes for Sudan July 2004
SECURITY
Important Note: The security environment in the Sudan is very unstable. Some of the
concerns mentioned here may have changed when you get to your duty station.
Regardless of situation around you, you should not be lulled into a false sense of security
– take all security advice, especially curfews and travel restrictions, seriously. The
following is a short summary of security
concerns, however, further information should be
sought out in the Security in the Field handbook,
LOCAL LAWS AND
the Landmine and UXO Safety Handbook and
CUSTOMS
from security officials at your duty station.
Sudan operates under
Islamic Shari’a Law. Alcohol
Sporadic fighting has continued between
is not permitted. The use of
Sudanese government forces, the Sudan Peoples'
mobile phones whilst driving
Liberation Army (SPLA), and various militias in
is prohibited. Non-Muslim
the southern part of the country. There is also
women are not expected to
reported violence in the Darfur and eastern areas.
wear a veil or cover their
Threats have been made against foreigners
heads, but all staff should
working in the oil industry in Upper Nile
dress modestly and respect
province.
local customs and
sensitivities.
Travel in all parts of Sudan, particularly outside the capital city of Khartoum, is
potentially hazardous. Banditry is common in western Sudan, particularly in Darfur.
CURFEW: The curfew in Khartoum has been lifted. However, persons who are outside
between midnight and 5:00 a.m. are subject to document searches at police checkpoints.
Hotel officials and local police can inform visitors whether a curfew is in effect in other
localities.
Crime and Penalties
Although the incidence of street crime in Khartoum and major cities is low, you should
exercise caution, particularly late at night. Petty crime and thievery occur. You should
exercise caution at the airport, in markets and at public gatherings.
Persons violating Sudanese laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested, or
imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Sudan are
strict, and convicted offenders can expect jail sentences and fines.
Road Safety
Road conditions are hazardous due to unpredictable local driving habits, pedestrians and
animals in the roadway, and the lack of basic safety equipment on many vehicles. Roads
are narrow and poorly maintained. Only some major highways are paved. Roads in
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Briefing Notes for Sudan July 2004
southern Sudan may be impassable during the rainy season (July-Sept.), while roads in
the north can be quickly covered with shifting sand at any time during the year.
Nighttime driving throughout the country is dangerous, and it should be avoided if
possible because vehicles often operate without lights or park in the road without
warning. Ambulance and road emergency services are available in major urban areas, but
they are extremely limited or unavailable elsewhere in the country.
Traffic on the right side of the road has the right of way. Right turns on a red light are
prohibited. Speed limits are not posted. The legal speed limit for passenger cars on intercity highways is 120 kph (70 mph), while in most urban areas it is 60 kph (35 mph). The
speed limit in congested areas and school zones is 40 kph (24 mph).
All motor vehicle operators are required to purchase third-party liability insurance from
the government. Nonetheless, many local drivers carry no insurance. Persons involved in
an accident resulting in death or injury are required to report the incident to the nearest
police station or official as soon as possible. Persons found at fault can expect fines,
revocation of license, and jail sentences depending on the nature and extent of the
accident. Penalties for persons convicted of driving under the influence of alcohol are
strict, and convicted offenders may expect fines, jail sentences, and corporal punishment.
You can obtain local driving licenses from the police. Women as well as men are
permitted to drive.
You are more at risk of involvement in traffic accidents when using public transport
(taxis and buses) as many vehicles are unsafe. It is unlikely you will be subjected to a
personal attack on public transport.
Desert travel within Sudan should be attempted only if you are fully equipped and
experienced. Permits, obtained locally, are required for all travel outside Khartoum.
Air Safety
Although international flights conform to international safety standards, you should be
aware that the same assurances cannot be made for internal flights operated by national
airlines.
Sea Safety
There have been attacks of piracy and armed robbery against ships in and around
Sudanese waters.
Natural Disasters
Sudan suffers from both drought and flash flooding. If you are planning to travel
overland to remote areas, flooding can make areas inaccessible by road.
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Briefing Notes for Sudan July 2004
Photography
A permit is required before taking photographs anywhere in Khartoum, as well as in the
interior of the country. Photographing military areas, bridges, drainage stations, broadcast
stations, public utilities, slum areas, or beggars is prohibited.
Important security tips:
 Do not travel without security authorization.
 Be aware of changing security threats.
 Obey local customs and rules of behavior.
 Avoid political rallies and street demonstrations – they can sometimes turn
violent.
To stay current on the security situation, you should
attend security briefings on a regular basis. Security
briefings are especially important when you first
arrive on mission and conditions are most foreign to
you. Know the security arrangements in your duty
station – who is in charge of security (local and UN
authorities), evacuation procedures, emergency
phone numbers, etc
Before you travel:
 Make sure your passport
and other documentation
is in order.
 Make copies of all
important documents,
bring one set to the duty
station and leave one set
outside the duty station
with family or friends.
1. Remember that you work for the United
Nations and make sure that you always
present a good image for both yourself and the Organization. This will inspire
confidence and enhance efficiency. This in itself will offer protection from
criminals in that they tend to pray on those who appear to be anxious and
uncertain.
2. Always carry your United Nations I.D. and Laissez-Passer with you.
3. Be alert to routines you have established because they may enable someone to
target you. It is advisable, therefore, to alter your routines constantly.
4. It is recommended that you keep a small rucksack or bag handy at all times,
containing the following items of essential equipment:
- a compass (Silva-type is recommended)
- a first aid kit
- a Swiss Army knife
- a torch (with spare batteries and bulb)
- matches (in waterproof container)
- a hat and extra clothing
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Briefing Notes for Sudan July 2004
- a water bottle (full)
Aggression/Threats
1. You cannot avoid all threats with preventive action. You may find yourself in a
situation of intense hostility, and perhaps danger.
2. Some situations can be resolved calmly if you yourself stay calm.
3. Do not be provoked by any hostile comments about the United Nations, your
race or your nationality. Do not respond in kind.
4. The possibility exists that UN personnel can be caught in crossfire. Should this
occur, try to leave the area immediately. Do not attempt to mediate between the
fighting parties. If you are unable to leave the area and there is shooting, take
cover immediately. If indoors, move to an inside room, such as a bathroom, and
remain there until the shooting stops. Lie down against the base of a wall. On
no account are you to go to the windows or doors to see what is happening. In
situations of extreme disorder, take the action that preserves human life, health
and dignity, in that order.
5. In the case of a bomb or explosion, do not go near the location where it occurred
- there may be a second device.
6. If you are stopped by armed bandits, be calm, cool and co-operative. If your
vehicle is attacked during road movement, get as low as you can and give a
MAYDAY call on your radio. If you can drive clear, do so. If your vehicle is
disabled, take your small rucksack (which contains your emergency personal
equipment) and crawl to the nearest cover (ditch, depression, etc.) and stay down
until the firing and belligerent actions cease. If it is safe to do so, contact your
base by radio and tell them what is happening. It will be up to you, however, to
decide whether to surrender or take evasive action and escape from the scene.
If you are captured, be co-operative and explain your international and
humanitarian status.
7. In spite of your precautions, you always face the possibility of being confronted
by an assailant. Remember that before you consider taking on an assailant, they have the
advantage of having selected the time and the place. In addition to the element of
surprise your assailant may also be well armed. Your life is worth more than your
material possessions.
Landmines and Unexploded Ordinance (UXO)
Continued armed conflict in Sudan has resulted in what is believed to be a significant
mine and unexploded ordnance (UXO) threat. There is, however, only limited
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Briefing Notes for Sudan July 2004
information about the scope and location of this threat. Both anti-tank and anti-personnel
landmines continue to be laid in various parts of the country.
MINE/UXO safety precautions:











Attend an official Landmine/UXO Safety training course
Obtain a copy of the Landmine and UXO Safety Handbook
Contact the regional Mine Action Center or local demining agency for
mine/UXO information and update this information regularly
Learn the local mine/UXO marking and warning signs.
Stick to well-traveled routes and stay in the traveled zone of the road.
Always travel with a two-way radio and know how to use it.
Never walk in unknown areas without advice from local residents or
security personnel.
Never walk through overgrown areas – stick to sidewalks and well-used
paths. Even when nature calls!
Do not touch unfamiliar objects and do not collect war souvenirs.
Avoid destroyed buildings and vehicles.
Learn procedures in case of mine/UXO emergency.
REMEMBER: Report all incidents, even minor ones, to the UN Security Coordinator’s
Office. From such reports, criminals could be identified and possible future threats
detected. Complete reporting also ensures better briefing for United Nations personnel
and risk assessment.
Due to hazardous conditions in mission areas, additional insurance coverage is provided
at no cost to staff. See your Orientation Package for further information
on insurance and policy forms.
11
Briefing Notes for Sudan July 2004
HEALTH
Mission work can be physically as well as mentally exhausting and strenuous. Under
such conditions, it is easy for your immune system to be weakened making you more
susceptible to illness. The foreign conditions as well as the food, water and climate also
affect your health.
Staff members must be in good physical condition to work on mission. Take into account
any existing illness or condition, such as asthma or diabetes, before you leave. You must
bring medications with you for any existing condition because they might not be
available in the Sudan. It is also recommended that all dental needs are taken care of
prior to travel.
HEALTH CONCERNS
Many diseases are present in Sudan for which
vaccinations are recommended. Malaria is common.
AIDS is believed to be a growing problem. Medical
facilities are not comparable to Western standards.
There have been reports that there is an outbreak of
meningitis in South Kordofan State and outbreaks of
meningitis are recurrent elsewhere in the Sudan.
Many medications and
pharmaceuticals are not
available in Sudan. You
must pack an adequate
supply of these with you
before you leave.
Malaria in its severe form occurs throughout the country and is resistant to chloroquine, a
commonly-used preventative drug. Many viral diseases, some causing severe
hemorrhagic fevers, are transmitted by ticks, fleas, mosquitoes, sand flies, etc. Food and
water-born diseases are highly endemic as well as hepatitis A, E and B. Sleeping sickness
(human trypanosomiasis) is reported throughout the country.
Rats pose a special hazard and can carry many types of diseases. Use all precautions to
avoid rat-contaminated food and food containers.
HIV/AIDS
HIV/AIDS is a serious problem in the Sudan. One in 38 adults is infected with HIV –
nearly 3 per cent or the population. In 2001, 63 people a day died of AIDS in Sudan –
23,000 people. But due to the conflict, a complete study of AIDS in the Sudan cannot be
completed.
HIV/AIDS is a serious issue wherever you are and you should always take measures to
protect yourself. AIDS is essentially a sexually transmitted disease so abstaining from
sex or practicing “safe sex” by using a latex condom are the best prevention measures.
Also, always be sure your doctor uses a fresh, sterilized needle and syringe during
injections or when drawing blood.
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Briefing Notes for Sudan July 2004
For more information on HIV and its prevention see: AIDS and HIV Infection:
Information for UN Employees and their Families from UNAIDS.
Food and Water
Quite a few diseases, including hepatitis A and typhoid fever are transmitted by
unsanitary food handling procedures and contaminated water. Food and beverage
precautions are essential. Despite these measures, however, some period of sickness is
probably unavoidable while your body gets used to the local bugs. If diarrhea is severe
or other symptoms persist (including fever) you should consult a doctor.
The following measures should always be taken to avoid food and water borne diseases:





Water must be boiled for at least twenty minutes and treated before
consumption.
Do not eat fruits and vegetables that cannot be peeled.
Food should be fully cooked before eaten.
Fresh meat from markets should not be eaten.
Wash hands thoroughly before handling food.
Tuberculosis
TB is common in all developing countries. Travelers should have a pre-departure PPD skin test
status documented. Domestic help should be screened for TB.
Heat and Sun Exposure
It usually takes several weeks to be become acclimated to the
heat and humidity. During this time, you should reduce
strenuous activity. Drink plenty of water and avoid salt
tablets – salty fluids such as carbonated soda or fruit juice are
a safer way to restore electrolytes. Over exposure to the sun
could cause burn and several types of skin cancer. Cover
your skin and wear a hat with a brim whenever possible. Use
sunscreen 15 minutes before exposure for maximum
effectiveness.
Protect yourself
against mosquito
bites!
Bring with you a
mosquito net and a
repellent containing
at least 30% DEET.
Malaria
The Sudan is one of the most endemic malaria countries in the world. Malaria is spread by
mosquitoes and is prevalent throughout the year particularly in the southern areas of the country.
Malaria can be prevented through daily and weekly doses of medications. Measures to prevent
mosquito bites, such as insect repellent, are also important in preventing malaria.
Symptoms of malaria include fever, shivering, pain in the joints, headache, repeated vomiting,
generalized convulsions and coma.
Prevention of malaria:
- Lariam/Mefloquine/Mephaquin (See doctor for dosage amounts and frequency)
- Combine with protection against mosquito bites.
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Briefing Notes for Sudan July 2004
Insect-Born Diseases
Mosquitoes and flies transmit a variety of diseases in this country, including denge fever, yellow
fever, malaria, African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) and leishmaniasis.
Schistosomiasis is present and is transmitted in freshwater lakes and rivers by larvae, which
penetrate the skin. Do not swim in fresh water (except for well-chlorinated swimming pools).
Wear closed-toed shoes at all times! The Chigoes Flea or Chigger lives in dust and sand and
burrows into skin, often under a toenail. Under the skin surface, her body swells with eggs until
it becomes the size of a pea. Removal of the flea should be done by a doctor.
Trypanosomiasis or sleeping sickness is transmitted by the painful bite of the tsetse fly. This fly,
which resembles a horse fly, exists in various parts of the country. Sometimes there is a lingering
wound at the bite location. Months later there may be fever, weight loss and possibly
neurological symptoms. This disease is difficult to diagnose and to treat.
When you have been bitten by an insect, do not try to scratch. Icing the area immediately after
the bite may help to reduce the irritation. Keep the lesion clean and dry. Consult a physician if
the area becomes red or swollen or exudes pus.
Vaccinations Required before travel to the Sudan:
Yellow Fever –UN employees should show proof of Yellow Fever vaccination upon
entering the country. Those without such documents may be turned back at the airport.
*Vaccinations Recommended:
Tetanus/Diphtheria
Hepatitis A
Hepatitis B
Polio
Meningitis
Typhim VI
*Vaccination requirements are subject to change. Staff should consult the UN
Medical Service to obtain the latest health information.
Staff assigned to United Nations peacekeeping missions must be medically cleared by the UN
Medical Services Division. See your Orientation Package for further information on medical
issues and health insurance.
14
Briefing Notes for Sudan July 2004
II. LIFE ON MISSION IN SUDAN
WEATHER
Although Sudan lies within the tropics, the climate ranges from arid in the north to
tropical wet-and-dry in the far southwest. Temperatures do not vary greatly with the
season at any location; the most significant climatic variables are rainfall and the length
of the dry season. Variations in the length of the dry season depend on which of two air
flows predominates, dry northeasterly winds from the Arabian Peninsula or moist
southwesterly winds from the Congo River basin.
From January to March, the country is under the influence of the dry northeasterlies.
There is practically no rainfall countrywide except for a small area in northwestern Sudan
in where the winds have passed over the Mediterranean bringing occasional light rains.
By early April, the moist southwesterlies have reached southern Sudan, bringing heavy
rains and thunderstorms. By July the moist air has reached Khartoum, and in August it
extends to its usual northern limits around Abu Hamad, although in some years the humid
air may even reach the Egyptian border. In September the dry northeasterlies begin to
strengthen and to push south and by the end of December they cover the entire country.
Yambio, close to the border with Zaire, has a nine-month rainy season (April-December)
and receives an average of 1,142 millimeters of rain each year.
Khartoum has a three-month rainy season (July-September ) with an annual average
rainfall of 161 millimeters; Atbarah receives showers in August that produce an annual
average of only 74 millimeters. The warmest months in Khartoum are May and June,
when average highs are 41° C and temperatures can reach 48° C. Northern Sudan, with
its short rainy season, has hot daytime temperatures year round, except for winter months
in the northwest where there is precipitation from the Mediterranean in January and
February. Conditions in highland areas are generally cooler, and the hot daytime
temperatures during the dry season throughout central and northern Sudan fall rapidly
after sunset. Lows in Khartoum average 15° C in January and have dropped as low as 6°
C after the passing of a cool front in winter.
The haboob, a violent dust storm, can occur in central Sudan when the moist
southwesterly flow first arrives (May through July). The moist, unstable air forms
thunderstorms in the heat of the afternoon. The initial downflow of air from an
approaching storm produces a huge yellow wall of sand and clay that can temporarily
reduce visibility to zero.
.
15
Briefing Notes for Sudan July 2004
WHAT TO BRING
In making your final selection of things to bring, take into account the heat and the heavy rains.
Bring sturdy, light clothing that is easy to wash. Jeans and khakis are the most comfortable and
durable, but jeans can be too hot on most days.
You will need light clothing and a good raincoat and umbrella. Cotton clothing, as well as mixed
fabrics, are best. A jacket or sweater can also be useful when temperatures cool down at night.
You will also want to bring sunscreen and a brimmed hat to protect yourself from the equatorial
heat.
Office wear is casual as is the clothing required for most social occasions. The need for men to
wear a jacket and tie or for women to wear dresses/business suits is rare, unless your particular
job demands such attire. Men and women should bring one formal outfit for official occasions.
You are also advised not to take expensive or sentimental items with you into the mission area.
Suitcases and trunks should have strong locks in order to secure personal effects when leaving
rooms unoccupied. Precautions should always be taken against theft!
Many toiletries and medicines are available in Khartoum, but not in other areas. It is best to
bring preferred items with you, including feminine products and prophylactics. Most food items
can also be found in the Khartoum supermarkets, but the prices are high as most products are
imported from Europe.
Outside of Khartoum power service can be undependable. The current is 220 volts but
frequent power surges can destroy electric appliances. Use of voltage regulators or surge
protectors is recommended. Power can also be cut off at times so be prepared to live without
electricity – flashlights and batteries are essential!
PACKING TIP: Don’t neglect your hobbies! If you play a musical instrument, read
mystery novels, collect stamps or whatever, don’t decide to give this up while you are on
mission. Bringing these items will help you relax in what can be a very stressful,
unfamiliar environment.
A full list of suggested items can be found in the back of this briefing (Annex I).
16
Briefing Notes for Sudan July 2004
BANKING and FINANCES
As of April 2004 no western-based banks had branches in Sudan. There are a number of Middle
East-based banks operating in Khartoum.
Credit cards and travellers' cheques are not usually acceptable in Sudan at the moment. It
is not possible to obtain cash against credit cards at banks and credit cards are not
acceptable at hotels to settle bills. Neither is it possible to cash travellers' cheques through
the local banking system in Sudan. Staff should ensure that they have sufficient hard
currency, preferably US Dollars or Euros, to cover some initial expenses.
Salary Distribution
Your regular United Nations salary must be deposited directly into your bank account;
you cannot be paid by check. To be paid you must have a bank account in your name
with a Bank ID/Routing Number and an Account Number. Please read the instructions
on salary distribution in your Orientation Package.
Two banks are affiliated with the UN payroll system (United Nations Credit Union and
Chase Bank). Salary deposit to an account in these banks is relatively faster than with
other banks. If you would like to open an account with one of these banks, an application
can be accepted through a field mission or the Travel Unit/PMSS at Headquarters.
Applications and other information on these banks can also be found on line at:
www.unfcu.org or www.chase.com. These and many other banks offer an online banking
service that allows you to pay bills and track your accounts on the Internet.
INSURANCE
All United Nations field personnel are required to carry medical insurance, be it a United
Nations subsidized plan or one in which the individual enrolls as a private client. Such
insurance should include coverage for services/treatment outside of their country of
residence. UN-subsidized plans are available to mission staff.
Please see your Entitlements & Responsibilities Booklet available from
the PMSS Travel Unit for more information on insurance issues.
17
Briefing Notes for Sudan July 2004
III. BASIC FACTS
PEOPLE
Sudan's ethnic and linguistic diversity remaines one of the most complex in the world. Its
nearly 600 ethnic groups speak more than 400 languages and dialects, many of them
intelligible to only a small number of individuals. In the 1980s and 1990s some of these
small groups became absorbed by larger groups, while migration often caused individuals
reared in one tongue to converse only in the dominant language of the new area. Such
was the case with migrants to the Three Towns. There Arabic was the lingua franca
despite the use of English by many of the elite. Some linguistic groups had been absorbed
by accommodation, others by conflict. Most Sudanese were, of necessity, multilingual.
Choice of language played a political role in the ethnic and religious cleavage between
the northern and southern Sudanese. English was associated with being non-Muslim, as
Arabic was associated with Islam. Thus language was a political instrument and a symbol
of identity.
ETHNIC GROUPS
The inhabitants of Sudan are divided into three main groups. The northerners, who
inhabit the country roughly north of 12°N lat. and mainly near the Nile, consist of Arab
and Nubian groups; they are Muslim (mostly of the Sunni branch), speak Arabic (the
country's official language), and follow Arab cultural patterns (although only relatively
few are descended from the Arabs who emigrated into the region during the 13th-19th
cent.).
The westerners, so called because they immigrated (primarily in the 20th cent.) from W
Africa, are also Muslim, live mostly in the central part of Sudan, and work as farmers or
agricultural laborers. The southerners, consisting of Nilotic and Sudanic peoples, largely
follow traditional religious beliefs, although some are Christian; they practice shifting
cultivation or are pastoralists, and most speak Nilotic languages. The leading ethnic
groups in the south are the Dinka, Nuer, Shilluk, Bari, and the non-Nilotic Azande.
The distinction between Sudan's Muslim and non-Muslim people has been of
considerable importance in the country's history and provides a preliminary ordering of
the ethnic groups. It does not, however, correspond in any simple way to distinctions
based on linguistic, cultural, or racial criteria nor to social or political solidarity. Ethnic
group names commonly used in Sudan and by foreign analysts are not always used by the
people themselves. That is particularly true for non-Arabs known by names coined by
Arabs or by the British, who based the names on terms used by Arabs or others not of the
group itself. Thus, the Dinka and the Nuer, the largest groups in southern Sudan, call
themselves, respectively, Jieng and Naath.
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Briefing Notes for Sudan July 2004
POPULATION



38.1 million (2003)
44% are age 14 or under
Life expectancy rate: 57 years
CURRENCY
1 US dollar = 260 Sudanese Dinars
Exchange Rate: Subject to fluctuation. See the official UN exchange rate before you
leave. You can find this on the web at: http://www.un.org/Depts/treasury.
NATIONAL HOLIDAY
1 January celebrates independence from both Egypt and the United Kingdom (1956).
RELIGION



Sunni Muslim 70% (mostly in the north)
Indigenous beliefs 25%
Christian 5% (mostly in Khartoum)
TIME ZONE
GMT +2
GEOGRAPHY/ENVIRONMENT
Sudan is Africa's largest country, embracing 2,505,813 square kilometers of northeast
and central Africa. It consists of a huge plain bordered on three sides by mountains: to the
east the Red Sea Hills, to the west Jabal Marrah, and on the southern frontier the Didinga
Hills and the Dongotona and Imatong mountains. Jutting up abruptly in the south-central
region of this vast plain are the isolated Nuba Mountains and Ingessana Hills, and far to
the southeast, the lone Boma Plateau near the Ethiopian border. Spanning eighteen
degrees of latitude, the plain of the Sudan includes from north to south significant regions
with distinctive characters--northern Sudan, western Sudan, the central clay plains,
eastern Sudan, the southern clay plains, and the Jabal Hadid, or Ironstone Plateau, and
southern hill masses.
Natural hazards: dust storms and periodic persistent droughts.
Environmental issues: inadequate supplies of potable water; wildlife populations
threatened by excessive hunting; soil erosion; desertification; periodic drought.
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Briefing Notes for Sudan July 2004
LANGUAGES
Arabic (official), Nubian, Ta Bedawie, diverse dialects of Nilotic, Nilo-Hamitic
languages in the south. Programme in place to make Arabic more common.
ECONOMY
Sudan has turned around a struggling economy with sound economic policies and
infrastructure investments, but it still faces formidable economic problems, notably the
low level of per capita output. From 1997 to date, Sudan has been implementing IMF
macroeconomic reforms. In 1999 Sudan began exporting crude oil and in the last quarter
of 1999 recorded its first trade surplus, which, along with monetary policy, has stabilized
the exchange rate. Increased oil production, revived light industry, and expanded export
processing zones helped maintain GDP growth at 5.1% in 2002. Agriculture production
remains Sudan's most important sector, employing 80% of the work force and
contributing 43% of GDP, but most farms remain rain-fed and susceptible to drought.
Chronic domestic instability, lagging reforms, adverse weather, and weak world
agricultural prices - but, above all, the low starting point - ensure that much of the
population will remain at or below the poverty line for years.
MAJOR CITIES
The great majority of the country's population live in villages or small towns; the only
sizable cities are Port Sudan , Wad Madani , Al Ubayyid , and the conurbation of
Khartoum, Omdurman, and Khartoum North. The desert and semidesert of the north are
largely uninhabited. Since the late 1970s, there have been waves of refugees from
neighboring countries, a result of political, environmental, and economic problems in the
region. Many have settled in the area around Khartoum. However, since the 1980s there
has also been ‘outmigration’ due to the civil war in the south. Educational facilities are
very limited, marked by low literacy rates. The main institutions of higher education are
the Univ. of Khartoum, the Khartoum branch of the Univ. of Cairo, Juba Univ., Gezira
Univ., and Omdurman Islamic Univ.
Khartoum lies along the left bank of the Blue Nile, and forms a huge triangle with the White
Nile on its west side and the Blue Nile on its east and the base bordering Gezira State some 30 K.
southward. Khartoum, together with the two cities, Omdurman and Khartoum North (Bahri),
constitutes the National Capital of the republic of Sudan. Khartoum has a number of businesses,
Islamic banks, airline offices, museums, etc. For a listing of these with telephone numbers and
addresses go to: www.sudani.co.za/Tourism/Introduction.htm.
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Briefing Notes for Sudan July 2004
IV. POLITICAL and HISTORICAL
BACKGROUND
Northeast Sudan, called Nubia in ancient times, was colonized (c.2000 BC) by Egypt as
far as the fourth cataract of the Nile (near modern Karima). From the 8th cent. BC to the
4th cent. AD this region was ruled by the Cush kingdom, centered first at Napata (near
the fourth cataract) and after c.600 BC at Meroë (between the fifth and sixth cataracts).
From c.750 to c.650 BC, Cush ruled Egypt as a result of a dynastic replacement. Meroë
was a center of trade and ironworking, and from there iron technology may have spread
to other parts of Africa.
Most of the inhabitants of Nubia were converted to Coptic Christianity in the 6th cent.
AD, and by the 8th cent. three states flourished in the area. These states long resisted
invasions from Egypt, which had come under Muslim rule in the 7th cent. However, from
the 13th to the 15th cent. the region was increasingly infiltrated by peoples from the
north; the states collapsed, and Nubia gradually became Muslim. The southern part of the
modern Sudan continued to adhere to traditional African beliefs. Much of the north was
ruled by the Muslim state of Funj from the 16th cent. until 1821, when it was conquered
by armies sent by Muhammad Ali of Egypt.
The Era of Foreign Control
The Egyptians founded (1823) Khartoum as their headquarters and developed Sudan's
trade in ivory and slaves. Ismail Pasha (in office 1863-79) tried to extend Egyptian
influence further south in Sudan, ostensibly to end the slave trade. This campaign, which
was headed first by Sir Samuel Baker and then by Charles Gordon , provoked a complex
revolt (1881) by the Mahdi (Muhammad Ahmad), who sought to end Egyptian influence
and to purify Islam in Sudan. The Mahdists defeated Anglo-Egyptian punitive
expeditions, and Britain and Egypt decided to abandon Sudan. Gordon, sent to evacuate
the British and Egyptian troops, was killed by the Mahdists at Khartoum in early 1885.
The Mahdi died in the same year, but his successor, the Khalifa Abdallahi, continued to
build up the theocratic Mahdist state.
In the 1890s the British decided to gain control of Sudan, and, in a series of campaigns
between 1896 and 1898, an Anglo-Egyptian force under Herbert (later Lord) Kitchener
destroyed the power of the Mahdists. Agreements in 1899 (reaffirmed by the AngloEgyptian treaty of 1936) established the condominium government of the AngloEgyptian Sudan. Under the condominium, Sudan was administered by a governorgeneral, appointed by Egypt with the consent of Great Britain; in practice, however, the
British controlled the government of Sudan. The Sudanese continued to oppose colonial
rule, and the Egyptians resented their subordinate role to the British.
In 1924 the British instituted a policy of isolating the southern Sudan by administering
it separately from the north. An advisory council for the northern Sudan was established
21
Briefing Notes for Sudan July 2004
in 1943, and in 1948 a predominantly elective legislative assembly for the whole territory
was set up. In the 1948 elections, the Independence Front, which favored the creation of
an independent republic, gained a majority over the National Front, which sought union
with Egypt. After the 1952 revolution in Egypt, Britain and Egypt agreed to prepare
Sudan for independence in 1956. In 1955 southerners, fearing that the new nation would
be dominated by the Muslim north, began a revolt that lasted 17 years.
Struggles of an Independent Nation
In spite of the continuing revolt in the south, Sudan achieved independence as a
parliamentary republic in 1956, as planned. In 1958, Gen. Ibrahim Abboud led a military
coup that ended the parliamentary system. Unable to improve the country's weak
economy or to end the southern revolt, Abboud in 1964 agreed to the reestablishment of
civilian government. The new regime also had little success in coping with the country's
problems.
In 1969, Col. Muhammad Gaafur al- Nimeiry staged a successful coup. He banned all
political parties and subsequently nationalized banks and numerous industries. The
bloody civil war was ended by an agreement between the government and the Southern
Sudan Liberation Front (whose military arm was known as Anya Nya) signed (Feb.,
1972) at Addis Ababa. Under the agreement Southern Sudan was granted considerable
autonomy. Also in 1972, the Sudanese Socialist Union, the country's only political
organization, elected a “people's assembly” to draw up a new constitution for the country,
which was adopted in 1973. Nimeiry's regime became the target of criticism at home
because of worsening economic conditions and for its support of Egypt's part in the
Camp David Accords with Israel; in the late 1970s, Nimeiry dismissed his cabinet and
closed universities in an attempt to quell opposition.
During the 1980s, political instability in Southern Sudan increased, with renewed
fighting by the largely Christian and animist Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA).
Motivated at least partly by a desire to shore up his popularity in the largely Muslim
north, Nimeiry in 1983 instituted strict Islamic law, further inflaming opposition in the
south. Having survived numerous earlier coup attempts, he was overthrown in 1985, and
Gen. Abdul Rahman Swaredahab was installed as leader of a transitional military
government. Elections were held in 1986 and a civilian government led by Sadiq alMahdi ruled until it was overthrown in a bloodless coup in 1989.
The new military regime under Lt. Gen. Omar Ahmed al-Bashir strengthened ties with
Libya, Iran, and Iraq; reinforced Islamic law; banned opposition parties; and continued to
pursue the war with the south, diverting relief aid (primarily food) from the faminestricken south to the Muslim north. In 1990 the United States halted relief efforts to
Sudan; ties between the two nations were further strained when Sudan supported Iraq in
the Persian Gulf War . Bashir officially became president in 1993, but significant
political power was held by the National Islamic Front, a fundamentalist political
organization formed from the Muslim Brotherhood and led by Hassan al-Turabi, who
22
Briefing Notes for Sudan July 2004
became speaker of parliament. In 1996, Bashir won a presidential election that was
boycotted by most opposition groups; a multiparty system was restored in 1999.
In Aug., 1998, U.S. missiles destroyed a pharmaceutical plant in Khartoum that was
suspected of manufacturing chemical-weapons compounds to be used in terrorist
activities; however, international investigators were unable to find evidence to support
the charges. Civil war continued through the 1990s, by which time it had reportedly
resulted in nearly 2 million deaths (mostly from war-related starvation and disease) and
had left the economy crippled. Sudan was cited by the UN Human Rights Commission
for human-rights violations (including alleged widespread slavery and forced labor),
condemned for supporting terrorism abroad. A cease-fire was declared in July, 1998, in
order to allow food shipments to be delivered, but there were violations. In July, 1999,
peace talks in Nairobi, Kenya, broke down as the warring sides failed to renew the ceasefire.
During 1999 the parliament increased Turabi's powers and moved to limit those of the
president. In response, Bashir declared a three-month state of emergency in December
and dissolved parliament; the next month he appointed a new cabinet. Bashir also
improved his position in the ruling National Congress party. In May, 2000, Turabi's
position as secretary-general of the party was frozen, and Turabi subsequently formed his
own party, the Popular National Congress party.
Meanwhile, Bashir's government worked to improve its foreign relations, and, in
December, Bashir was reelected president. The opposition boycotted the vote, and the
concurrent parliamentary elections were swept by the National Congress party. In Feb.,
2001, Turabi was placed under house arrest after signing a memorandum of
understanding with the southern rebels in which they called for joint peaceful resistance
to Bashir's government, and subsequently other members of Turabi's political party were
arrested; Turabi was not released until Oct., 2003. In Jan., 2002, a cease-fire was declared
in the ongoing civil war in the Nuba Mts. to allow relief aid to be distributed in the
drought-stricken south-central region, but fighting continued elsewhere. The same month
two rebels groups, the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) and Sudan People's
Defense Force, established a formal alliance.
The government and the SPLA agreed to a framework for peace in July, 2002, that
called for autonomy for the south and a referendum on independence after six years;
however, three regions of central Sudan claimed by the rebels were not covered by the
agreement. A broad truce was agreed to in Oct., 2002. Despite some violations of the
cease-fire, talks continued in 2003. In Sept., 2003, an accord between the two sides called
for the withdrawal of government troops from the south, rebel forces from the north, and
the establishment of a joint government-rebel force in the south and in two central
regions, and talks continued. In 2003 there was also a separate rebellion in the Darfur
region of Western Sudan by a group linked to an opposition party; a cease-fire was
signed in Sept., 2003, but fighting continued.
Sources: BBC News; World Factbook; World Book Encyclopedia.com; UK Foreign Commonwealth Office
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Briefing Notes for Sudan July 2004
VI. Further Reading, Media and Web Sites
Web Sites (The UN is not responsible for the content of external Internet sites.)
www.un.org -- United Nations homepage
www.sudani.com – Directory of Sudan-related websites covering all types of topics
www.sunanews.net/ -- Sudan news (in Arabic)
www.sudani.co.za – Helpful information for travelers to Sudan
www.bbc.co.uk -- British Broadcasting Company homepage
www.reliefweb.int -- Humanitarian relief information
www.crisisweb.org -- In-depth reports on the conflict.
www.hrw.org -- Human Rights Watch homepage
Media:
There are no privately-owned TV broadcasters, apart from a cable service jointly
owned by the government and private investors. Satellite dishes are becoming
common in affluent areas and pan-Arab TV stations are popular among viewers.
The government operates Sudan's domestic radio services, which broadcast a
mixture of news, music and cultural programmes. Private stations are not permitted.
Foreign radio stations are also heard in Sudan, including the BBC World Service
and Paris-based Radio Monte Carlo, which operate on FM in Khartoum. Several
opposition and clandestine radio stations broadcast to Sudan.
Further Reading:
Douglas Hamilton Johnson, The Root Causes of Sudan's Civil Wars (2003)
Scott Peterson, Me Against My Brother: At War in Somalia, Sudan and Rwanda (2001)
Donald Petterson, Inside Sudan (1999);
J. M. Burr, Africa's Thirty Years' War: Chad, Libya, and the Sudan, 1963-1993 (1999);
P. Woodward, Sudan, 1898-1989 (1991);
J. O. Voll, ed., Sudan (1991);
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Briefing Notes for Sudan July 2004
ANNEX 1
CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT LIST
The following list of items is based upon the experience of staff members already serving in the
mission areas. These recommendations are suggested to ease the staff member’s transition to
mission area. Please note that there is no allowance provided for the purchase of clothing or
equipment.
-
Toiletries
Medicines and Medical Prescriptions
Trousers/ skirts/ dresses
Shorts
T-shirts
Shirts(Long- sleeve and short-sleeve)
Cardigans/ sweaters/ sweatshirts/ Jacket
1 suit/ dress (for official occasions)
Hosiery/tights
Hat/scarf
Raincoat
Sports gear
Shoes/boots rubber and good leather
Gloves
Sneakers
Nightwear
Sandals
Mosquito repellent
Mosquito net
Chap stick
Spare eye glasses
Sun glasses
Towels
Pocket multi purpose knife (with separate corkscrew/bottle opener)
Flashlight with extra batteries
Compass (Silva-type is recommended)
Umbrella
Water bottles (thermos type)
Individual first aid kit (including personal medicine)
Water purification tablets
Sewing kit
Alarm clock
Camera and adequate supply of film
Padlock and keys
Stationery incl. Permanent ink markers, fine point pens, note pads, US stamps/aerograms
Books
Money belt
12 passport photos, for ID passes etc.
25