Contents
The Tudor Age
Tudor Time line
Stuart Time Line
A Tudor Christmas
Tudor Food
Tudor Recipes A Taste of the
Past
Clothes
Examples of Tudor Costume
Music & Dance
Dances at Tudor Courts
Songs and tunes
Games and Pastimes Tudor
Nottingham
The Willoughbys of Wollaton Sir Hugh
Willoughby, explorer The
Willoughby Family The Passport of
Francis Willoughby The Naturalist
'Book of Games'
Wollaton Hall
An Investigation
The Tudor Age
The Tudor age was a time of great excitement and change: cultural innovation with the
great plays of William Shakespeare, exploration with the voyages of discovery and
religious upheavals. Kings and Queens were more powerful than they are today,
although there were weak monarchs such as Edward VI and Lady Jane Grey who
reigned only briefly.
The Stuart age, like that of the Tudors, was a period of great change. When Queen
Elizabeth died her cousin James VI of Scotland became the first Stuart king of England.
During the Stuart reign events such as the Gunpowder Plot, the Great Plague and the
Great Fire of London took place. The Pilgrim Fathers sailed in search of anew world and
England was plunged into a Civil War which was to overthrow the King himself.
This pack focuses on the evidence that Wollaton Hall provides of this very rich period.
Everything in the pack relates specifically to the Tudor or Stuart activity days which are
held at the Hall. It provides teachers with background information which can be used
both in preparation for a visit and for follow-up work, thus making a visit to the Hall
an integral part of the National Curriculum KS2.
The pack draws on the Hall itself as one of the finest examples of Elizabethan
architecture; on Francis Willoughby whose ambitions were fulfilled by the creation of
Wollaton Hall and on aspects of the daily life of the period such as food, costume and
pastimes. Included in the pack are contemporary recipes to create a Tudor banquet
which can be eaten in the Great Hall. It gives details of Tudor games such as skittleswhich can actually be played in the Skittle Alley at Wollaton Hall. There is also the
opportunity to learn the Pavan and other Tudor dances.
1503
TUDOR TIME LINE
Leonardo da Vinci paints the Mona Lisa
1509
Henry VIII becomes King of England
1535
Henry VIII becomes 'Supreme Head of the Church of
England'
1547
Edward VI crowned King of England
1553
Lady Jane Grey becomes Queen of England, briefly.
1553
Mary I crowned Queen of England
1558
Elizabeth I becomes Queen of England
1564
William Shakespeare is born
1577
Francis Drake sets sail around the world
1580
Construction of Wollaton Hall begins
1587
Mary, Queen of Scots is executed
1588
The Spanish Armada is defeated
1588
Wollaton Hall is completed
1596
Francis Willoughby dies
1603
STUART TIME LINE
James VI of Scotland crowned James I of England
1605
The Gunpowder Plot is foiled
1616
William Shakespeare dies
1620
The Pilgrim Fathers sail to America in the Mayflower
1625
Charles I becomes King of England
1642
The English Civil War begins
1649
Charles I beheaded
1651
Oliver Cromwell becomes Lord Protector
of the Commonwealth
1653
Francis Willoughby, naturalist, attends Cambridge
University
1660
The Restoration of the Monarchy - Charles II crowned King
1665
The Great Plague kills many people
1666
The Great Fire of London destroys much of the city
1672
Francis Willoughby, naturalist, dies
1685
James II becomes King
Since pre-Christian times people have held a winter
festival. This was an opportunity to celebrate the end of
winter and the coming of spring. Many of our customs and
traditions date back to these times but it was not until the
4th century A.D. that Christmas was officially established.
Rather than trying to abolish the pagan customs, the
church simply adapted them, applying its own meaning to
the old rituals.
The celebration of 'Old Christmas' by the Tudors at court
was the high point of the year. Henry VIII delighted in the
extravagance of the festivities and Elizabeth I spent the
season gambling with loaded
dice.
The decoration of houses with
evergreens - a symbol of everlasting life - at Christmas is
of pagan origin. In the 16th century it was believed that
they would bring good luck during the winter months.
Mistletoe was an important part of the Druid tradition
and was often associated with human sacrifice. This is
why mistletoe is never found within a church.
The tradition of the yule log also dates from Pagan times.
During the Tudor years its use in Christmas festivities
was very significant. The huge log was ceremoniously
hauled home on Christmas Eve. It was then burnt
throughout the Christmas period.. The custom was that
part of the log was kept until the following year; this kept
the evil spirits away.
The tunes - if not the words - of some our most popular carols
were written by the Tudors, including Good King Wenceslas,
Ding Dong Merrily on High and While Shepherds Watched.
Initially they were not religious hymns but everyday songs
passed down through the generations. However, by the Tudor
period carols had adopted a more religious emphasis and had
become songs of joy to be sung at Christmas time.
A Tudor Christmas was a time for music making and dancing.
Plays were also enjoyed, for example Shakespeare's Twelfth
Night was first performed for Elizabeth
I during Christmas in the year 1601.
'Mumming' was a popular activity;
young men and
women dressed up as each other and travelled around the
local villages giving dancing displays and performing drama.
They were usually rewarded with a gift of money or food.
The play usually centred upon a hero such as St George.
Many of the actors wore masks to keep their identity secret.
This was supposed to bring good luck during Christmas.
Games were popular during the Christmas celebrations. At
court or in the homes of the nobility a Lord of Misrule was
appointed to lead the company in fun and games during
the holiday. It was his responsibility to ensure that
everybody had a good time. Many of the games we enjoy
today date back to this period, such as Hide and Seek,
Blind Man's Bluff and Hunt the Slipper. Games such as
Charades and Squeak Piggy Squeak were greatly enjoyed.
Other sports at Christmas were wrestling in the
churchyard and skating on frozen lakes.
A central part of Christmas Day has always been the
Christmas Dinner where all the family come together to
celebrate. For the Tudors the choice of food was more limited. As there were no
fridges or freezers planning ahead was essential. Meat was preserved by pickling in
brine or by drying and smoking it.
In Tudor households
the meal included
pork or maybe a huge
Christmas pie made
from a variety of birds.
Turkey didn't become
popular until the 18th
century; goose was
served to Elizabeth I
when news came of
the destruction of the
Spanish Armada. On
hearing the news she
decreed that goose
should be eaten at
Christmas ever after.
In the homes of the nobility venison, swans or peacocks
were eaten. However, the boar's head was always
considered to be the grandest dish of all. It was usually
served on a silver platter surrounded by the herb
rosemary. Another favourite in the noble houses was a
suckling pig, basted with butter and roasted on a spit.
The meats were eaten with bread.
The ancestor of the modern Christmas pudding was the
plum porridge, a mixture of meat, broth, raisins and
spices. When the porridge was made at home every member of the household was
expected to make a wish whilst waiting taking a turn to stir the mixture. Over the
years the porridge became so thick that it was renamed Christmas Pudding.
The tradition of eating mince pies was already well established in the 16th century.
The ingredients were more varied than they are today, for example chicken was
often included. The mixture was put into small pastry cases called 'coffins'.
According to tradition one was to be eaten on each of the twelve days of Christmas.
Gingerbreads were also eaten, often in the shape of Christmas characters.
For ordinary people the choice of food in the 16th century was limited. The main food
was meat, usually pork, which was made into bacon, sausages and blood pudding.
This was accompanied by bread, often made at home. Fish was also eaten; for the
poor this meant salted or pickled herrings. The fish was prepared in this way to
preserve it while it was brought inland. For those who lived on the coast there was
more choice with oysters and whelks.
Milk was used to make butter and cheese but only drunk by children whilst the
adults drunk ale. Fruits such as apples and pears were eaten and were often baked.
Many people were wary of eating vegetables, fearing they would cause illness, and so
they were not eaten by the majority of ordinary people.
The diet of the aristocracy was based on the same foods as that of the poor but was
more varied with meats such as veal and pheasant. The wealthy had the choice of sea
fish, including haddock and plaice, and many landowners had their own fish ponds
containing carp. As well as baked fruits, the nobility ate sweetmeats and jellies for
dessert and drank wines as well as ale.
An interesting insight into the diet of a country gentleman is gained from the
accounts of William Darrel, a Wiltshire squire, written in 1589
'Beef and mutton are the staple dishes at both dinner and supper with side dishes of
rabbit, pheasant and sometimes veal Bread and beer are always available and often
butter and cheese as well Soup is rarely eaten and the only vegetables are peas. Fishy
for example herrings and plaice, is normally eaten on Fridays following the tradition
established by the Catholic church For sweet there is a selection of jellies and sweetmeats but the gentleman prefers strawberries and cream. The cost of each meal ranges
from five to ten shillings'.
("Life in Elizabethan England', A. Dodd 1961)
As a result of the voyages of discovery new foods were introduced into England. These
included fruits from Southern Europe such as quinces, apricots and red currants.
Dried fruits, including raisins and dates, were also imported but, because of the
expense, ordinary people only ate them at Christmas. Many vegetables were
introduced from South America such as tomatoes (or 'love apples') from Mexico,
kidney beans from Peru and potatoes from Chile. It would be years, however, before
these were consumed on a large scale.
Sugar was being imported in increasing quantities from the Caribbean. It was used
to prepare sweetmeats, crystallised fruits and syrup. Although more sugar was being
eaten in England, the majority of this was consumed by the aristocracy and not the
poor. The consequence of eating more sugar was tooth decay. Queen Elizabeth I
suffered from this and had black teeth. There were numerous remedies for tooth
decay, such as rubbing powdered alabaster over the teeth. Nitric acid was also used
to bleach the teeth but it often had disastrous results such as the loss of teeth.
As there were no fridges or freezers,
meat had to be salted and preserved
to keep it from going bad. Once
preserved, meat was wrapped in
cloth and stored in the pantry. Beef,
pork and veal were all boiled. This
was done in large copper vessels
which were heated over open fires
that could also be used for roasting.
As the preserved meat was very
salty, spices were used whilst
cooking to improve the taste.
the meat and gravy and a smaller
hole for the salt. Drinking vessels
The utensils used when preparing the
meal were knives and spoons, wooden
bowls and whisks made from bundles
of blanched twigs. The 16th century
saw the decline in the practice of
eating food from trenchers. These
were 'plates' made from four-day old
wholemeal bread. Traditionally, after
the meal they were gathered up and
given to the poor. The trencher was
replaced by a square wooden board
which had a large central hollow for
were made of silver and gold for the
wealthy whilst the poor used horn
beakers and leatherjacks. However,
there was an increased use of
earthenware cups.
The meal was eaten using knives and
spoons. The host would provide the
spoons and each guest would bring his
Prune tart
12oz (350g) prunes
4oz (1 OOg) fresh white
bread
crumbs
Vizpt (275ml) red wine
1 tsp (5ml) cinnamon
1 tsp (5ml) ground ginger
4oz (1 OOg) sugar
1 tbls (15ml) rose water
Tudor recipes
3 tbls (45ml) water
2 egg yolks
2 tbls (30ml) rose water
2 tbls (30ml) sugar
loz (25g) butter
ground ginger and cinnamon
to finish
Peel, core and slice the apples
and stew them in a covered
heavy saucepan with the water
until soft. Make the apples
into a smooth puree by
rubbing through a sieve or by
using a blender. Return the
puree to the saucepan, stir in
the egg yolks and slowly heat
to boiling point, stirring
continuously. Pour the puree
into a dish and allow to cool
before serving. To finish,
sprinkle with a little ground
ginger and cinnamon.
For the pastry: 3oz (75g) butter
4oz (1 OOg) plain flour 1 tsp
(5ml) caster sugar 1 egg,
beaten
Soak the prunes overnight
and then simmer in a little
water for 10-15 minutes until
tender.
To make the pastry, rub the
butter into the flour, mix in
the sugar and slowly stir in
the egg until it forms a soft
dough which can be lightly
kneaded with the hands. Roll
out the pastry and use it to
line an 8 inch (20cm)
diameter, 2 inch (5cm) deep
flan ring. Line the pastry with
greaseproof paper, fill with
uncooked haricot beans or
crusts and bake blind at
425°F/220°C/Gas 7 for 15
minutes. Remove the beans
and greaseproof paper. To
make the filling, drain and
stone the prunes and blend
them with the remaining
ingredients to form a thick
smooth paste. Spoon the
filling into the pastry case and
return to the oven to bake at
350°F/180°C/Gas 4 for 1 lAt
hours. Serve either hot or cold.
A Book ofCookrye Very
necessary for such as delight
therin
lV2lb (700g) apples
A Proper Newe Book of
Cokerye
2 eggs
4oz (lOOg) sugar
1 tbls (15ml) caraway or aniseed
6oz (175g) plain flour
Beat the eggs in a 2 pint (1. lit) basin and then beat in the sugar, the
aniseed or caraway and finally the flour, thus forming a stiff dough.
Knead the dough on a lightly floured board and form into rolls
approximately %inch (1 cm) by 4 inches (10cm) in length. Tie each
of these into a simple knot and plunge them, five or six at a time,
into a pan of boiling water, where they will immediately sink to the
bottom. After a short time dislodge the knots from the bottom oi the
pan with a spoon so that they float and swell for a minute or two.
Then lift the knots out with a perforated spoon and allow them to
drain on a clean tea towel laid over a wire rack. Arrange the knots
on lightly buttered baking sheets and bake for 15 minutes at
350°F/ 180°C/Gas 4, then turn the knots over and return to the
oven for 10-15 minutes until golden.
Thomas Dawson: The Good Huswifes Jewell, pt.2
own knife. Although cutlery was used, the majority
of people ate with their fingers, using the knife to
divide the meat and the spoon to eat the gravy.
Toothpicks were prized possessions and were often
made from an aromatic wood such as rosemary.
As meals were often eaten without cutlery, napkins
were always needed. When not in use they were
placed over the left shoulder. As lace collars were
fashionable, it was customary to wear the napkin
around the neck to protect the collar.
In town dinner was normally at noon and supper
at five, though this would be extended if the meal
was a banquet. In the country supper was eaten
earlier with harvesters and haymakers eating
supper in the fields in the summer.
Children ate separately but one of the sons would be brought in to salute the guests
and to say Grace. It was customary for men to eat with their hats on but this practice
declined in the 17th century.
The Sovereign's food was publicly tested to ensure that the meal had not been
poisoned. This was done as soon as the food was placed on the table. The test
consisted of the server eating a piece of the food and drinking some of the soup. This
ritual was performed even when the Sovereign was dining alone.
There were developments concerning food in the 17th century, such as the new foods
and the change of tableware, but these only affected the nobility. For the majority of
the population little changed and most of the people continued to have a limited diet
of meat, bread, cheese and fruit.
If you book one of our Tudor activity days you will partake of your packed
lunch as a banquet in the Great Hall. This is a chance to experience a Tudor
meal so you will need to consider what would - or wouldn't - have been on the
menu in those times.
Obviously modern convenience foods and snacks are out, so no crisps or fizzy
drinks. Sorry, chocolate isn't an option so how about some fruit? It will have to
be home-grown fruit such as apples and pears and not exotics like bananas or
oranges. And how are you going to carry your lunch and eat it? No plastic
sandwich boxes or bottles, no aluminium foil, drinks in cans or plastic bags.
You can wrap your food in a cloth such as a tea-towel.
Your Tudor meal might include
wholemeal bread English cheese
e.g. Cheddar Meat, such as ham or
a chicken leg Hard boiled egg Fruit
(apples, pears)
A selection of desserts from the recipes provided
Apple juice or weak shandy
The museum will provide tables and benches and pottery mugs.
The clothes people wore in the 16th century indicated their wealth
and social position. The aristocracy wore the finest clothes made
from the best fabrics. The amount of jewels sewn to the garments
represented the wealth of the owner. The middle classes copied
the styles worn by the aristocracy but the clothes were plainer
and the fabrics were not as fine.
For the working classes clothes were very plain and loose. The
men wore sloppy trunk hose with a natural rough shirt. The
women wore no corset, farthingale or ruff and the dresses were
shorter, making them easier to work in.
Queen Elizabeth I probably inherited her
love of fine clothes from her father. By the
end of her reign she possessed 3,000
dresses which were housed in Richmond
Palace, also known as the 'Queen's
Wardrobe.'
Throughout the Tudor years there was a
strong Spanish influence on clothes. This
was strengthened by the marriage
between Mary I and Philip of Spain. However, towards the end
of the century there was a strong French influence which
led to a change of style.
Children were dressed as exact replicas of
their parents. Babies were swathed until six
months old. This was supposed to make the
baby's arms and legs grow straight. A shirt was
worn under the swaddling bands and from time
to time during the day the swaddling was
removed to give some
freedom to the limbs. Little girls were corseted from about the age of
five. This led to problems in later life such as deformed shoulders and
ribs.
In
1565
there
was
widespread
unemployment in the textile industry in
England. Home-made woollen clothes were not being worn as
much as the foreign garments. The Queen issued a
proclamation forbidding the import of materials from the
continent. However, this was not very effective because
Elizabeth I herself continued to wear expensive foreign
materials.
HAT
A Bowler hat style made
from beaver, felt and
velvet and decorated with a
feather
RUFF
This was starched to
maintain the correct shape
Towards the end of the
century ruffs were as large
as 40cm across.
SLEEVES
These were very padded
which helped emphasise
the narrow waist.
STOCKINGS and SHOES
Queen Elizabeth I wore
silk stockings but they
were very expensive and
most people wore ones
made from linen or wool.
The shoes were flat and
ornately decorated. They
were made from leather
and satin.
HAIR
Hair was often curled and
worn off the face. Wigs
were worn and hair dyes,
especially red, were used.
ACCESSORIES Often a
small mirror was hung
from the waist, as was an
open fan. Lots of
jewellery was worn,
especially a long row of
pearls and lots of rings.
GOWN
A Spanish farthingale was
worn underneath the skirt.
This was a wired or boned,
funnel-shaped petticoat.
Under the open skirt an
ornate kirtle was worn.
The materials used were
velvets and silks in rich
reds, plums and greys. The
gowns were decorated with
jewels and embroidery.
GENTLEMAN
RUFF
Starched to maintain the
shape. As the ruff grew in
size a wire framework was
inserted under the collar to
support it
TRUNKHOSE or SLOPS
Short padded breeches
filled with hair or wool and
sometimes boned to give
the correct shape. They
became so wide that the
seats in Parliament had to
be widened.
STOCKINGS and SHOES
The stockings were made
from linen, wool or, on
occasion, silk and were
brightly coloured. Leather
boots were worn outside
and flat shoes made of
leather were worn indoors.
HAIR
Hair was worn very short
and pointed beards were
very fashionable.
ACCESSORIES Earring in
one ear. Dagger,
embroidered gloves and
handkerchief
DOUBLET
A fitted body garment
which was padded and
sometimes boned. It was
either buttoned up or
laced.
HAT
Worn on the side of the head and
made from beaver, velvet or felt
and decorated with a feather. To
maintain the shape the hat was
filled with paper.
Music making and dancing were pastimes enjoyed by
people from all sections of society. However, rarely
did the classes celebrate together. This only happened
on special occasions such as a village festival or the
squire's wedding.
The most common groups of
instruments played by professional
musicians
were
the
strings,
woodwind and keyboards. Many
towns had their own paid bands but
for the masses music was usually
provided by travelling fiddlers.
These were very well paid, earning
about £1.00 for two hours work
which was equivalent to about a month's
wages for an ordinary worker.
During the 16th century English music was greatly influenced by
Italian and French styles. These were introduced into the
Tudor court by foreign ambassadors. In the grand houses
music was played at meal times
with
more
elaborate
performances on special
occasions. Henry VIII eagerly
encouraged music making and
increased the size of the royal band.
By the end of his reign he had a
great collection of musical
instruments including 76 recorders
and 72 flutes. Like her father,
Elizabeth I enjoyed music and was
a fine performer on the harpsichord.
Few people were able to read music and so many songs were passed down by ear.
Songs such as 'Greensleeves' were popular as well as ones about Henry III such as 'The
Hunt is Up'. Snatches of songs were used by street vendors to advertise their wares;
for example 'Lavender's Blue' was originally a street cry.
Many musicians honoured their patrons by
performing dances in which the aristocracy could
take part. Often dances were named in honour
of influential members of the court. Dancing was
considered to one of the three sports in which a
gentleman should excel, the others being jousting
and archery.
FARANDOLE
A chain dance led by the most important person in the
hall. This dance can be walked or skipped, etc., ensuring
that each person behind the leader follows their exact
floor pattern. These patterns took the dancers through
circles, spirals, diagonals, zigzags, straight lines and
arches of weaving.
BRANLE
This was a chain or circle dance where the dancers
moved further round to the left than the right. Some of
these branles were mimed such as the Washerwoman's
Branle or the Horse's Branle. They remained popular
throughout the Tudor age.
PAVAN
Unlike the branle, which was of French origin, the Pavan
came from Italy. It was a slow stately dance involving
couples (one behind the other) and could be danced as a
procession or as a figured dance where the performers
marked out symmetrical patterns upon the floor.
ALMAIN
This danced originated in Germany and had a very
recognisable foot position where the working leg is raised
in the air at the completion of a double step. The dance
can be performed with a hop or a lilt and consisted of
various figures.
COUNTRY DANCES
These dances were adopted by courtiers and danced in a
more refined manner than they were by country folk. The
earlier dances were based on circles, developing into the
square sets of couples during the Stuart era and longways
sets in the Georgian period.
OTHERS
The Galliard was an extremely energetic couple dance
where each man in turn attempted to out do the previous
one by performing complex jumps and turns involving
beating the legs against each other. It originated from Italy
and was one of Elizabeth's forms of exercise.
There are many types of dance which spread from Italy into
the courts of Europe which were highly complex both in the
use of footwork and in their changes of rhythm.
All the dances were taught by dancing masters and were
performed both in private chambers and at a court ball held
in the Great Hall, banqueting hall or long gallery.
Good King Wenceslas looked out, on
the feast of Stephen. When the snow
lay round about, deep and crisp and
even. Brightly shone the moon that
night, though the frost was cruel,
When a poor man came in sight,
gathering winter fuel.
'Sire the night is darker now And
the winds blow stronger. Fails my
heart I know not now, I can go no
longer'. 'Mark my steps, be good my
page, Tread though in them boldly;
Though shalt find the winter's rage,
Freeze thy blood less coldly'.
'Hither page and stand by me, if
though know'st it telling, Yonder
peasant, who is he? Where and
what's his dwelling? 'Sire, he lives a
good league hence, underneath the
mountain, Right against the forest
fence, by St Agnes' fountain.
In his master's steps he trod,
Where the snow lay dinted. Heat
was in that very sod, Which the
saint had printed. Wherefore
Christian men be sure, Wealth or
rank possessing, Ye who now do
bless the poor, Shall find
themselves a blessing.
'Bring me flesh and bring me wine,
Bring me pine logs hither. Though
and I shall see him dine, When we
bear them hither'. Page and
Monarch on they went, On they
went together, Through the rude
winds wild lament And the bitter
weather.
In Tudor times the traditional drink for Christmas was the wassail, which means
'good health'. The wassail was made of ale, apples, eggs and sugar and was served
hot. The wassail bowl was passed around during the celebration for the purpose of
drinking toasts. It was customary for the Lord of the Manor to pass the wassail
around among the local peasants.
Old Christmas became a symbol of hospitality towards the poor. Boxing Day dates
back to the Middle Ages when boxes were placed in churches at Christmas to collect
money for the poor. These were opened on the day after Christmas and distributed
among the needy. Throughout the 16th century the custom of boxes for farm
labourers, apprentices and servants
continued. Hunting , for example of
squirrels or foxes, was popular on
Boxing Day. Wren hunting was also
traditional for it was believed that a
wren caught on St Stephen's Day
(Boxing Day) would protect whoever
owned it from shipwreck.
From the time of the English
Reformation the Puritans had
disapproved of the extravagance of
Christmas. The Commonwealth banned Christmas in 1644 with an ordinance
proclaiming that Christmas Day should be kept as a fast and a penance rather than
a feast. Festivities were prohibited but in many areas of England the celebrations
continued. The ordinance prohibiting Christmas was abolished in 1660 with t he
restoration of King Charles II but its importance had diminished and celebrations
waned until they were revived by the Victorians.
While shepherds watched their flocks by
night,
all seated on the ground
The angel of the Lord came down
and glory shone around.
1
'Fear not , said he, for mighty dread
had siezed their troubled mind.
'Glad tidings of great joy I bring to
you and all Mankind'.
'To you, in David's town this day is
born of David's line, A saviour who
is Christ the Lord, and this shall be
the sign'.
'The heavenly babe you there shall find,
to human view displayed, All meanly
wrapped in swaddling bands and in a
manger laid'.
Thus spake the seraph; and forthwith
appeared a shining throng Of angels,
praising God, and thus addressed their
joyful song.
'All glory be to God on high,
and to the Earth be peace;
Goodwill henceforth from Heaven to men
begin, and never cease'.
1. Ding, Dong, Merrily on high,
In Heav'n the bells are ringing.
Ding, Dong, verily the sky, Is
riv'n with angels singing
Gloria, Hosannah in excelsis
2. E'en so here below, below
Let steeple bells be swungen.
And i-o, i-o, i-o, By priest and
people sungen. Gloria,
Hosannah in excelsis
3. Pray you dutifully prime
Your Matin chime, ye ringers.
May you beautifully rime Your
Evetide song, you singers.
Gloria, Hosannah in excelsis
The Boar’s Head Carol
(Farandol)
The boar's head in hand bear I,
Bedecked with bays and rosemary.
And I pray you, my masters, be merry,
In honour of this company.
Caput apri defero
Praise God's creatures here below.
The boar's head, as I understand,
Is the finest dish in all the land.
Our steward hath provided this,
In honour of the King of Bliss
Caput apri defero
Praise God's creatures here below.
Tudor and Stuart Pastimes Games and Pastimes
The sports and games
enjoyed by the people of
England depended very
much upon their social
position. There was a
wide gulf between the
activities of the nobility
and those of ordinary
people and rarely did the
two classes come
together. The sports of
the nobility were
expensive and therefore
excluded the common
people.
Hunting retained its popularity throughout the age. Queen Elizabeth I rode with her
hounds until she was quite old. Likewise, James I had a love of hunting. Most of the
very grand houses had their own deer parks where hunting took place. The stag was
always the King of the chase.
Falconry had previously been very popular but it declined in significance once guns
became widely available. Similarly, the sport of archery began to decline. Henry VIII
had tried to promote archery with a statute in 1541 which restricted bowling and
encouraged archery practice. However, in 1595 it was decided that bows and arrows
should no longer be kept as offensive weapons but used merely as a pastime.
The game of tennis is French in origin but it quickly gained the support of the
English nobility. Special walled courts were built and the game could be played
either with an opponent or on one's own against the wall. The balls were made of
leather and filled with
hair. Players hit the ball
either with their hands
or with a racket. As
special equipment and a
playing area were
needed it was not a
sport enjoyed by the
ordinary people.
Playing bowls and
skittles was becoming
very popular. It was
originally played on the
village green but due to
the unreliability of the
weather wealthy
people built indoor skittle alleys; there is one in Wollaton Hall. During his reign
Henry VIII added bowling alleys to Whitehall and both Charles I and Charles II are
said to have enjoyed the sport. There were many variations of the game including
'Nine pins' where the players stood away from the pins and bowled. The winner was
the person who knocked down all the pins in the fewest goes. In the game of
'Skittles' the player bowled from a set distance and then 'tipped' from a position
closer to the pins. The players scored one point for each pin knocked over and the
winner was the first to reach thirty one points. 'Dutch pins' was a similar game but
the pins were taller and more slender with the middle, or 'long pin', taller than the
rest.
The sports which attracted people of
all classes were cock fighting and bear
baiting. They were cruel and bloody
sports which attracted large
audiences and encouraged gambling.
In 1526 an amphitheatre for bull and
bear baiting was built for Henry VIII.
Likewise, from the age of six
Elizabeth I had bears and she used
them to entertain guests. On the 25th
May 1559 Elizabeth gave a splendid
dinner and entertained the French
ambassador with the baiting of bears
and bulls. Before the event the bears
were paraded through the streets in
order to arouse interest. It was a
cruel sport with no pity shown to the
animals. However, it was popular
with all classes of people at the time.
For most people sports and games
were restricted to Sundays and
church festivals. The pastimes of
the country folk were different
from those enjoyed by the nobility.
They didn't need special equipment
and they tended to involve many
participants. Traditionally certain
sports were played on particular
feast days. Football was always
played on Shrove Tuesday. This
was a Spring festival after the long
winter. Football then was a violent
game with few rules. A training
master was appointed to oversee
the game. Whole villages
challenged each other. Most people played on foot but
some were on horseback. The object of the game was to get the ball to one's village.
The football field, therefore, could cover several miles! Other activities on Shrove
Tuesday included Tug-of-war and Cock throwing,
Easter games were much more gentle such as athletics;
running, jumping and throwing. Wrestling was popular
amongst the common people and the inhabitants of
Devon and Cornwall were celebrated as being the best
wrestlers in the Kingdom. For May Day strong ales were
brewed and feast were held in the church house. There
was dancing around the May pole and throwing the
hammer. Running races for women were held and the
usual prize was a smock.
Throughout the age Puritans criticised the masses for
enjoying sports and pastimes on Sundays. They
believed that the day should be kept as a day of rest and prayer. James I was
against this and issued an edict in 1618 entitled The Book of Sports'. He believed
that the prohibition of sports on Sundays would breed discontent and would
deprive the common folk of their
only opportunity for exercise. The
edict did however ban bear and bull
baiting on Sundays.
The games played by children were similar to those
enjoyed by adults, archery was considered to be an
essential part of a young man's education even when
it was becoming less popular with adults. Sometimes
pellets of clay were used instead of arrows. Other
games included Leapfrog, Hide and Seek and Hunt
the Slipper.
Theatre and drama were becoming enormously
popular. Actors were often beautifully clothed.
Frequently noblemen left their clothes to their
servants who made money by selling them to actors.
The plays were acted in broad daylight without
scenery, lights or an orchestra. There were lots of
performances and actors didn't have very long to
prepare so they often improvised their lines. The dramas were comedies, tragedies
or involved stories of heroes against villains.
As well as performances in the houses of the nobility, many plays were staged in
the courtyards of a large inns. Huge audiences could be assembled but there were
problems of overcrowding. Building of theatres began in London, such as the Swan
Theatre in 1593. It was at this time that William Shakespeare came to London and
became a part owner of the Globe Theatre in Southwark. By 1595 the London
theatres were attracting weekly audiences of 15,000 people.
During the Tudor years Nottingham was a small town; in the year 1600 it had a
population of about 3,500 people. Since then, of course, the population has
increased enormously and the census in 1991 revealed that 263,000 people were
living in Nottingham.
The centre of Nottingham at
this time was the Market Place
where the daily trading took
place. This was surrounded by
rows of narrow streets where
the people of the town lived
and worked. Many of these
streets are still there such as
Angel Row, Chapel Bar and
Castlegate.
Between 1536 and 1542 Henry
VIII's chaplain, John Leland,
visited Nottingham and was so
impressed with the market that
he wrote: Nottingham is both a
large town and well buildedfor
timber and plaster and standeth
stately on a climbing hill. The
marketplace and street both for
building on the
side of it, for the very wideness
of the street, and the clean paving of it is the most
fairest without exception in all England.'
Daily life was controlled by a small number of prominent local families. These
dominated the Merchant Guild which was responsible for the upkeep of the town,
including street paving and fire fighting. The group also controlled trading in the
town as well as being the magistrates and tax assessors. The Seven Aldermen took
turns to hold the office of Mayor and when one of them died the vacancy was filled
by someone suitable. The yearly election of the Mayor was a time for feasting and it
usually coincided with Goose Fair.
Many tradesmen worked in the town such as weavers, tailors, fletchers (making
bows and arrows), potters and shoemakers. Their goods were sold locally and were
not usually exported to other towns. A local industry of increasing significance was
the coal mining in and around Wollaton.
The members of the Merchant Guild were prominent traders and so they often ruled
against competition. They forbade 'foreigners' to trade except on Saturdays. An
example of their power is an incident that occurred in 1578 when the ironmongery
business of Thomas Nix was closed down because he had not served his
apprenticeship in the town.
Nottingham was divided into seven areas or 'wards'. In each ward the male
residents elected a 'petty constable' who was responsible for law and order. The
daily enforcement of the law was carried out by the 'watch', a group of men who
guarded the streets at night and during times of celebration, such as Goose Fair.
The watch had the power to take offenders into custody where they were brought
before the magistrates in the borough court. The following are some of the crimes
committed in Nottingham: alas, the punishments have not been recorded. In 1523
Robert Taylor, a shoemaker, broke in on a service at St Mary's church and 'spoke
Malicious and Contemptuous words' against the vicar. In 1588 the residents of
Barkergate petitioned against the wife of a drunken wastrel who milked other people's
cows in the middle of the night.
The punishment for petty crimes was often turned into a public event, intended to
deter those thinking of committing crimes. Such punishments included the stocks, the
pillory and the ducking stool. For serious crimes the gaol was below the Guildhall
which was used until 1615. In some instances the punishment was made to fit the
crime. For example a brewer of ale found to be below standard was made to drink a
mug of his own ale and had the rest poured over his head. A baker who offended
against the assize by making his loaves too small was paraded through the streets with
his loaf tied around his neck.
Public health was watched over by the ward aldermen whose duty it was to watch
Searchers.
out for signs of the plague. Pestilence was a lesser disease which occurred every
few years. At Christmas 1586 there was an outbreak in Derby. To prevent further
infection people were forbidden to travel to and from Derby and Nottingham.
By Tudor times the wool industry was rapidly increasing. Landowners were
discovering that wealth could be created by sheep farming. Sheep needed little
attention and therefore fewer people were needed to tend them. The population was
increasing therefore more clothing was needed. Laws stipulating that those people
on low incomes must not wear fine clothes but clothes made of coarsely woven wool
and that all men must wear a hat made of wool on Sundays resulted in a greater
demand for wool.
As the demand for wool grew so more
land was turned to grazing including
land previously known as common
land. This made life very difficult for
peasants as many of them could not
grow enough food for themselves.
Many people moved
from the land to towns such as Nottingham and so its population began to rise.
There was no help in the towns for those with little or no money. Many people took
to the streets, becoming tramps begging for food. The Tudors called them
Vagabonds' and they were found in most towns. Monasteries had helped those
people, along with the sick and the old, but since the closure of the monasteries by
Henry VIII no help had been available. These people became a big problem for the
Tudor government who eventually introduced the 'poor laws' to reduce the number
of beggars on the streets.
Vagabonds were often branded on the tongue if they were caught. If beggars were
caught begging without a licence to do so they were whipped until they bled. If they
still continued to beg they had part of an ear cut off. Hanging was used if all else
failed. Poor laws were not to stop people from being poor but to stop them from
starving to death.
the beginning of the seventeenth century overcrowding was a serious problem in
some parts of Nottingham. Each newcomer was a potential burden upon the town
and so in 1612 it was forbidden to build any new cottages or to harbour airy poor
person without a licence from the borough authorities. In 1613 a list was drawn up
of those people who were to be expelled from the town unless they could prove that
they would not become dependent on the Poor Rate.
Some measures were taken to help the plight of the poor such as the Spinning
School set up in 1627 to help pauper children. Likewise, the Sir Thomas White
fund helped young men to start up on their own in business.
The Willoughbys were descendants of Ralph
Bugge who bought an estate at Willoughby-onthe-Wolds in 1240. His grandson was knighted
by Sir Richard de Willoughby and the old name
was dropped. The next Willoughby, Richard,
married the heiress of the land at Wollaton and
so the estate passed to the Willoughbys.
The Willoughbys were significant for they
represented the 'new rich'. Their fortunes were
gained from business ventures such as coal
mining and not purely from inheritances. They
were landed gentry and took no part in the
activities at the Royal Court. It is thought that
the Willoughbys were typical of the country
squires of their times.
During the 16th century there was
increasing interest in exploration and this
led to voyages of discovery. One such
explorer was Sir Hugh de Willoughby, the
famous navigator. In 1553 he led the
Chancellor's Expedition to the White Sea in
search of the North East Passage to India
and China. However, during the winter the
ships were trapped in ice off Russian
Lapland. Two years later, in 1555, Sir Hugh
and his sixty two men were found frozen to
death. He is said to have been found sitting
in his chair with his will on the table in
front of him.
Francis Willoughby, the builder of Wollaton Hall, was a very wealthy and ambitious
man. Much of his fortune came from coal mines at Wollaton and Cossal which
provided profits of the huge sum of £1,000 each year in the 1570s. With this money
Francis planned to build the new hall at Wollaton which has since been described
as 'the most important Elizabethan house in Nottingham and one of the most
important in England.' The Hall was to be a lasting memorial to the wealth and
position of the Willoughby family.
However, during the 1580s the profits from the coal mines began to fall. The coal
seams near the surface were exhausted and the deeper coal was more expensive to
extract. This loss of income meant that Francis had to obtain funds for the
completion of Wollaton from elsewhere. He attempted to mortgage some of his land
to the Countess of Shrewsbury (later to become known as Bess of Hardwick). She
offered to lend him £3,000 out of friendship but kept the land as security until the
debt was repaid.
Together with mounting debts Francis' personal life was beset with problems. His
first marriage ended in divorce and despite remarrying, both unions provided only
daughters and no son and heir. Although Francis Willoughby fulfilled his ambition
with Wollaton Hall, in doing so he left huge debts for his successors, Bridgett and
Percival Willoughby. A stone over the South door at Wollaton Hall reads "Behold this
house of Francis Willoughby, an unhappy and heirless but ambitious man".
A further Willoughby of
significance was Francis
Willoughby, the famous
naturalist. He was an
eminent scholar and one
of the original Fellows of
the Royal Society. Whilst
studying in Cambridge in
1653 he met John Ray,
the botanist. Both men
had similar ambitions and
shared a love of natural
history. They specialised
in the identification and
classification of animals
and plants. This field of
study was of increasing
importance during the
17th century as a result of the voyages of discovery to many
parts of the world.
The traditional English pastimes, such as falconry and hunting, were declining in
popularity and were being replaced with new, more cultural forms of entertainment.
There was a greater appreciation of the world of nature and a desire for further
knowledge about natural history.
Francis accompanied John Ray on a series of expeditions throughout England and
the Continent in search of specimens. It was during their travels that the men
realised that there was a lack of documentation. They endeavoured to resolve this
with Francis concentrating on animals, fish and insects and John Ray focusing on
botany. This research was to be the foundation of the work 'Ornithologia' which was
a system of classification. The book was divided into three volumes and gave details
of all known birds. This was to prove very beneficial to future naturalists.
Whilst on a tour of Spain in 1664 Francis had the opportunity to learn more about
whales. This was later recorded in his book 'Historia Piscium 1 in which he was the
first naturalist to provide accurate descriptions of often rare species. During the
final years of his life Francis began the study of many different types of insects,
including bees and wasps. This was later included in his work 'Historia Insectorium1.
Due to Francis Willoughby's untimely death from pleurisy at the age of thirty seven,
it was left to John Ray to complete Francis' three major works which were later
published in Latin. As a tribute to his friend John Ray wrote of Francis in the
introduction to Ornithologia 'He was endowed with excellent gifts such as piercing
wit, sound judgement and great industry . . . he was from his childhood addicted to
study . . . and was eminent for virtue and goodness. 1
Sir Hugh Willoughby, Exprorer
The Search for the North-East Passage
For two thousand years spices, perfumes and silks were brought along the Silk Road
from China, through mountains and deserts to Samarkand, on to the great city of
Constantinople and so to Europe. But by the middle of the fifteenth century this trade
had all but ceased as the Turkish empire took control of the Silk Road and captured
Constantinople. So another route had to be found to bring these fabulous riches to
Europe.
Christopher Columbus
discovered the Americas
whilst trying to sail
westwards to India and
China. Indeed, not
realising just how large
the Earth is, he thought
he had reached them.
Later the Spanish and
Portuguese conquered
much of South America
and could stop ships
from other countries
from going south and
west around Cape Horn
to the Pacific and on to
the Far East. Likewise,
trade to the south and
then eastward around
Africa was in the hands
of the Portuguese. So
the English merchants tried to find a way around
the north of Europe and Asia - the North-East
Passage.
In 1550 English merchants formed the 'Mysterie
and Company of Marchant Adventurers for the
Discoverie of Regions, Dominions, Islands and
Places Unknowen 1 to find the North-East
Passage. Three years later its first expedition of
three ships was ready; the Bona Esperanza, the
Edward Bonadventure and the Bona
Confidentia. There were a total of 155 men,
including three surgeons and sixteen merchants,
with provisions for eighteen months. Their leader
was Sir Hugh Willoughby. He was not a sailor
but an experienced and distinguished soldier.
They
set sail from London down the River Thames. As they passed the Royal palace at
Greenwich the crews cheered and fired their cannons whilst the courtiers and common
people crowded along the riverside to see them pass. But it was six weeks before they
finally sailed from the east coast of England,
a delay which was to cost them dear later in the voyage. For three weeks they were out
of sight of land and Sir Hugh noted in his journal:
We sayled with divers other courses, traversing and tracing the seas, by
reason of sundry and manifolde contrary windes'.
They eventually sighted the coast of Norway and continued northwards, past the Arctic
Circle and turned eastwards around North Cape. They were trying to find the town of
Vardo (which the English called Wardhouse), the last town before the barren wastes
of arctic Russia. But the ships were beset by dreadful weather:
'The land being very high on every side, there came such flames ofwinde and
terrible whirlewinds, that we were not able to beare in, but by violence were
constrained to take to the sea agayne, ourpinnesse /small sailing boat/ being
unshipt; we sailed North and by East, the wind increasing so sore that we were
not able to beare any saile, but tooke them in, and lay a drift, to the end to let
the storme over passe. And that night by violence ofwinde, and thicknesse of
mists, we were not able to keep together within sight, and then about midnight
we lost ourpinnesse, which was a discomfort unto us. As soon as it was day,
and the fog overpast, we looked about, and at last we descried one of our
shippes to Leeward of us, which was the Confidence, but the Edward we could
not see'.
These two ships sailed together in weather even more dreadful, completely lost, for fortyfive days. They tried to find Wardhouse but they were unsuccessful for they had no
charts and their navigation was uncertain:
then wee sounded, and had 160fathomes, whereby we thought to befarrefrom
land and perceived that the land lay not as the Globe made mention'.
Once they sighted land but there was a lot of ice around it and shallow water and they
were not able to reach it. This may have been the island of Novaya Zemlya. Later, on
more than one occasion, they saw another coast but were in danger of being driven onto
the shore and wrecked so they sailed out to sea again and lost sight of it. They were
running out of time as the short arctic summer slipped away and the dreadful winter
approached.
In October they managed to get their two ships into a sheltered bay on the desolate Kola
peninsula. Sir Hugh Willoughby's last entry in his journal records their fate:
Remaining in this haven the space of a weeke, seeing the yearefarre spent, &
also very evill wether, as frost, snow, and haile, as though it had been the deepe
of winter, we thought it best to winter there. Wherefore we sent out three men
Southsouthwest, to search if they could find people, who went three dayes
journey, but could find none; after that, we sent other three Westwardfour daies
journey, which also returned without finding any people. Then we sent three
men Southeast three dayes journey, who in like sorte returned without finding
of people, or any similitude of habitation.
During the terrible arctic winter Sir Hugh and the officers and crew of the two ships all
froze to death. They had sailed for three hundred miles beyond the town of Wardhouse.
The third ship, the Edward Bonadventure, from which they had parted company so
many weeks earlier, did find Wardhouse. The captain, Richard Chancelor, was very
worried about the other ships, being very pensive, heavie, and sorrowfull... not a little
troubled with cogitations and perturbations ofminde. He sailed to the east but failed to
find Sir Hugh and his company. Instead he found the Russian town which is now called
Archangel and spent the winter there. Chancelor and the merchants then visited
Moscow and so were able to start a most profitable trade with Russia.
In 1555 Richard Chancelor sailed again to the arctic and found Sir Hugh Willoughby's
ships. His crews sailed them back but the Bona Confidentia was destroyed on the coast
of Norway and all the crew were lost. The Bona Esperanza was lost at sea and finally
Richard Chancelor's ship was driven by storms onto the Scottish coast and he was
drowned.
Other attempts were made to explore this region but the elusive North-east Passage
never was found for a sailing ship could never pass the ice around Novaya Zemlya.
Explorers turned their attention to finding a North-west passage around the north of
Canada, a quest that was to be equally as unsuccessful and tragic.
TUD#2\TUDHUGH.PM4
William Morice KntOne of his
Matiesmost Honourable Privy Councill,
and Principall Secretary of State
You are upon sight hereof to suffer the Bearers
Francis Willoughby Esq. & Nathaniel Bacon, Gent,
with two servants, their wearing apparell, & other
necessaries, freely to pass beyond the seas, for their
experience, and improvement by travell; Provided
they carry no prohibited goods, and do all such things,
and give all such cautions as by the Laws and Statutes
of this Realme of England are in that case required
and provided for: And you are in like manner to
suffer them & either of them to return againe when
their occasions shall require, Without any lett,
hindrance or molistacon. Hereof of you are not to
faile; and for so doing this shall be your warrant.
Given at Whitehall the Tenth day of Aprill, 1663
To all Captains of his Maties Ships
at Sea, Governors, Comanders, Souldiers,
Maiors, Sherifs, Justices of the Peace,
Bailiffs, Constables, Customers,
Comptrollers, Searchers, or others whom
it may Concerne
Reproduced from the Middleton Manuscripts by
permission of Nottingham University Manuscripts
Department
Will Morice
The Willoughby family moved to Wollaton in 1450 where they lived in the original
hall which was in the village near to the church. It was not very grand and Francis
Willoughby decided to use the profits from his coal mines to build a new hall which
would represent the wealth of
the Willoughby family.
The site of the new hall was on
gently rising ground which had
beautiful views of the surrounding
countryside. It was a prominent
position with a park which at that
time covered an area of 784 acres.
Deer were kept in the park for
hunting.
The designer and builder of
Wollaton Hall was Robert Smythson
who had previously been the Master
Mason at Longleat. The Willoughbys
were obviously pleased with his
work as there is a monument to
Smythson in Wollaton church
which reads
'Mr Robert Smythson, gent,
architect and surveyor unto
the most worthy house of
Wollaton
After completing Wollaton
Hall Smythson worked on
a number of other
buildings in the area, the
most notable being Hard
wick Hall.
Building of the new hall
began in 1580 and it was
completed in 1588, the
year of the Spanish
Armada. It was built of
Ancaster stone obtained in
exchange for coal from the
Wollaton mines.
Cassandra Willoughby
claimed in 1702 that the cost of Wollaton Hall had been 'four score thousand
pounds' but it is believed that the actual cost was £8,000 which was still a huge
sum in the 16th century.
As well as celebrating the wealth and prestige of the Willoughby family, the house
was significant as it was built using 'new' money, that is money gained from
business rather than by inheritance. An engraving on the south side of the building
reads 'Behold this house of Sir Francis Willoughby, built with rare art and
bequeathed to Willoughbys.
Begun 1580 and finished
1588'.
The hall reflected a change
of style. It was not built for
defence purposes like a
castle but more as a
country house. It differed
from other Elizabethan
mansions due to its total
symmetry. Smythson
ignored the conventional E
or H shaped building and
created a house built
around a central hall with
smaller rooms surrounding
it. The perfect symmetrical design of Wollaton Hall also
extends into the grounds. The house, gardens and outbuildings all form a large
square.
Smythson was influenced by French and Flemish styles and decorated the exterior
of the building with ornate windows, gables and statues of which there are said to
be nearly two hundred. To complete the detailed carving Sir Francis employed some
of the best stone masons in England, for example Christopher Lovell who had
worked at Longleat.
The main feature of the interior of Wollaton is the Great Hall. The room is 15m (50ft)
high with a hammer beam timber roof above it. The huge windows are l l m (35ft)
from the floor and below these were hung paintings. The room was quite plain apart
from the ornate screen at the west end of the hall above which the organ was later
placed. The other rooms on the first floor included the salon, library and family dining
room. Along the east side of the building was a long gallery where it was fashionable
to include portraits of members of the family.
Above the Great Hall is a large room which was known as the Prospect Room. This
formed the third storey of the building. The Prospect Room has always been a bit of a
mystery. It has been suggested that it may have been a ballroom but historians now
believe that this is unlikely as access to it is very restricted. It was, however, used as a
dormitory for guests and their servants - when it was known as 'Bedlam1. This use
was at a much later period when the number of servants had increased especially
during the Victorian age. Use of the Prospect Room during the Tudor period was most
likely to enable ladies and older members of the household to follow the progress of
the hunt taking place in the grounds.
Smythson built the Hall above ground level in order to hide the kitchens and servants
quarters underground. These, however, were well lit due to the windows which were
placed at ground level. A list of members of the household in 1598 included forty six
names of which at least twenty nine were servants. These include 'Old Bassett, Simon
Setter the slaughterman, the Ketchen boye, Edward Hancockes the gardener and Deffe
Thorn'. Not all the servants working at Wollaton Hall in the Tudor period lived in the
building itself. Some of them came from the village of Wollaton on a daily basis.
Some, it is believed, stayed in the Old Hall and walked to the new hall each day to
carry out their duties. Below the basement were a series of passageways which were
used as wine cellars. There is also a well of ice-cold water known as the Admiral's
Bath.
With Wollaton Hall Francis Willoughby fulfilled his ambition to build a lasting
memorial to his family. He created a magnificent hall which has been described as
'the most important Elizabethan house in Nottingham and one of the most important
in England,'