PREFACE
The wide availability of essential precursors and chemicals, their free trafficking
through international trade channels, and the many legitimate ways in which they can be
used, particularly in the case of essential chemicals of cocaine, make it difficult to control
the diversion of these chemicals into illicit drug production.
Traffickers often direct shipments of chemicals through several countries to foil
attempts by authorities to track them down. The problem is compounded by the fact that
no universally accepted code for the identification of these substances yet exists.
Consequently, even shipments identified with counterfeit documents can easily escape
detention by customs authorities.
Governments of the countries of the hemisphere are concerned over the serious
problems caused by drugs in our societies and recognize that the widespread availability
of precursors and specific chemicals for preparing psychotropic substances, particularly
in the Americas, exacerbates the situation.
It is therefore critical to establish legal mechanisms that will permit an
uninterrupted supply of chemicals to firms that have a legitimate need for them, and that
will at the same time prevent precursors and chemicals from falling into the hands of
producers of illicit drugs.
Accordingly, the Executive Secretariat of CICAD is pleased to present this
Manual on Chemicals Used in the Illicit Production of Drugs, as a contribution to
national involvement in the difficult task of controlling precursors and substances.
2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE……………………………..2
INTRODUCTION…………………….5
EXPLANATORY NOTES……………7
TECHNICAL DEFINITIONS………...8
COCAINE PRODUCTION………….10
HEROIN PRODUCTION……………14
CLANDESTINE MANUFACTURE OF
AMPHETAMINES AND
METHAMPHETAMINES…………..18
REGULATED CHEMICAL
SUBSTANCES………………………23
Acetic Anhydride
Acetone
N-Acetylanthranilic Acid
Acetyl Chloride
Ammonium Chloride
Ammonium Formate
Ammonium Hydroxide
Anthranilic Acid
Benzaldehyde
Benzene
Benzyl Chloride
Benzyl Cyanide
N-Butyl Acetate
N-Butyl Alcohol
Sec-Butyl Alcohol
Calcium Carbonate
Calcium Hydroxide
Calcium Oxide
Chloroform
Cyclohexane
Cyclohexanone
Diacetone Alcohol
Diethylamine
Ephedrine
Ergonovine
Ergotamine
Ethyl Acetate
Ethyl Alcohol
Ethylamine
N-Ethylephedrine
Ethyl Ether
Ethylidene Diacetate
N-Ethyl-pseudoephedrine
Formamide
Formic Acid
Hexane
Hydriodic Acid
Hydrochloric Acid
Hydrogen Peroxide
Iodine
Isobutyl Alcohol
Isopropyl Acetate
Isopropyl Alcohol
Isosafrole
Kerosene
Lysergic Acid
Methyl Alcohol
Methylamine
Methylene Chloride
3,4-Methylene Dioxyphenyl-2Propanone
N-Methylephedrine
Methyl Ethyl Ketone
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone
N-Methylpseudoephedrine
Nitroethane
Norpseudoephedrine
Petroleum Ether
Phenylacetic Acid
Phenylpropanolamine
Phenyl-2-Propanone
Piperidine
Piperonal
Potassium Carbonate
Potassium Cyanide
Potassium Dichromate
Potassium Hydroxide
3
Potassium Permanganate
Propionic Anhydride
Pseudoephedrine
Red Phosphorus
Safrole
Sodium Bicarbonate
Sodium Carbonate
Sodium Cyanide
Sodium Dichromate
Sodium Hydroxide
Sodium Hypoclorite
Sodium Sulfate
Sodium Thiosulfate
Sulfuric Acid
Tartaric Acid
Thionyl Chloride
Toluene
O-Toluidine
Trichloroethylene
Urea
Xylenes
REFERENCES………………………79
APPENDIX I: Model Regulations to
Control Chemical Precursors and
Chemical Substances, Machines and
Materials
APPENDIX II: Clandestine Chemical
Laboratories
4
INTRODUCTION
The illicit trafficking in and use of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances is
one of the most serious problems affecting many countries today. None of these drugs
except marijuana can be produced without the aid of chemical substances. In most cases
such substances have legitimate industrial uses, and so can be freely acquired in the
market.
Two types of chemicals are used to manufacture narcotic drugs and psychotropic
substances. Precursor chemicals are defined as substances that can be used in the
production, manufacture, and/or preparation of narcotics, psychotropic substances, or
substances with a similar effect, and that incorporate their molecular structure to the final
product, and so are fundamental to those processes. Essential chemicals are defined as
substances other than precursor chemicals that may be used in the production,
manufacture, extraction, and/or preparation of narcotics, psychotropic substances, and
substances with a similar effect, as a solvent, reagent, or catalyst.
Many rules and verification mechanisms are in place with respect to the
acquisition of such precursors, but it was not until the late 1980s that emphasis was
placed on national and international control of the production, manufacture, preparation,
import, export, and distribution, of precursor chemicals and other specific chemical
products for the production and manufacture of narcotics, psychotropic substances, or
other substances with a similar effect.
There has been a significant increase in the amounts of chemicals required to
manufacture cocaine shipped in recent years to the Caribbean Basin. It has not been
possible to determine whether these shipments were earmarked for legitimate uses, but
the notable increase suggests that something more is going on, especially because there
are no indications of a proportional increase in the legitimate needs of the countries of
that region.
It is necessary that the supplier countries, the transshipment countries, and the
countries to which the shipments are sent establish legal mechanisms that allow for the
uninterrupted supply of chemicals to persons and businesses that have a legitimate need
for them, and that simultaneously prevent the chemicals from falling into the hands of the
drug traffickers.
The United Nations Convention Against Illicit Trafficking in Narcotic Drugs and
Psychotropic Substances, adopted in Vienna in December 1988, was a major first step
towards establishing controls on the distribution of precursor chemicals and essential
chemicals.
In 1988, the Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission (CICAD) of the
Organization of American States (OAS) authorized a consultation with the member states
on whether to create a Group of Experts on precursor and essential chemicals. That
5
group was entrusted with drawing up regulations that the governments could adopt or
amend with a view to establishing genuinely uniform laws to control chemicals in the
nations of the hemisphere.
The draft model regulations prepared by the working group were submitted to the
representatives of the member states of CICAD during its meeting held in March 1990 in
Buenos Aires, Argentina, where it was recommended that they be adopted. Finally, the
regulations were submitted to the General Assembly OAS in April 1990, which approve
the “Model Regulations for the Control of Precursors and Chemical Substances,
Materials, and Equipment”.
6
EXPLANATORY NOTES
1. ABBREVIATIONS USED:
CSA: Controlled Substances Act of the United States
OAS: Organization of American States
UN: United Nations
US: United States
MT: metric ton
kg:
kilograms
gr:
grams
lt:
liters
ml:
milliliters
BMK: Benzyl Methyl Ketone
LSD: Lisergic Acid Diethylamide
MDA: 3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine
MDE: 3,4-Methylenedioxy-N-ethylamphetamine
MDMA: 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine
MEK: Methyl Ethyl Ketone
MIBK: Methyl Isobutyl Ketone
PCC: 1-Piperidinocyclohexanecarbonitrile
PCP: Phencyclidene
P2P: Phenyl-2-Propanol
WCO: World Custom Organization
2. SOURCES OF INFORMATION:
The information on chemical products was obtained from the publication
“Chemicals Used in the Clandestine Production of Drugs”, United States Department of
Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration, Office of Diversion Control, Drug and
Chemical Evaluation Section, 1995.
The information on chemical laboratories was obtained from the publication
“Hazards of Chemical Laboratories”, Wayne K. Jeffery – I/c Toxicology Section,
Forensic Laboratory, Royal Canadian Mounted Police.
For the purposes of this publication, such information has been edited by
CICAD’s Executive Secretariat.
7
TECHNICAL DEFINITIONS
DENSITY:
Mass per unit of volume, generally expressed in grams per cubic centimeter or
kilograms per cubic meter or per liter. Apparent density is weight per unit of volume in
powder, and is generally expressed in grams per cubic centimeter, determined by a
specific method. Overall density is an alternative term for apparent density.
CHEMICAL FORMULA:
A written expression, using symbols, of a chemical entity or a relationship. There
are several types of formulas:
(1) Empirical formula: expresses in simple terms the relative number and type of
atoms that form a molecule; it indicates only the composition, not the structure.
(2) Molecular formula: shows the real number and the type of atoms of a
chemical entity (i.e., molecule, radical, or ion).
(3) Structural formula: indicates the location of the atoms, radicals, or ions in
relation to one another, as well as the number and location of the chemical bonds.
(4) Generic formula: expresses a general type of organic compound, in which the
variables are the number of atoms or the class of radicals in a homologous series.
(5) Electrical formula: a structural form in which the bonds are replaced by
points that indicate the electrical pairs, with a simple bond being a pair of electrons
shared by two atoms.
ATOMIC WEIGHT:
The mass of an atom of an element compared to the mass of the carbon 12
isotope, which is used as the standard, with a value of 12.
MOLECULAR WEIGHT:
The molecular weight of a chemical compound is the sum of the atomic weights
of the atoms that constitute it. By agreement, all the atomic weights, and thus all the
molecules as well, are expressed with respect to the arbitrary value 16, which is assigned
to the oxygen atom. The value of the molecular weight is naturally expressed in arbitrary
units, but it may be expressed in grams, in which case it is defined as gram molecular
weight, or mole.
PRECURSOR CHEMICAL:
A substance that may be used in the production, manufacture, and/or preparation
of narcotics, psychotropic substances, or substances with similar effect, and whose
molecular structure is incorporated into the final product.
BOILING POINT:
The temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is slightly higher than the
external pressure. For water, at sea level it is 100¼ C (212¼F).
8
MELTING POINT
The melting of a pure substance is the temperature at which its crystals are in
equilibrium with the liquid phase at atmospheric pressure. Normally it is called melting
point when the equilibrium temperature is reached by heating the solid. Consequently, in
ordinary circumstances melting points refer to temperatures greater than 0¼ C, the
melting point of ice.
SUBLIMATION POINT
The sublimation point is the point at which a substance changes from solid to gas
directly, and returns to the solid form, without it ever assuming liquid form.
9
CHEMICALS USED IN THE ILLICIT PRODUCTION
OF COCAINE HYDROCHLORIDE
Cocaine is a naturally occurring alkaloid obtained from the coca plant of the
Genus Erythroxylon by the extraction of the leaves followed by a number of purification
steps. The coca plant used in the illicit production of cocaine is principally grown in
Bolivia and Peru. The alkaloid content of the leaves of the South American coca plant is
between 0.5 and 1.5 percent with cocaine being the principal alkaloid.
The production of cocaine hydrochloride from coca leaves is generally performed
in three steps. They are:
(1) the extraction of cocaine and other alkaloids from coca leaves to produce coca
paste.
(2) the purification of coca paste to cocaine base, and
(3) the conversion of cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride.
These processes may be performed at three different locations or two or more of
the steps may be performed at the same location. Each of the steps requires chemicals
with specific properties to reach the desired end point. The stage of processing can be
determined by the type of chemicals identified at the laboratory site.
The chemicals required for each of the steps are as follows:
(1) production of coca paste - kerosene, gasoline or other organic solvents with
similar properties, alkaline material such as sodium, Calcium or potassium carbonate,
sodium hydroxide, calcium oxide and an acid such as sulfuric acid.
(2) production of cocaine base - oxidizing agent such as potassium permanganate
or hydrogen peroxide, sulfuric acid and alkaline material such as ammonia water.
(3) production of cocaine hydrochloride - organic solvent such as ethyl ether,
acetone, methyl ethyl ketone or toluene and hydrochloric acid.
It is important to note that these processes require only modest equipment and
relatively few chemicals. The most critical of these chemicals are used in the final steps
of the production of cocaine hydrochloride and are the oxidizing agent, potassium
permanganate, and the organic solvents ethyl ether, acetone, methyl ethyl ketone and
toluene.
These chemicals have legitimate uses worldwide and are involved in international
commerce. By controlling the diversion and trafficking of these chemicals by cocaine
producers, the production and availability of cocaine hydrochloride can be effectively
curtailed.
The following is a description of the procedures and chemicals used in the
clandestine production of cocaine hydrochloride:
10
Step 1. (Production of Coca Paste)
Production of Coca Paste In the initial extraction procedure, dried coca leaves are
moistened with an alkaline solution to convert the cocaine to a water insoluble form.
Alkaline materials that can be and have been used in this initial extraction procedure are
sodium, potassium or calcium carbonate (limestone), sodium hydroxide (caustic soda)
calcium oxide (lime) and ammonia water. The moistened leaves are soaked and the
cocaine extracted using kerosene, or other organic liquids in which cocaine is soluble.
Gasoline has been used in place of kerosene; however its physical properties
(flammability and high volatility) make it less desirable. Kerosene extracts other
alkaloids in addition to cocaine from the coca leaves. The kerosene solution is mixed
with dilute sulfuric acid; the cocaine and other alkaloids are converted to sulfate salts
which are soluble in the aqueous acid solution, which is retained. This extraction
procedure separates the waxes and fats extracted from the coca leaves from the cocaine
and other alkaloids. Other acids which can be used in place of sulfuric acid are
hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and phosphoric acid. Sulfuric acid is commonly used,
however, because of its availability and physical characteristics. Its low volatility and
acid strength make it safer, easier to handle and a more efficient acid than the others.
Ammonia water is added to the sulfuric acid solution containing the cocaine sulfate; this
converts the cocaine sulfate to cocaine base which is water insoluble. The cocaine and
other alkaloids are filtered out of aqueous solution. This product is termed Òcoca pasteÓ
or Òsulfate.Ó The product obtained is approximately fifty percent cocaine base.
None of the chemicals used in this first step is regulated under the United States
Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act. They are readily and widely available
throughout the world including in the countries in which cocaine is produced and there
are practical substitutes for each of the chemicals.
Step 2. (Production of Cocaine Base)
In order to refine the cocaine, the coca paste is purified to cocaine base and then
converted to cocaine hydrochloride. The coca paste is dissolved in a dilute sulfuric acid
solution which converts the cocaine base and other alkaloids in the paste to water soluble
sulfate salts. A dilute solution of an oxidizing agent, most often potassium permanganate,
is added to the acid solution. Hydrogen peroxide can also be used as an oxidizing agent
and has occasionally been identified in clandestine cocaine laboratories. Oxidizing agents
are used to convert (oxidize) cinnamoylcocaine and other unwanted alkaloids to water
insoluble forms, which can be removed from the cocaine containing acid solution by
filtering. The removal of these impurities aids in the crystallization of cocaine
hydrochloride in the final step and promotes the formation of the clean white product
sought after by cocaine distributors and users. Potassium permanganate is the preferred
oxidizing agent and the one most frequently used by clandestine laboratory operators. Its
violet pink color in solution makes it useful as an indicator to determine when the
alkaloidal impurities have been completely oxidized. Potassium permanganate, because
of its importance to the production of a high quality cocaine hydrochloride product, is
regulated under the United States Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act.
11
The impurities are filtered from the sulfuric acid solution which is then made
alkaline with ammonia water or other previously mentioned alkaline material. This
converts the cocaine to its base form, which is insoluble in water. The solution is filtered
and the water insoluble cocaine is separated and dried. This product is cocaine base.
Step 3. (Production of Cocaine HydroChloride )
The third and final step in the production of cocaine hydrochloride converts
cocaine base into crystalline cocaine hydrochloride. The chemicals used in this procedure
are organic solvents which dissolve cocaine base and hydrochloric acid which provides a
source of chloride ions for the formation of the hydrochloride salt of cocaine. The
solvents most commonly used and those which are regulated under the United States
Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act are ethyl ether, acetone,2-butanone (methyl
ethyl ketone) and toluene. Hydrochloric acid is not a regulated chemical because of the
small quantities used, its readily availability and the number of easily obtainable
substitutes.
In this process, the dried cocaine base is dissolved in a minimal amount of organic
solvent such as ethyl ether or acetone and the mixture is filtered to remove any
undissolved material (impurities). A solution of hydrochloric acid in a water miscible
organic solvent such as acetone is added to the liquid.
The cocaine base is converted to cocaine hydrochloride which is insoluble in the
organic solvent. The solution is filtered and the crystalline cocaine hydrochloride is
retained and dried. The product from this step is usually 90-98 percent pure cocaine
hydrochloride.
Although there are a large number of organic solvents there are several critical
factors that must be considered and that limit the selection of an appropriate solvent in
this process.
A suitable organic solvent is:
(a) one in which cocaine base is soluble;
(b) one in which cocaine hydrochloride is insoluble or only slightly soluble;
(c) one which is miscible with water and the other organic solvent used;
(d) volatile; and
(e) readily available
Substitutes for the regulated solvents which meet some but not all of these criteria
include benzene, ethyl acetate, hexane, methylene chloride, chloroform, isopropyl alcohol
and methyl isobutyl ketone. For example, cocaine base is soluble in methylene chloride
and chloroform but so is cocaine hydrochloride. Analysis of powder cocaine
hydrochloride samples by Drug Enforcement Administration laboratories since 1986
show that the solvents most commonly used are acetone, ethyl ether, methyl ethyl ketone
and toluene. Seizures of chemicals at South American clandestine cocaine hydrochloride
laboratories substantiate the almost exclusive use of these solvents. Thus, although there
are a number of alternatives to the regulated solvents, the limitations described above
make them less practical and desirable.
12
13
CHEMICALS USED IN THE ILLICIT
PRODUCTION OF HEROIN
Heroin is a semi-synthetic narcotic analgesic prepared by the chemical reaction of
morphine with an acetylating agent such as acetic anhydride. Morphine, itself a narcotic
analgesic, is one of the alkaloids found in and obtained from opium.
Opium is the dried latex obtained from the unripe capsules of the poppy plant
(Papaver somniferum L). Opium contains about 20 alkaloids, with morphine (10-16
percent) being the most important and most abundant. Other alkaloids (10-15 percent)
found in opium include codeine, thebaine, noscapine and papaverine. Considerable
quantities of the opium poppy are grown commercially for the medicinal value of the
alkaloids, for the seed-extractable oil, and for foodstuffs. It is also grown illicitly for the
production of heroin. Southeast Asia, Southwest Asia, Central and South America are the
major source areas for opium used in the production of heroin.
Heroin is generally produced in clandestine laboratories outside of the United
States. The preferred form in the United States is heroin hydrochloride, which is watersoluble and can be injected intravenously and snorted. Smaller quantities of heroin base
are also smoked in the United States. Heroin is generally converted to its hydrochloride
salt before shipment to the United States.
The clandestine processing of heroin from opium can be divided into three basic
stages:
(1) Extraction of morphine from opium and purification of morphine base.
(2) Synthesis of heroin base from morphine.
(3) Conversion of heroin base to heroin hydrochloride.
The entire process is usually, but not always, performed at one location. Processes
vary somewhat from area to area, particularly in the extent of purification of morphine.
The process can be performed by individuals with little or no chemical education using a
few chemicals and simple equipment.
Common chemicals used in the production of heroin hydrochloride from
morphine and opium are the following: alkaline material such as calcium oxide (lime),
calcium hydroxide (slaked lime), ammonium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, sodium
bicarbonate and calcium carbonate (limestone); acids such as tartaric acid, hydrochloric
acid and ammonium chloride; an acetylating agent such as acetic anhydride or acetyl
chloride; solvents such as acetone, ethyl ether, ethyl alcohol and methyl ethyl ketone; and
an adsorptive agent such as activated charcoal for filtering and decolorizing.
The most critical of these chemicals is acetic anhydride which is reacted with
morphine to produce heroin. Other important chemicals are the solvents acetone, ethyl
ether, methyl ethyl ketone, and hydrochloric acid, which are used primarily in the
conversion of heroin to heroin hydrochloride, the sought after street product. These
chemicals have legitimate uses worldwide and are in international commerce.
Nevertheless, their regulation provides an effective means of curtailing the production
and availability of heroin hydrochloride.
The other chemicals, which include the alkaline and acidic materials, are very
common and readily available in the countries in which the heroin process occurs.
14
Further, their use in the heroin process requires no properties unique to any one of them
and thus there are many practical substitutes for them. For these reasons they are not
regulated under the CDTA or the 1988 Vienna Convention.
The following is a description of the procedures and chemicals used in the
production of morphine from opium, its purification, and ultimate conversion to heroin
hydrochloride:
Step 1. (Extraction and Purification of Morphine)
A. Extraction from Opium:
Opium is dispersed in water, and the mixture is heated and made alkaline with
calcium oxide (lime) or calcium hydroxide (slaked lime). This forms the calcium salt of
morphine which is soluble in the aqueous solution and precipitates other major alkaloids
of opium. The aqueous solution is filtered to remove the precipitated alkaloids and
ammonium chloride is added to the solution. This converts the calcium salt of morphine
to morphine base. The solution is allowed to stand for several hours and the morphine
base precipitates out of solution. The solution is then filtered and the morphine base is
dried. The crude dried morphine base, which is dark brown, is usually about 50-70
percent pure.
B. Purification of Morphine Base:
Crude morphine base is first washed with small amounts of acetone to remove
unwanted alkaloids. The morphine base is then dissolved in a solution of tartaric acid
(heated to 80-90øC) which converts the morphine base to its bitartrate salt. The solution
is treated with activated charcoal and is filtered. The activated charcoal is used as a
decolorizing agent and removes the brown color. This aqueous acidic solution is made
alkaline with ammonia which converts the morphine bitartrate to morphine base. The
morphine base precipitates out of solution, is recovered by filtration and dried. Purified
morphine base is usually 85-95 percent pure.
In the extraction and purification of morphine from opium, only acetone is
regulated by the CDTA and the 1988 Vienna Convention. The other chemicals which
include general acids and alkaline materials are readily available worldwide. Any number
of substances can be and have been used in this first step.
Step 2. (Synthesis of Heroin Base from Morphine)
This step involves the chemical reaction of morphine with an acetylating agent to form
heroin (diacetylmorphine). Dried morphine base is mixed with acetic anhydride (excess
quantities) and heated until the morphine base is completely dissolved. The solution is
further heated to a near boil and retained at that temperature for approximately 1 hour. A
chemical reaction takes place between morphine and acetic anhydride which converts
morphine base to heroin base. Acetic anhydride is an essential chemical regulated by the
CDTA and the 1988 Vienna Convention.
It is a readily available industrial chemical involved in international commerce.
Acetic anhydrideÕs main application is in the chemical process industry in the
manufacture of plastics and synthetic fibers (cellulose acetate). Acetic morphine and
15
acetic anhydride which converts morphine base to heroin base.
Acetic anhydride is an essential chemical regulated by the CDTA and the 1988
Vienna Convention. It is a readily available industrial chemical involved in international
commerce. Acetic anhydrideÕs main application is in the chemical process industry in
the manufacture of plastics and synthetic fibers (cellulose acetate). Acetic anhydride is
the reagent of choice in the conversion of morphine to heroin. Acetyl chloride is another
acetylating agent which is readily available, however, it is extremely corrosive, more
volatile and difficult to handle. For these reasons, it is seldom substituted for acetic
anhydride.
The solution is cooled and water is added to rid the solution of unreacted acetic
anhydride. With the addition of water, the heroin base is converted to heroin acetate
which is soluble in the aqueous solution. The solution is filtered and made alkaline with
sodium carbonate. Other alkaline material such as sodium hydroxide, sodium bicarbonate
or ammonium hydroxide may be substituted for the sodium carbonate. The dissolved
heroin acetate is converted to heroin base, a water insoluble form. The contents are
filtered and the heroin base is retained and dried.
The purity of the heroin base depends on the purity of the morphine base and on
the completeness of the acetylation process.
Step 3. (Conversion of Heroin Base to Heroin Hydrochloride)
Heroin base is dissolved in hot acetone and activated charcoal is added. The activated
charcoal again is used as a decoloring agent. The solution is mixed and filtered. The
liquid portion is retained and contains heroin base. Hydrochloric acid (concentrated) is
added to the acetone solution which is mixed and allowed to sit. This converts the heroin
base to heroin hydrochloride. The solution is filtered and the heroin hydrochloride is
retained and dried. This product can have a range of purity of 80-95 percent. Some of the
major impurities may be monoacetylmorphine and acetylcodeine. The ultimate purity of
heroin hydrochloride is dependent on the effort put forth to purify morphine base. The
solvents acetone, ethyl ether, methyl ethyl ketone, and hydrochloric acid have been used
in the heroin hydrochloride process and are regulated under the CDTA and the 1988
Vienna Convention. The critical property of these solvents is their ability to dissolve
heroin base but not heroin hydrochloride.
16
17
CLANDESTINE MANUFACTURE OF
AMPHETAMINES AND METHAMPHETAMINES
Amphetamines and methamphetamines are sympathomimetic amines whose illicit
use is widespread due to their stimulant effects on the central nervous system.
Nowadays, there is a certain amount of lawful production of these drugs for medical use
in the treatment of obesity, attention disorders, and narcolepsy. While some of these
pharmaceutical products are diverted to illicit trafficking, most amphetamine and
methamphetamine found in the illicit traffic are produced in clandestine laboratories. In
contrast to cocaine and heroin, amphetamine and methamphetamine are produced only by
means of chemical syntheses.
A wide variety and large number of syntheses are useful for the manufacture of
amphetamine and methamphetamine. Nonetheless, the clandestine laboratories use only
a few of these. It would appear that the synthesis for amphetamine generally uses 1phenyl-2-propanone (P2P) as the principal raw material. The main raw materials used in
the synthesis of methamphetamine are ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, and 1-phenyl-2propanone. While 1-phenyl-2-propanone can be acquired commercially, it is often
prepared in the clandestine laboratories from phenylacetic acid, benzyl cyanide or
benzoic aldehyde, and nitroethane.
These syntheses are relatively simple and do not require very complex equipment,
or exotic chemicals. Each procedure takes a few steps, is carried out in one or two days,
and has relatively abundant yields.
These syntheses occur through one or more reactions to produce amphetamine
and basic methamphetamine, which are oily liquids. These bases are purified and then
become salts, usually hydrochloride for methamphetamines and sulfate for amphetamine,
which are crystalline substances. Purification and conversion require only organic
solvents (for example, ethyl ether, acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, toluene, etc.), alkaline
substances (for example, sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, etc.), and the
corresponding acid (for example, hydrochloric acid or gaseous hydrogen chloride for
hydrochloride or sulfuric acid for sulfate).
There are two optical isomers and one racemic sample (mixture of equal parts of
the two optical isomers) of amphetamine and methamphetamine. The dextrorotary
isomers (d) are more powerful stimulants of the central nervous system than the
levorotary ones (l) or than the racemic mixtures (d,l). In most cases, the initial raw
material determines the isomer of the final product. The syntheses that begin with 1ephedrine or d-pseudoephedrine (the isomers that are commonly found) produce dmethamphetamine.
The reduction of ephedrine to synthesize methamphetamine is a simple one-step
reaction that produces methamphetamine oil (base) that is purified and converted to
hydrochloride.
The normal yield of this process is 50% to 75%. One can use
pseudoephedrine instead of ephedrine, with similar results. Ephedrine is used in bulk or
in tablets (with or without extraction). Ephedrine or pseudoephedrine may be heated with
reflux in acid and red phosphorus for 16 hours or more. It would appear that even if it is
not heated small amounts of methamphetamines can be produced. Although other
18
reducing agents can also be used, rarely have they been found in the clandestine
laboratories. Some laboratories produce their own hydriodic acid from iodine, red
phosphorus, and a strong acid.
The Leuckart reaction is used to produce amphetamines or methamphetamines
from 1- phenyl-2-propanone using a somewhat more complicated procedure. The 1phenyl-2- propanone is refluxed in ammonium formide or formamide (for amphetamine)
or N- methylformamide (for methamphetamine) for several hours. Then hydrochloric
acid is added
to the mixture (which contains the formate derivative) and this is refluxed for several
more hours to produce amphetamine or methamphetamine; it is then purified and
converted into amphetamine sulfate or methamphetamine hydrochloride.
The reductive amination of 1-phenyl-2-propanone is another relatively simple
method that is used in clandestine laboratories to produce amphetamines and
methamphetamines. 1- phenyl-2-propanone is reacted with ammonium (to produce
amphetamine), or with methylamine (to produce methamphetamines) in the presence of
mercuric chloride and aluminum foil for a few hours. Then the base is purified and
converted to amphetamine sulfate or methamphetamine hydrochloride.
A common method to synthesize 1-phenyl-2-propanone is using phenylacetic
acid, acetic anhydride and acetate as starting materials. These three ingredients are
refluxed together for 18 hours, cooled, and basified. The resulting 1-phenyl-2-propanone
is purified by distillation or extraction. Distillation of phenylacetic acid and lead acetate
also produces 1- phenyl-2-propanone. Sometimes, phenylacetic acid is synthesized in
clandestine laboratories from benzoic chloride and sodium cyanide or benzyl cyanide.
If certain modifications are introduced into these syntheses, a variety of stimulant
and hallucinogenic analogs of amphetamine and methamphetamine can be produced. For
example, the substitution of ethylamine for methylamine during reductive amination of 1phenyl-2-propanone produces ethamphetamine (ethylamphetamine), a central nervous
system stimulant. If, in place of 1-phenyl-2-propanone, 3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl-2propanone is used in the synthesis, MDA, MDMA, or MDE may be obtained; all are
controlled substances with stimulant and hallucinogenic properties.
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CHEMICALS USED IN ILLICIT DRUG PRODUCTION
ACETIC ACID
Other names: Ethanoic acid, methanecarboxylic acid; glacial acetic acid.
Molecular formula: CH3COOH
Molecular weight: 60,05 (C2H4O2)
Harmonized code: 2915.21.0000
Density: 1,05
Boiling point: 118¼C
Freezing point: 16,6¼C
Description: Colorless, corrosive liquid with a pungent odor. A 5-6% solution in water is
vinegar. Glacial acetic acid refers to a solution which is at least 99.5% concentrated.
Hazards: Flammable; vapor irritating to respiratory system, eyes and skin; can cause
severe burns to eyes and skin; ingestion causes irritation and damage.
Illicit use: Clandestine manufacture of P-2-P for amphetamine and methamphetamine
synthesis; possibly used to produce acetic anhydride for heroin production.
Where controlled or regulated: Organization of American States (OAS)
Legitimate uses: Manufacture of vinyl acetate (45%), cellulose acetate (20%), acetic
anhydride, acetate rayon, plastics and rubber, in tanning; printing calico and dyeing silk;
food preservative; solvent for gums, resins, volatile oils and many other substances; used
in other organic synthesis.
Manufacturing process: Carbonylation of methanol; direct oxidation of saturated
hydrocarbons; oxidation of acetaldehyde.
Shipping and storage: Containers lined with stainless steel, glass or polyethylene.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Austria, Finland,
France, Belgium, Italy, Norway, United Kingdom, Sweden, Switzerland. Asia: South
Korea, Indonesia, Japan, Taiwan. South America: Argentina, Brazil, Colombia,
Venezuela. Central America: Mexico.
Remarks: The reaction of acetic acid and phenylacetic acid to yield P2P has not been
frequently encountered in U.S. clandestine labs. The majority of the companies
manufacturing acetic acid in the U.S. convert it to either vinyl acetate or cellulose
acetate. Reports from SE Asian countries indicates that acetic acid has been used in the
past to produce acetic anhydride through a reaction with ketene. Acetic acid alone will
not acetylate morphine to heroin. It can be used as a substitute for ammonium chloride in
the extraction of morphine from opium.
ACETIC ANHYDRIDE
Other names: Acetic oxide, acetyl oxide.
Molecular formulas: (CH3CO)2O
Molecular weight: 102,09 (C4H6O3)
CSA code: 8519
Harmonized code: 2915.24.0000
Density: 1,08
25
Boiling point: 139¼C
Description: Colorless liquid with a penetrating, strong acetic odor. Fumes in moist air.
Hazards: Flammable; vapors are irritating to respiratory system and eyes; liquid may
burn eyes and skin severely; ingestion causes irritation, pain and vomiting.
Illicit use: Acetylating agent in the production of heroin, P2P and N-acetylanthranilic
acid.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA, United Nations, Organization of American States
(OAS).
Legitimate uses: Acetylating and dehydrating agent; acetylation of cellulose (80%);
production of polymethylacrylamide (Hard Foam); acetylated plastic auxiliaries;
explosives; production of certain types of brake and drilling fluids; production of coldbleaching activators; dyeing, chiefly with nitric acid; preparation of organic
intermediates; productions of pharmaceuticals, e.g., aspirin, acetanilide, phenacetin,
theophylline; acetylation of animal and plant fats; production of flavors, fragrances and
herbicides.
Manufacturing process: Dehydration of acetic acid and carbonylation of methylacetate.
Shipping and storage: Containers lined with stainless steel or polyethylene.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, France, United
Kingdom, Switzerland. Asia: Japan. Central America: Mexico. South America: Brazil.
Remarks: Acetic Anhydride reacts with morphine to yield heroin. It also reacts with
anthranilic acid to form N-acetyl-anthranilic acid, the immediate precursor of
methaqualone and mecloqualone. It reacts with phenylacetic acid to give P2P, a precursor
of amphetamine and methamphetamine.
ACETIC ANHYDRIDE
Other names: Acetic oxide, acetyl oxide.
Molecular formulas: (CH3CO)2O
Molecular weight: 102,09 (C4H6O3)
CSA code: 8519.
Harmonized code: 2915.24.0000
Density: 1,08.
Boiling point: 139¼C
Description: Colorless liquid with a penetrating, strong acetic odor. Fumes in moist air.
Hazards: Flammable; vapors are irritating to respiratory system and eyes; liquid may
burn eyes and skin severely; ingestion causes irritation, pain and vomiting.
Illicit use: Acetylating agent in the production of heroin, P2P and N-acetylanthranilic
acid.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA, United Nations, Organization of American States
(OAS).
Legitimate uses: Acetylating and dehydrating agent; acetylation of cellulose (80%);
production of polymethylacrylamide (Hard Foam); acetylated plastic auxiliaries;
explosives; production of certain types of brake and drilling fluids; production of coldbleaching activators; dyeing, chiefly with nitric acid; preparation of organic
intermediates; productions of pharmaceuticals, e.g., aspirin, acetanilide, phenacetin,
theophylline; acetylation of animal and plant fats; production of flavors, fragrances and
herbicides.
26
Manufacturing process: Dehydration of acetic acid and carbonylation of methylacetate.
Shipping and storage: Containers lined with stainless steel or polyethylene.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, France, United
Kingdom, Switzerland. Asia: Japan. Central America: Mexico. South America: Brazil.
Remarks: Acetic Anhydride reacts with morphine to yield heroin. It also reacts with
anthranilic acid to form N-acetyl-anthranilic acid, the immediate precursor of
methaqualone and mecloqualone. It reacts with phenylacetic acid to give P2P, a precursor
of amphetamine and methamphetamine.
ACETONE
Other names: Dimethyl ketone, §-ketopropane; pyroacetic ether; 2-propanone.
Molecular formula: (CH3)2CO
Molecular weight: 58,08 (C3H6O)
Harmonized code: 2914.11.1000
Density: 0,79
Boiling point: 56,5 ¼C
Description: Colorless, mobile, flammable liquid with a mildly pungent and somewhat
aromatic odor.
Hazards: Highly flammable; vapor is irritating to eyes and nose in high concentrations;
inhalation of vapor may cause dizziness, narcosis and coma; liquid is irritating to eyes
and may cause severe damage; ingestion of liquid may cause gastric irritation, narcosis
and coma.
Illicit use: Solvent in purification of morphine base leading to the manufacture of heroin;
conversion of cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA; United Nations; Organization of American States.
Legitimate uses: Solvent and chemical intermediary for a variety of substances including
plastics, paints, lubricants, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, agricultural products, fats, oils,
waxes, resins, rubber, lacquers, varnishes and rubber cements; used in the extraction of
various principals from animal and plant substances; in varnish removers, purifying
paraffin; hardening and dehydrating tissue; manufacture of methyl isobutyl ketone,
mesityloxide, acetic acid, diacetone alcohol, chloroform, iodoform, bromoform,
explosives, rayon, photographic films and isoprene.
Manufacturing process: Fermentation of cornstarch and molasses; chemical synthesis
from isopropanol; from cumene or a by-product in phenol manufacture; oxidation of
propane.
Shipping and storage: Shipped in steel drums, tank trucks, and rail cars; stored in closed
containers in well ventilated area away from heat, sparks and flames.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Spain, Finland,
France, Italy, The Netherlands,United Kingdom. Asia: South Korea, Japan, Taiwan.
Central America: Mexico. South America: Argentina, Brazil, Ecuador, Venezuela.
Australia.
Remarks: It is a solvent used in the conversion of cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride
and in the purification of morphine base in the production of heroin. It can be produced
by a reaction of diacetone alcohol with an alkaline material such as sodium hydroxide or
in the presence of a catalyst such as zinc or aluminum oxide. It may also be produced
from isopropyl alcohol at cocaine laboratory sites.
27
N-ACETYLANTHRANILIC ACID
Other names: Orto-acetaminobenzoic acid; 2-acetamidobenzoic acid.
Molecular formula: (CH3CONH)C6H4(COOH)
Molecular weight: 179,18 (C9H9O3)
Harmonized code: 2924.29.4700
Melting point: 184-186¼C.
Description: Fine white or off-white crystalline powder with a sweetish taste.
Hazards: Harmful if swallowed.
Illicit use: Production of methaqualone and mecloqualone.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA, Organization of American States (OAS); United
Nations.
Legitimate uses: Chemical intermediate in the manufacture of pharmaceuticals, plastic
and fine chemicals.
Manufacturing process: From anthranilic acid and acetic anhydride.
Shipping and storage: Shipped in 100 lb (45.5 kg) fiber drums; stored in tightly closed
containers in cool dry area.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, Belgium, United Kingdom, Switzerland. Asia:
Unknown.
Remarks: N-acetylanthranilic acid is the immediate precursor used in the synthesis of
methaqualone and mecloqualone. It is often synthesized from anthranilic acid. Esters of
N-Acetylanthranilic Acid such as Ajacine are now included under the CSA.
ACETYL CHLORIDE
Other names: Ethanoyl chloride.
Molecular formula: CH3COCl
Molecular weight: 78,5 (C2H3ClO.
Harmonized code: 2903.29.0000
Density: 1,104
Boiling point: 52¼C
Description: Colorless fuming liquid with a pungent odor.
Hazards: Highly flammable; vapor is irritating to the respiratory system and eyes; liquid
may burn eyes and skin; ingestion of the liquid causes severe internal irritation and
damage; its vapor forms explosive mixtures with air and it reacts violently with water.
Illicit use: Acetylating agent used for converting morphine to heroin.
Where controlled or regulated: Hong Kong; Thailand.
Legitimate uses: Synthesis of pharmaceuticals and dyes; determination of water in
organic liquids; manufacturing lubricating grease and rubber; in polymerization
processes.
Manufacturing process: Reaction of acetic anhydride and hydrogen chloride; reaction of
acetic acid and phosphorus trichloride or 1,1,2-trichloroethylene or 1,1,1-trichloroethane
or sulfur mono-chloride or thionyl chloride.
Shipping and storage: Polyethylene lined drums in cool dry area with adequate
ventilation.
28
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, United Kingdom,
Switzerland. Asia: India, Japan.
Remarks: This chemical can be substituted for acetic anhydride which is the most widely
used acetylating agent in converting morphine to heroin. Acetyl chloride however is more
hazardous to use in this procedure than acetic anhydride and has rarely been encountered.
AMMONIUM CHLORIDE
Other names: Sal ammoniac, ammonium muriate; salmiac; Darammon; Amchlor.
Molecular formula: NH4Cl
Molecular weight: 53,5
Harmonized code: 2827.10.0000
Density: 1,53
Melting point: At 340¼C it goes from a solid to a gas and then back to a solid again
without going through the liquid phase.
Description: Colorless, odorless crystals or white granular powder, saline taste; absorbs
moisture from the air giving it a tendency to cake.
Illicit use: Extraction of morphine from opium for conversion to heroin.
Where controlled or regulated: Unknown.
Legitimate uses: Flux for coating iron with zinc; tinning; in dry cell batteries; dyeing;
freezing mixtures; electroplating; to clean soldering irons; lustering cotton; tanning; in
washing powders; for snow treatment (slows melting on ski slopes).
Manufacturing process: Direct reaction between hydrochloric acid and ammonia;
reaction with ammonia and carbon dioxide in aqueous sodium chloride.
Shipping and storage: Shipped in sacks or bags of paper or polyethylene; stored in
vessels or tanks which have internal coatings of epoxide or phenoxy resins.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Belgium, Spain,
France, United Kingdom. Asia: Philippines, Indonesia, Japan.
Remarks: It is used to adjust the pH in the extraction of morphine from opium. It is not a
critical chemical in this extraction process and other acid substitutes, such as acetic acid,
can be used.
AMMONIUM FORMATE
Other names: Formic acid ammonium salt.
Molecular formula: HCOONH4
Molecular weight: 63,06 (CH5NO2)
Harmonized code: 2915.12.0000
Density: 1,27
Melting point: 119-121¼C
Description: Crystals have a tendency to become a liquid by absorbing moisture from the
air.
Illicit use: Production of amphetamine and MDA.
Where controlled or regulated: Unknown
Legitimate uses: Chemical analysis, especially to precipitate base metals from salts of
the ÒnobleÓ metals (gold, platinum, etc.).
29
Manufacturing process: Prepared from formic acid and ammonia; from methyl formate
and ammonia.
Shipping and storage: Tightly closed containers.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, Italy, United Kingdom. Asia: Japan. North
America: United States.
Remarks: It is a precursor in the clandestine production of amphetamine and MDA from
P2P and 3,4-MDP2P respectively. Formic acid and ammonia are sometimes substituted
for ammonium formate.
AMMONIUM HYDROXIDE
Other names: Ammonia solution; ammonium hydrate; aqua ammonia; ÒSpirit of
HartshornÓ.
Molecular formula: NH4OH
Molecular weight: 35,0 (NH5O)
Harmonized code: 2814.20.0000
Density: 0,91
Description: Colorless liquid with a pungent, suffocating odor. Ammonium hydroxide is
a 25-30% solution of ammonia gas in water.
Hazards: Severely irritating to eyes; poisonous if ingested and possibly if inhaled.
Illicit use: Alkaline material used in the production of coca paste and cocaine base;
reagent for producing alkaline solutions in chemical syntheses.
Where controlled or regulated: Organization of American States (OAS)
Legitimate uses: Detergent, removing stains, bleaching calico printing, extracting plant
colors and alkaloids, manufacturing ammonium salts and aniline dyes.
Manufacturing process: Reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen under pressure with a
catalyst produces ammonia gas; ammonium hydroxide is produced by bubbling ammonia
gas into water.
Shipping and storage: Shipped in steel (sometimes stainless) vessels and polyethylene
canisters for ammonium hydroxide; stored and distributed as a liquefied gas in spherical
or cylindrical pressure vessels and insulated cylindrical tanks.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: United Kingdom, Estonia. Asia:
Singapore, Thailand. Central America: Mexico. South America: Brazil. Africa: Nigeria.
Middle East: Syria.
Remarks: This chemical has been frequently found at cocaine production sites. There
are many other liquid and solid alkaline substances which can be substituted for
ammonium hydroxide in cocaine production. Approximately 80% of the ammonia gas
produced in the U.S. is used in the production of fertilizers.
ANTHRANILIC ACID
Other names: Ortho-aminobenzoic, 1-amino-2-carboxybenzene, vitamin L1;
aminobenzoic acid; ortho-carboxyaniline.
Molecular formula: NH2C6H4COOH
Molecular weight: 137,13 (C7H7NO2)
CSA Code: 8530
2-
30
Harmonized code: 2922.49.3700
Density: 1,41
Melting point: 144-146¼C
Description: White to pale yellow crystalline powder with sweetish taste.
Hazards: Harmful is swallowed.
Illicit use:
Production of methaqualone and mecloqualone by forming Nacetylanthranilic.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA, Organization of American States (OAS), United
Nations.
Legitimate uses:
Chemical intermediate in the manufacture of dyes (indigo),
pharmaceuticals and perfumes; in general organic syntheses.
Manufacturing process: Reaction of isatoic anhydride and alkalis; reduction of orthonitrobenzoic acid.
Shipping and storage: Shipped in 150 lb. (68.2 kg) fiber drums and as bulk powder;
stored in tightly closed containers in cool dry areas.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Denmark. Asia:
Japan.
Remarks:
Anthranilic acid along with acetic acid is used to synthesize Nacetylanthranilic acid which is used in the clandestine production of methaqualone and
mecloqualone. Esters of anthranilic acid such as pindocaine are now controlled under the
CSA.
BENZALDEHYDE
Other names: Benzoic aldehide; artificial essential oil of almond; benzenecarbonal.
Molecular formula: C6H5CHO
Molecular weight: 106,12 (C7H6O)
CSA Code: 8526
Harmonized code: 2912.21.0000
Density: 1,05
Boiling point: 179¼C
Description: Strongly refractive liquid, becoming yellowish on storage; oil of almond
odor; burning aromatic taste.
Illicit use: Production of P2P and amphetamine.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA.
Legitimate uses: Manufacture of dyes, perfumes, cinnamic and mandelic acids,
pharmaceutical, agricultural and other organic chemicals; solvent; ingredient in flavors.
Manufacturing process: Hydrolysis of benzal chloride; partial oxidation of toluene.
Shipping and storage: Keep tightly closed and protected from heat.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Spain, Italy, The
Netherlands, United Kingdom. Asia: Japan.
Remarks: Oxidizes in air to form benzoic acid. It can be used to clandestinely
manufacture a nitropropene intermediate by a reaction with nitroethane and butylamine.
This intermediate can then be converted into P2P or amphetamine. This reaction has been
encountered in clandestine P2P and amphetamine labs.
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BENZENE
Other names: Benzol; cyclohexatriene, phenyl hydride.
Molecular formula: C6H6
Molecular weight: 78.11
Harmonized Codes: 2902.20.0000 (>90%) / 2707.10.0120 (<90%)
Density: 0,88
Boiling point: 80,1¼C
Description: Clear, colorless, highly flammable liquid.
Hazards:Vapors may cause dizziness, headache, excitement, and unconsciousness in high
concentrations; vapor is irritating to the eyes and mucous membranes; liquid may be
poisonous if absorbed through the skin or ingested; repeated inhalation of low
concentrations may cause severe or fatal blood diseases such as leukemia or a plastic
anemia; suspected carcinogen.
Illicit use:Solvent used during the conversion of cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride
and in PCP production.
Where controlled or regulated: Organization of American States (OAS).
Legitimate uses: Solvent for waxes, resins, oils; manufacture of ethylbenzene, cumene
and cyclohexane; manufacture of varnishes and lacquers and as a motor fuel component.
Manufacturing process: Decomposition of naphtha using heat, pressure and a platinum
catalyst; hydrogenation and desulfurization of pyrolysis gasoline (ethylene production
by-product); hydrodealkylation and disproportionation of toluene; and to a small extent,
the coking of coal.
Shipping and storage: Steel drums or tanks with adequate ventilation.
Manufacturers:North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Austria, Belgium,
Spain, Finland, France, Italy, The Netherlands, Portugal, United Kingdom. Asia: South
Korea, Indonesia, Japan, Singapore, Taiwan. Central America: Mexico.
Remarks: This chemical can be used to initially extract cocaine alkaloids from the coca
leaf but its high flammability and acute toxic properties make it a poor choice for this
process. Although it can be used as a solvent in the conversion of cocaine base to
hydrochloride; its presence in a sample could possibly result from it being an impurity in
another solvent which was used in the cocaine production process.
BENZYL CHLORIDE
Other names: Chloromethylbenzene; ¶-chlorotoluene.
Molecular formula: C6H5CH2Cl
Molecular weight: 126,58 (C7H7Cl)
Harmonized code: 2903.69.2000
Density: 1,10
Boiling point: 179¼C
Description: Colorless liquid which fumes in moist air; pungent odor; powerful
lachrymatory effect.
Hazards: Vapor is irritating to respiratory system, mucous membranes, eyes and skin;
liquid can cause burns; ingestion causes severe internal irritation and damage.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA, Organization of American States (OAS).
32
Legitimate uses: Manufacture of plasticizers, benzyl alcohol and phenylacetic acid;
production of quaternary ammonium salts for disinfectants and catalysts; benzyl ester for
the flavor and perfume industry; dyes of the triphenylmethane series; dibenzyl disulfide
(antioxidant) for lubricants; benzylphenol and benzylamines.
Manufacturing process: Chlorination of toluene.
Manufacturers:North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Belgium, Spain,
United Kingdom. Asia: Japan.
Remarks: It is used in one of the methods to manufacture P2P, a precursor of
amphetamine and methamphetamine. This method is not the primary method used to
produce P2P.
BENZYL CYANIDE
Other names: Benzeneacetonitrile; phenylacetonitrile,¶-tolunitrile; cyanotoluene; 2phenylacetonitrile.
Molecular formula: C6H5CH2CN
Molecular weight: 117,14 (C8H7N)
Harmonized code: 2926.90.4700
Density: 1,02
Boiling point: 233,5¼C
Description: Colorless oily liquid with an aromatic odor; rapidly absorbed through the
skin; toxicity due to presence of cyanide; insoluble in water.
Hazards: Vapor may cause faintness; headache and vomiting; liquid is irritating to eye
and skin; ingestion may cause irritation and poisoning.
Illicit use: Production of P2P.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA, Organization of American States (OAS).
Legitimate uses: Synthesis of phenylacetic acid used in the production of penicillin; in
general organic synthesis.
Manufacturing process: Reaction of benzyl chloride and sodium or potassium cyanide.
Manufacturers:North America: United States. Europe: Denmark, France, United
Kingdom. Asia: Japan.
Remarks:Benzyl cyanide is used in a several step synthesis to produce P2P. This method
is not frequently used.
n-BUTYL ACETATE
Other names: Acetic acid butyl ester.
Molecular formula: CH3COO(CH2)3CH3
Molecular weight:116,16 (C6H12O2)
Harmonized code: 2915.33.0000
Density: 0,88
Boiling point: 125-126¼C
Description: Colorless liquid with a pleasant odor.
Hazards: Vapors may irritate respiratory system and cause headache and nausea; liquid
irritates the eyes and may cause conjunctivitis; liquid irritates the skin and causes
dermatitis; if ingested may act as a central nervous system depressant.
33
Illicit use: Solvent used during the conversion of cocaine to cocaine hydrochloride.
Where controlled or regulated: Colombia.
Legitimate uses: Manufacture of lacquer, artificial leather, photographic film, plastics and
safety glass.
Manufacturing process: Reaction of acetic acid and n-butyl alcohol.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, Belgium, Spain, France, Italy, United Kingdom,
Switzerland. Asia: Japan, Taiwan. North America: United States.
Remarks:This chemical has been identified in cocaine hydrochloride samples seized in
the U.S. Its solvent properties are similar to ethyl ether except that it is less volatile.
n-BUTYL ALCOHOL
Other names: Butyl alcohol; 1-butanol; n-butanol; butyl hydroxide; 1-hydroxybutane;npropylcarbinol.
Molecular formula: CH3(CH2)3OH
Molecular weight: 74,12 (C4H10O)
Harmonized code: 2905.13.0000
Density: 0,81
Boiling point: 117-118¼C
Description: Colorless liquid with irritating vapors.
Hazards: Toxic by skin contact, ingestion and subcutaneous routes; severely irritating to
eyes and skin.
Illicit use: Solvent used in the conversion of cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride.
Where controlled or regulated: Colombia.
Legitimate uses: Solvent for fats, waxes, resins, shellac, varnish, gums; manufacture of
lacquers, rayon and detergents.
Manufacturing process: Hydrogenation of n-butyraldehyde with sodium borohydride.
Shipping and storage: Untreated mild steel or enameled steel drums; also stainless steel.
Manufacturers: North America: United States Europe: Germany, Spain, France, United
Kingdom, Sweden. Asia: South Korea, Japan.
Remarks: This chemical has not been identified in cocaine hydrochloride samples seized
in the U.S. but a closely related chemical, isobutyl alcohol, has been frequently identified
in these samples.
0sec- BUTYL ALCOHOL
Other names: 2-butanol; 2-hydroxybutane; methyl ethyl carbinol, butylene hydrate.
Molecular formula: CH3CH2CH(OH)CH3
Molecular weight: 74,12 (C4H10O)
Harmonized code: 2905.13.0000
Density: 0,80
Boiling point: 98-99,5¼C
Description: Colorless liquid with irritating vapors.
Hazards: Flammable; vapor may irritate the respiratory system and eyes , liquid irritate
eyes and may irritate the skin; if ingested may cause headache, dizziness, drowsiness and
narcosis.
34
Illicit use: Solvent used in the conversion of cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride.
Where controlled or regulated: Unknown.
Legitimate uses: Synthesis of MEK, flotation agents, flavors, perfumes dyestuffs,
wetting agents; production of industrial cleaners, paint removers, solvent for natural
resins, linseed and castors oils.
Manufacturing process: Hydration of 2-butene.
Shipping and storage: Untreated mild steel or enameled steel drums; stainless steel may
also be used.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, France, The
Netherlands, United Kingdom. Asia: Japan, Taiwan.
Remarks: Approximately 95% of U.S. produced sec-butyl alcohol is used to manufacture
methyl ethyl ketone by dehydrogenation and 5% is used for solvents and chemical
intermediates. This chemical has been identified in cocaine hydrochloride samples seized
in the United States.
CALCIUM CARBONATE
Other names: Carbonic acid calcium salt; Calcichew; Calcidia; Ligth Carbonate.
Molecular formula: CaCO3
Molecular weight: 100,09
Harmonized code: 2836.50.0000
Melting point: 825¼C (decomposes)
Description: Odorless, tasteless powder or crystals. Practically insoluble in water but
soluble in dilute acids.
Hazards: Severely irritating to eyes and moderately irritating to skin.
Illicit use: Alkaline material in the processing of cocaine base.
Where controlled or regulated: Unknown.
Legitimate uses: Antacid; calcium supplement; manufacture of paint, rubber, plastic,
paper; insecticides; inks; filler in the production of adhesives, matches, pencils, crayons,
linoleum, insulating compounds and welding rods; cosmetics, pharmaceuticals,
antibiotics and for removing acidity of wines.
Manufacturing process: Commercial calcium carbonate is produced from limestone.
Native mineral is purified by elutriation.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Austria, Belgium,
Denmark, Spain, Finland, France, Ireland, Italy, Norway, The Netherlands, Portugal,
United Kingdom, Sweden. Asia: South Korea, Malaysia, Japan, Thailand, Taiwan.
Remarks: Calcium carbonate is one of a number of alkaline substances such as
potassium or sodium carbonate which may be used in the production of cocaine and other
substances.
CALCIUM HYDROXIDE
Other names: Calcium hydrate; Slaked lime; custic lime, hydrated lime.
Molecular formula: Ca(OH)2
Molecular weight:74,1
Harmonized code: 2825.90.9000
35
Density: 2,34
Melting point: Decomposes
Description: Crystals or soft, odorless granules or powder with bitter alkaline taste;
slightly soluble in water; readily absorbs carbon dioxide forming calcium carbonate.
Hazards: Mildly toxic by ingestion; severely irritating to eyes, skin, mucous membranes
and respiratory system; causes dermatitis.
Illicit use: Alkaline material in the production of coca paste, cocaine base, morphine and
other substances.
Where controlled or regulated: Bolivia.
Legitimate uses: In mortar, plaster, cement and other building and paving materials;
lubricants, drilling fluids, pesticides, fireproof coatings, water based paints; water
treatment; manufacture of paper pulp.
Manufacturing process: Hydration of lime ( calcium oxide).
Shipping and storage: Tightly closed and dry containers.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, Belgium, Denmark, Spain, Finland, France, Ireland,
The Netherlands, United Kingdom, Sweden. Asia: Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia. North
America: United States.
Remarks: This chemical has been found at cocaine laboratory sites in South America.
Although it is used in the production of cocaine, many other alkaline materials can be
substituted in its place.
CALCIUM OXIDE
Other names: Lime; burnt lime; calx; quicklime.
Molecular formula: CaO
Molecular weight: 56,08
Harmonized code: 2825.90.9000
Density: 3.32
Melting point: 2614¼ C
Description: White or grayish-white granular powder or crystals; commercial grade
sometimes has yellowish or brownish tint.
Hazards: Dust irritates the skin, eyes and respiratory system; it is a strong caustic which
may cause severe irritation to skin and mucous membranes.
Illicit use: Alkaline material in the production of coca paste, cocaine base, morphine and
other substances.
Where controlled or regulated: Unknown
Legitimate uses: Building and construction materials; industrial chemicals; steel,
aluminum and magnesium production; glass manufacture; fungicides, insecticides;
drilling fluids and lubricants; water and sewage treatment.
Manufacturing process: Produced by heating limestone (natural calcium carbonate).
Shipping and storage: Tightly closed and dry containers.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, Belgium, Denmark, Spain, Finland, France, Ireland,
Italy, The Netherlands, Sweden, United Kingdom, Switzerland. Asia: Japan, Taiwan.
North America: United States.
36
Remarks: This material has been found at cocaine laboratory sites in South America. It is
an alkaline material which has been used in the production of cocaine. Many other
alkaline materials can be substituted in its place.
CHLOROFORM
Other names: Trichloromethane.
Molecular formula: CHCl3
Molecular weight: 119,39
Harmonized code: 2903.13.0000
Density: 1,48
Boiling point: 61-62¼C
Description: Colorless, nonflammable, very volatile liquid with a characteristic sweet
odor.
Hazards: Vapor has anesthetic properties causing drowsiness, giddiness, headache,
nausea, vomiting and unconsciousness; vapor and liquid irritate the eyes causing
conjunctivitis; liquid is poisonous if ingested; suspected carcinogen.
Illicit use: Solvent used in the production of cocaine, heroin and other clandestine drug
syntheses.
Where controlled or regulated: Organization of American States (OAS).
Legitimate uses: Production of Fluorocarbon-22; solvent for fats, oils, rubber,alkaloids,
waxes, resins; cleasing agent.
Manufacturing process: Reaction of methanol and hydrochloric acid to make methyl
chloride which is then reacted with chlorine to yield methylene chloride, chloroform and
carbon tetrachloride.
Shipping and storage:Vessels constructed of iron or steel, stainless steel for very high
purity products.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Asia: South Korea, Japan. Europe:
Germany, Spain, France, Italy, The Netherlands, United Kingdom.
Remarks: This chemical has been identified in cocaine hydrochloride samples seized in
the U.S. It is not well suited for use by itself in cocaine manufacture because both cocaine
base and cocaine hydrochloride are soluble in it. Chloroform is very widely used for
purification and clean-up procedures in chemical processes. Approximately 93% of the
chloroform produced in the U.S. is used to make the refrigerant Flourocarbon-22.
CYCLOHEXANE
Other names: Hexahydrobenzene, hexamethylene, hexanaphthene.
Molecular formula: (CH2)6
Molecular weight: 84,16 (C6H12)
Harmonized code: 2902.11.0000
Density: 0,77
Boiling point: 80,7¼C
Description: Flammable liquid with a solvent odor.
Hazards: May irritate the eyes, skin and respiratory system; inhalation of high
concentrations may cause narcosis; assumed to be an irritant and narcosis if ingested.
37
Illicit use: Solvent used in the conversion of cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride.
Where controlled or regulated: Unknown.
Manufacturing process: Hydrogenation of benzene.
Shipping and storage: Glass carboys, metal barrels or drums, tank cars, cargo tanks with
pressure relief valves.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Belgium, Spain,
France, Italy, The Netherlands, United Kingdom. Asia: South Korea, Japan, Taiwan.
Central America: Mexico. South America: Brazil.
Remarks: This chemical has been identified in cocaine hydrochloride samples seized in
the United States. It has solvent properties similar to toluene for use in the cocaine
production process.
CYCLOHEXANONE
Other names: Ketohexamethylene; pimelic ketone; Anone; Nadone; Hytrol O.
Molecular formula: (CH2)5CO
Molecular weight: 98,14 (C6H10O)
Harmonized code: 2914.22.1000
Density: 0,95
Boiling point: 155,6¼C
Description: Oily liquid with odor reminiscent o peppermint and acetone.
Hazards: Vapor is harmful.
Illicit use: Clandestine manufacture of PCP.
Where controlled or regulated: Unknown.
Legitimate uses: Solvent for cellulose acetate, nitrocellulose, natural resins, vinyl resins,
crude rubber, waxes, fats , shellac, and DDT; production of adipic acid for nylon.
Manufacturing process: Catalytic dehydrogenation or oxidation of cyclohexanol;
oxidation of cyclohexane.
Shipping and storage: Keep in tightly closed containers.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Belgium, Spain,
Italy, The Netherlands. Asia: Japan.
Remarks: Cyclohexanone is used along with sodium cyanide, piperidine, and sodium
metabisulfate to produce the PCP intermediate (PCC) which is then reacted with a
Grinard reagent (phenylmagnesium bromide) to synthesize PCP.
DIACETONE ALCOHOL
Other names: Pyranton; 4-hydroxy-4-methyl-2-pentanone; diacetonalcohol;4-hydroxy2-keto-4-methylpentane.
Molecular Formulas: CH3COCH2C(OH)(CH3)2
Molecular weight: 116,16 (C6H12O2)
Harmonized code: 2914.41.0000
Density: 0,94
Boiling point: 164-169¼C
Description: Colorless liquid with a mild odor.
38
Hazards: Highly flammable; vapor irritates eyes and respiratory system; liquid irritates
eyes and mucous membranes and is absorbed by the skin; liquid if ingested has a narcotic
effect.
Illicit use: Solvent used to produce acetone for cocaine production.
Where controlled or regulated: Colombia.
Legitimate uses: Solvent for cellulose acetate, nitrocellulose, fats, oils, waxes, resins;
preservative in pharmaceutical preparations; antifreeze solutions and hydraulic fluids;
intermediate for making mesityl oxide, methyl isobutyl ketone and hexylene glycol.
Manufacturing process: Condensation of acetone in the presence of a basic catalysts such
as barium hydroxide of calcium hydroxide.
Shipping and storage: Tank car or truck.
Manufacturers: North America: United States Europe: Germany, France, Italy, The
Netherlands, United Kingdom. Asia: Japan, Taiwan. South America: Brazil.
Remarks: There is substantial evidence that diacetone alcohol has been used to produce
acetone. This can be accomplished by the reaction of diacetone alcohol with an alkaline
material or with a catalyst such as aluminum or zinc oxide.
DIETHYLAMINE
Other names: N-ethylethanamine.
Molecular formula: (C2H5)2NH
Molecular weight: 73,14 (C4H11N)
Harmonized code: 2921.12.0000
Density: 0,71
Boiling point: 55,5¼C
Description: Strong alkaline liquid.
Hazards: Flammable; vapor irritates eyes and respiratory system; liquid irritates skin and
eyes; may be poisonous if ingested.
Illicit use: Manufacture of diethyltryptamine (DET) and LSD.
Where controlled or regulated: Unknown.
Legitimate uses: Production of vulcanization accelerators; in flotation agents, resins,
dyes and pharmaceuticals.
Manufacturing process: Produced from ethanol and ammonia or ethyl iodide and
ammonia.
Shipping and storage: Stored in carbon steel or stainless steel containers; small amounts
stored in glass or ceramic vessels.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: France, United Kingdom.
Asia: Japan.
Remarks: This precursor is frequently encountered because there has been very few
seizures of clandestine diethyltryptamine laboratories in the U.S. and virtually no seizures
of clandestine laboratories producing LSD. The LSD operations in the U.S. have made
dosage forms (tablets, blotter paper, etc).
39
EPHEDRINE
Other names: 2-methylamino-1-phenyl-1-propanol; 1-phenyl-1-hydroxy-2methylaminopropane; 1-phenyl-2-methylaminopropanol.
Molecular formula: (C6H5)CH(OH)CH(NHCH3)CH3
Molecular weight: 165,23 (C10H15NO)
CSA code: 8113
Harmonized code: 2939.40.0050
Melting point: 40-42¼C (I-ephedrine)
Boiling point: 255¼C (I-ephedrine)
Description: Racemic ephedrine and its hydrochloride and sulfate salts are white
crystals; I-ephedrine is a waxy hygroscopic solid, crystals or granules with a soapy feel;
I-ephedrine hydrochloride and sulfate are ortho-rhombic needles which are affected by
light.
Hazards: Harmful is swallowed in large quantities; do not breathe dust; avoid contact
with skin and eyes.
Illicit use: Production of methamphetamine/N-methylcathinone.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA, United Nations, Organization of American States
(OAS).
Legitimate uses: I-ephedrina is used in medicinal preparations as a bronchodilator.
Manufacturing process: I-ephedrine can be extracted from several species of the plant
genus EPHEDRA; I-ephedrine is produced synthetically by fermentation of a mixture of
benzaldehyde and molasses, followed by dehydrogenation in a methylamine solution
(Meubery Process). I can also be synthesized by the cataylic hydrogenation of (-)-1phenyl-2-methylaminopropanone.
Shipping and storage: Keep tightly closed in cool, dry place and out of light.
Manufacturers:Europe: Germany, Czech Republic. Asia: CIS States, India, Japan,
China.
Remarks: Ephedrine is the primary precursor used in the clandestine synthesis of
methamphetamine in the U.S. The process involves the reduction of ephedrine with
hydroidic acid in the presence of red phosphorus. The reaction is relatively simple and
the yield is high. Ephedrine is an ingredient in over-the-counter medications and lookalike preparations. There are no manufacturers of ephedrine in the U.S.
ERGONOVINE
Other names: Ergometrine; dextrolysergic acid levo-2-propanolamide.
Molecular formula: C19H23N3O2
Molecular weight: 325,39
Harmonized code: 2939.60.0000; 2939.61 (WCO proposal)
Melting point: 162¼C
Description: White crystalline material which darkens and decomposes on exposure to
light; hydrochloride, maleate and tartrate salts are also crystalline.
Hazards: In large quantities it is highly toxic and may cause vomiting,diarrhea,
unquenchable thirst, confusion, and unconsciousness; chronic poisoning from ingestion
of grain contaminated with fungus, ergot.
40
Illicit use: Production of LSD.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA, United Nations, Organization of American States
Legitimate uses: An oxytocic for obstetrical use and as a vasoconstrictors particularly in
the treatment of migraine headaches.
Manufacturing process: Extraction from ergot (fungus that grows on grain); synthesis
from dextrolysergic acid and levo (+)-2-amino-1-propanol.
Shipping and storage: In tightly closed ambar colored containers in cool dry area.
Manufacturers: Europe: Switzerland. Asia: India.
Remarks: Ergonovine can be used to produce lysergic acid which in turn is used to
synthesize LSD or it can be used in a direct synthesis of LSD. Small amounts (less than
100 micrograms) of LSD produce significant hallucinogenic activity therefore very little
ergonovine is needed to yield a substantial number of dosage units of LSD.
ERGOTAMINE
Other names: 12-hydroxy-2-methyl-5-alpha-(phenylmethyl)-ergotaman-3,6,18-trione.
Molecular formula: C33H35N5O5
Molecular weight: 581.65
Harmonized code: 2939.60.0000; 2939.62 (WCO Proposal)
Melting point: 212-214¼C
Description: White hygroscopic crystalline material which darkens and decomposes on
exposure to air and light. Hydrochloride, succinate and tartrate salts are also crystalline.
Hazards: In high concentration it is highly toxic and may cause vomiting, diarrhea,
unquenchable thirst, confusion and unconsciousness; chronic poisoning from ingestion of
grain contaminated with the fungus, ergot.
Illicit use: Production of LSD.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA, United Nations, Organization of American States
(OAS).
Legitimate uses: An oxytocic in obstetric and as a vasoconstrictor, particularly in the
treatment of migraine headaches.
Manufacturing process: Extraction from ergot.
Shipping and storage: Shipped as a bulk powder: stored in tightly closed amber-colored
containers in cool dry areas.
Manufacturers:Europe: Switzerland. Asia: India.
Remarks: Ergotamine can be used to produce lysergic acid, which in turn is used to
synthesize LSD or it can be used in a direct synthesis of LSD. Small amounts (less than
100 micrograms)of LSD produce significant hallucinogenic activity therefore very little
ergotamine is needed to yield a substantial number of dosage units of LSD.
ETHYL ACETATE
Other names: Acetic ether; acetic acid ethyl ester; vinegar naptha; ethyl acetic ester;
ethyl ethanoate; acetidin.
Molecular formula: CH3COOCH2CH3
Molecular weight: 88,1 (C4H8O2)
Harmonized code: 2915.31.0000
41
Density: 0,90
Boiling point:77¼C
Description: Clear, volatile, liquid with a fruity pleasant odor.
Hazards: Highly flammable; vapor may irritate the eyes and respiratory system; liquid
irritates the eyes and mucous surfaces; prolonged inhalation may cause kidney and liver
damage.
Illicit use: Solvent used in the conversion of cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride.
Where controlled or regulated: Colombia
Legitimate uses: Solvent for nitrocellulose, varnishes and lacquers; artificial fruit
essences; manufacture of smokeless powder, artificial leather, artificial silk, perfumes.
Manufacturing process: Oxidation/reduction reaction of acetaldehyde in the presence of
aluminum or sodium alkoxide; by-product in oxidation of butane or formation of
polyvinylbutral (PVB); direct esterification of acetic acid.
Shipping and storage: Glass carboys, metal barrels or drums, tank cars, cargo tanks with
pressure relief devices.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Belgium, Spain, Italy,
United Kingdom, Sweden, Switzerland. Asia: South Korea, Indonesia, Japan, Taiwan.
Central America: Mexico. South America: Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Peru.
Remarks: From 1989 to 1993, this chemical has been found in a significant number of
cocaine hydrochloride samples seized in the United States. It is usually found in
combination with other solvents. It has properties similar to ethyl ether for use in the
cocaine production process. Ethyl acetate can easily be produced by a combination of
acetic acid, ethyl alcohol and sulfuric acid.
ETHYL ALCOHOL
Other names: Ethanol; anhydrous alcohol ; ethyl hidroxide, methyl carbinol.
Molecular formulas: CH3CH2OH; C2H5OH
Molecular weight: 46,07 (C2H6O)
Harmonized code: 2207.10.6000 / 2207.20.0000
Density: 0,79
Boiling point: 78,5¼C
Description: Highly flammable; in high concentrations causes impaired perception and
in coordination.
Illicit use: Solvent used in the conversion of cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride.
Hazards: Highly flammable; in high concentrations causes impaired perception and
incoordination.
Where controlled or regulated: Organization of American States (OAS).
Legitimate uses: Alcoholic beverages; industrial solvent; gasoline octane booster;
perfumery, organic syntheses and pharmaceuticals.
Manufacturing process: Fermentation of starch, sugar and other carbohydrates; hydration
of ethylene.
Shipping and storage: Railroad tank cars, tank trucks, drums and smaller glass or metal
containers; some drums may be lined with phenolic resin.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, France, United
Kingdom. Asia: Japan, South Korea. South America: Argentina, Brazil, Chile.
42
Remarks: This chemical has been identified in the cocaine hydrochloride samples seized
in the U.S. This solvent is not essential to the cocaine hydrochloride since other alcohols
such a methyl isopropyl, etc. can be used. This solvent is used in combination with water
insoluble solvents. Ethanol can be used in a process with sulfuric acid to produce ethyl
ether.
ETHYLAMINE
Other names: Monoethylamine; aminoethane; ethanamine.
Molecular formula: CH3CH2NH2
Molecular weight: 45,08 (C2H7N)
Harmonized code: 2921.19.1000
Density: 0,706 (at 0¼C)
Description: At room temperature ethylamine is a gas with an ammonia-like odor; below
16¼C it is a highly flammable and corrosive liquid; the hydrochloride and hydriodide
salts are hygroscopic crystals.
Hazards: Vapor irritates the mucous membranes, respiratory system and eyes; in high
concentrations it may effect the central nervous system; liquid may irritate eyes and skin;
if ingested may be irritating and poisonous.
Illicit use: Used with P2P, to synthesize N-ethylanphetamine and with the 3,4methylendioxyphenyl-2-propanone to synthesize MDE; also used to make
diethyltryptamine (DET).
Where controlled or regulated: CSA.
Legitimate uses: Production of herbicides, dyes and pharmaceuticals; also used as a
stabilizer for rubber latex; in resin chemistry.
Manufacturing process: Produced from ethanol and ammonia or ethyl iodide and
ammonia.
Shipping and storage: Stored and shipped in carbon steel containers; small amounts can
be kept in glass or ceramic; since ethylamine is a vapor at room temperature it is stored
under pressure; often produced in 50% or 70% solutions to facilitate storage and
shipping; shelf life very long but should be stored under nitrogen to prevent contact with
carbon dioxide and atmospheric moisture; keep out of light.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Belgium, France,
United Kingdom. Asia: Japan.
Remarks: Ethylamine is not to be confused with diethylamine used in the synthesis of
LSD, or triethylamine.
N-ETHYLEPHEDRINE
Other names: Etafedrine; 1-ethylephedrine.
Molecular formula: (C6H5)CH(OH)CH (N[CH3] [C2H5])CH3
Molecular weight: 193,28 (C12H19NO)
Harmonized code: 2939.40.0050
Melting point: 183-184¼C
Illicit use: Production of N-ethyl-N-methylamphetamine.
Where controlled or regulated: Removed from CSA 04/16/1994.
43
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany.
Remarks: There have been no documented purchases or seizures of this precursor or
seizures of this precursor or its potential illicit product, N-ethyl-N-methylamphetamine,
in the U.S. There were also no manufacturers or suppliers of this precursor located in the
U.S.
ETHYL ETHER
Other names: 1,1Õ-Oxybisethane; ethyl oxide; diethyl oxide; ethoxyethane; sulfuric
ether; diethyl ether.
Molecular formula: (C2H5)2O
Molecular weight: 74,12 (C4H10O)
Harmonized code: 2909.11.0000
Density: 0,71
Boiling point: 34,6¼C
Description: Colorless, very volatile liquid with a sweet pungent odor and burning taste.
Ether vapors are heavier than air.
Hazards: Highly flammable; vapor may cause drowsiness, dizziness, mental confusion,
faintness, and in high concentrations, unconsciousness; ingestion may also produce these
effects; continued inhalation of low concentrations may cause loss of appetite; dizziness,
fatigue and nausea; repeated inhalation or swallowing may lead to “ether habit” with
symptoms resembling chronic alcoholism.
Illicit use: Processing of heroin base to heroin hydrochloride and cocaine base to cocaine
hydrochloride.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA, United Nations, Organization of American States
(OAS).
Legitimate uses: Solvent or extractant for fats, waxes, oils, perfumes, resins, dyes, gums
and alkaloids; manufacture of munitions and plastics; denaturant in several denatured.
Manufacturing process: Dehydration of ethanol; hydration of ethylene; both processes
are carried out in the presence of sulfuric acid.
Shipping and storage: Shipped in metal containers, drums, tank cars and boxcars; stored
in cool, dark, well ventilated areas in tightly closed inert containers for limited time
periods.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Spain, France,
Norway. Asia: Japan, Taiwan.
Remarks: Commonly referred to as ether. Ethyl ether is a solvent used in the conversion
of cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride and in other clandestine processes where
hydrochloride salts are produced. It may be used in conjunction with a water miscible
solvent such as acetone. Its presence has markedly decreased in cocaine hydrochloride
samples seized in the United States. It can be synthesized from sulfuric acid and ethanol.
ETHYLIDENE DIACETATE
Other names: 1,1-Ethanediol diacetate; 1,1-diacetoxyethane.
Molecular formula: (CH3COO)2CHCH3
Molecular weight: 146,14 (C6H10O4)
44
Harmonized code: 2915.39.9000
Density: 1,06
Boiling point: 167-169¼C
Freezing point: 18,9¼C
Description: Liquid with a sharp, fruity odor.
Illicit use: Acetylation of morphine to produce heroin.
Where controlled or regulated: Some Southeast Asian countries.
Legitimate uses: Agricultural fungicide; intermediate in the production of vinyl acetate.
Manufacturing process: Addition of acetic acid to acetylene in the presence of mercury
salts; heating acetaldehyde and acetic anhydride.
Manufacturers:Europe: United Kingdom. Asia: India.
Remarks: Ethylidene diacetate is used in the acetylation of morphine to produce
diacetylmorphine (heroin). It is not the acetylating agent but is decomposed to acetic
anhydride when heated with sulfuric acid. Acetic anhydride is the acetylating agent.
Ethylidene diacetate has been found at clandestine heroin production sites.
N-ETHYLPSEUDOEPHEDRINE
Molecular formula: (C6H5)C(OH)HCH(N[CH3][C2H5])CH3
Molecular weight: 193,28 (C12H19NO)
Harmonized code: 2939.40.0050
Illicit use: Production of N-ethyl,N-methylamphetamine.
Where controlled or regulated: Removed from CSA effective 04/16/ 1994.
Manufacturers: Unknown.
Remarks: There have been no documented purchases or seizures of this precursor or its
potential illicit product, N-ethyl,N-methylamphetamine, in the U.S. There are no known
manufacturers or suppliers of this precursor located in the U.S.
FORMAMIDE
Other names: Methanamide, Carbamaldehyde.
Molecular formula: HCONH2
Molecular weight: 45,04 (CH3NO)
Harmonized code: 2924.10.1050
Density: 1,13
Boiling point: 210,5¼C
Freezing point: 2,5¼C
Description: Slightly viscous, odorless, colorless liquid. Industrial grades may have a
slight ammonia odor.
Hazards: Poisonous by skin contact and or if injected; moderately toxic by ingestion;
irritating to skin, eyes and mucous membranes.
Illicit use: Precursor in the production of amphetamine and MDA.
Where controlled or regulated: Unknown.
Legitimate uses: Ionizing solvent; manufacture of formic esters; as softener for paper;
used in animal glues and water soluble gums.
45
Manufacturing process: Produced from carbon monoxide and ammonia at high
temperature and pressure.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany. Asia: Japan.
Remarks: It is used with ammonia in place of formic acid in a reaction with P2P or 3,4MD P2P to form amphetamine of MDA.
FORMIC ACID
Other names: Aminic acid, Methanoic acid.
Molecular formula: HCOOH
Molecular weight: 46,02 (CH2O2)
Harmonized code: 2915.11.0000
Density: 1,22
Boiling point: 100,5¼C
Freezing point: 8,3¼C
Description: Colorless liquid with a pungent odor. It is a strong reducing agent.
Hazards: Vapor is irritating to respiratory system and eyes; liquid causes burns to eyes;
ingestion produces severe internal irritation and damage; dangerously caustic to skin;
chronic absorption causes albuminuria/hematuria.
Illicit use: Production amphetamine and MDA.
Where controlled or regulated: Unknown.
Legitimate uses: Decalcifier; reducer in dyeing wool fast colors; dehairing and plumping
hides; tanning; electroplating; coagulating rubber latex; aid in regenerating old rubber; in
chemical analysis.
Manufacturing process: Produced by heating carbon monoxide and sodium hydroxide
under pressure and decomposing the sodium formate with sulfuric acid.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Finland, Italy,
Norway, United Kingdom, Asia: Korea, Indonesia, Japan, Taiwan.
Remarks: It is used with ammonia in place of formamide in a reaction with P2P or 3,4methylenodioxyphenyl-2-propanone to form amphetamine or MDA.
HEXANE
Other names: n-hexane, caproyl hydride, hexyl hydride.
Molecular formula: CH3(CH2)4CH3
Molecular weight:86,17 (C6H14)
Harmonized code: 2901.10.4000
Density: 0.66
Boiling point:69¼C
Description: Colorless, very volatile liquid with faint peculiar odor.
Hazards: Flammable; vapors may irritate respiratory system and in high concentrations
have a narcotic effect; may cause chronic effects; such as loss of sensation in hands and
feet.
Illicit use: Solvent used in the conversion of cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride.
Where controlled or regulated: Colombia.
46
Legitimate uses: Determining refractive indices of minerals; filling for thermometers;
quick drying adhesives and rubber cement; vegetable oil extraction.
Manufacturing process: Refined from petroleum.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, Belgium, Spain, France, Portugal. Asia: South Korea,
Japan, Taiwan. North America: United States.
Remarks: This chemical has been identified in cocaine hydrochloride samples seized in
the U.S, and has been reported by authorities in Latin American countries. It has solvent
properties similar to toluene in the cocaine production process except that it is more
volatile. Hexane must be used in conjunction with water miscible solvent such as
acetone.
HYDRIODIC ACID
Other names: Hydrogen iodide (aqueous solution).
Molecular formula: HI
Molecular weight: 127,91
Harmonized code: 2811.19.6050
Density: 1,5 (47%) / 1,7 (57%)
Boiling point: 127¼C (57%)
Description: Corrosive acid which is colorless when freshly prepared. However, upon
exposure to light and air it turn yellow to brown. It is a solution of hydrogen iodide gas
in water.
Hazards: Vapor is irritating to respiratory system, skin and eyes; liquid causes severe
burns to eyes and skin; if ingested, may cause severe internal irritation and damage.
Illicit use: Reducing agent in the clandestine manufacture of methamphetamine from
ephedrine or pseudoephedrine.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA.
Legitimate uses: Manufacture of organic and inorganic iodo compounds; removal of
iodine from iodo compounds; disinfectant; chemical reagent; pharmaceutical application
in adding iodine to iodine-deficient human diets. (Hydriodic Acid Syrup).
Manufacturing process: Hydrogen iodide gas in water, iodine in the presence of
hydrogen sulfide; iodine with red phosphorus and water.
Shipping and storage: Keep protected from air and light and at temperatures below
30¼C.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany. Asia: Japan.
Remarks: Main reducing agent in methamphetamine synthesis, however, other reducing
agents can be used. There has been increasing production of hydriodic acid in clandestine
laboratories from iodine, red phosphorus and water. Produced in various concentrations
(e.g. 47% HI, 57% HI).
HYDROCHLORIC ACID
Other names: Muriatic acid, hydrogen chloride
Molecular formula: HCl
Molecular weight: 36,46
Harmonized code: 2806.10.0000
47
Density: 1,20 (39,1% solution)
Boiling point: 108,6 ¼C (20,2% solution)
Description: A solution of hydrogen chloride gas in water. Corrosive, colorless to light
yellow liquid from traces of iron, chlorine and organic matter. Fumes in air. Reagent
grade contains 36.5%-38% hydrochloric acid. Hydrogen chloride gas is also available.
Hazards: Inhalation may cause coughing or choking, inflammation and ulceration of the
respiratory tract; concentrated solutions cause severe burns; strongly corrosive, irritant to
the mucous membranes, eyes and respiratory tract; exposure to vapors may result in
pulmonary edema and possibly death.
Illicit use: Manufacture of hydrochloride salts of clandestinely produced controlled
substances, including cocaine.
Where controlled or regulated: Organization of American States (OAS), CSA, United
Nations.
Legitimate use: Production of chlorides and hydrochlorides; neutralization of basic
systems; catalyst and solvent in organic syntheses.
Manufacturing process: Produced industrially by the interaction of sodium chloride and
sulfuric acid; from sodium chloride, sulfur dioxide, air and water vapor; as
a by-product of the synthesis of chlorinated hydrocarbons.
Shipping and storage: Carboys in boxes, steel portable tanks, lined with a polyethylene,
for hydrochloric acid not over 20%; tank cars for acid not over 30%; cargo tanks lined
with rubber or equally acid-resistant material, glass bottles, polyethylene containers,
metal drums (lined); store below 30¼C in airtight containers of glass or other inert
material.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Austria, Belgium,
Spain, Finland, France, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Norway, The Netherlands, Portugal,
United Kingdom, Sweden, Switzerland. Asia: South Korea, Philippines, Indonesia,
Japan, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Taiwan. Central America: Mexico. South
America: Bolivia, Colombia.
Remarks: An acid is essential in the production of water-soluble salts of controlled
substances. However, other acids such as sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, etc. can be used
for this purpose. Cocaine hydrochloride is the most commonly encountered salt of
cocaine. A small percentage of the hydrochloric acid produced in the U.S. is exported. It
is easily obtainable in retail outlets as muriatic acid. Hydrochloric acid can be produced
in clandestine laboratories by the reaction of sodium chloride and sulfuric acid.
Hydrochloride gas can be bubbled into an organic solvent containing the base form of the
drug to form the hydrochloride salt.
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE
Other names: Hydrogen dioxide; hydroperoxide; Albone; Hioxyl.
Molecular formula: H2O2
Molecular weight: 34.02
Harmonized code: 2847.00.0000
Density: 1.11 (30% solution)
Boiling point: 152¼ C
Freezing point:-0.4¼C
48
Description: Colorless, bitter tasting and rather unstable liquid. Marketed as a solution
in water in concentrations of 3-90% by weight. Strong oxidizing agent.
Hazards: Irritating and caustic in high concentrations to mucous membranes, eyes and
skin; ingestion may cause acute distension of the stomach, nausea, vomiting and internal
bleeding; may cause burns to skin and mucous membranes.
Illicit use: Oxidizing agent in the production of cocaine.
Where controlled or regulated: Unknown
Legitimate uses: 90% solution is used in rocket propulsion; bleaching agent in food;
strong oxidizer; topical antiseptic and cleansing agent (dilute solution); in pharmaceutical
preparations; mouthwashes, sanitary lotions (dilute solutions).
Manufacturing process: Catalytic reduction of 2-ethylanthraquinone.
Shipping and storage: Preserve in partially-filled containers having a vent in the closure
and store in a cool place; glass bottles, aluminum drums with vented closure in the top
head, not over 30 gallons; polyethylene containers with vent closures; tank cars and cargo
tanks fabricated of aluminum.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, Austria, Belgium, Spain, Finland, France, Italy,
Norway, The Netherlands, Portugal, United Kingdom, Sweden. Asia: South Korea,
Indonesia, Japan, Thailand, Taiwan. North America: United States.
Remarks: Hydrogen peroxide is commonly referred to as peroxide. It can be used as a
substitute for potassium permanganate to oxidize cinnamoylcocaine in the illicit cocaine
process. It is harder to use due to lack of color change as with potassium permanganate. It
has been found at cocaine laboratory sites.
IODINE
Molecular formula: I2
Molecular weight: 253,82
Harmonized code: 2801.20.0000
Density: 4,93
Melting point: 113.6¼C
Description: Bluish-black scales or plates. It has a characteristic odor, a sharp acrid taste
and produces a violet corrosive vapor.
Hazards: Vapor is irritating to respiratory system and eyes, solid irritates the eyes and
may burn the skin; if ingested there may be severe internal irritation and damage.
Illicit use: Production of methamphetamine and PCP.
Where controlled or regulated: Unknown.
Legitimate uses: Manufacture of iodine solutions; germicides, fungicides and antiseptics;
reduces friction of hard surfaces including stainless steel and glass; reagent in analytical
chemistry; manufacture of iodide salts.
Manufacturing process: Extracted from Cholean nitrate-bearing earth (Caliche) and from
seaweed.
Manufacturers: Europe: The Netherlands, United Kingdom. Asia: Japan, Indonesia.
North America: United States.
Remarks: Iodine and water can be mixed with hydrogen sulfide to produce hydriodic
acid which, in turn, is the primary reducing agent for methamphetamine synthesis. This is
a hazardous procedure. Iodine is also mixed with red phosphorus and water to make
49
hydriodic acid. In a clandestine laboratory setting, a little acid may be added to this
reaction mixture
ISOBUTYL ALCOHOL
Other names: Isobutanol; 2-methyl-1-propanol; isopropylcarbinol; 1hydroxymethylpropane.
Molecular formulas: (CH3)2CHCH2OH(C4H9OH)
Molecular weight: 74,12 (C4H10O)
Density: 0,81
Boiling point: 108¼C
Harmonized code: 2905.14.5010
Description: Colorless liquid.
Hazards: Flammable; vapor irritates respiratory system, and in high concentrations
produces narcotic-like effects; liquid irritates eyes and is harmful if ingested.
Illicit use: Solvent used in the conversion of cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride.
Where controlled or regulated: Unknown.
Legitimate uses: Manufacture of esters for fruit flavoring essences; solvent in paint and
varnish removers.
Manufacturing process:
Extracted from fusel oil; fermentation carbohydrates;
hydrogenation of isobutyraldehyde; single stage reaction from propylene.
Shipping and storage: Polyethylene bottles and drums, metal tanks.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Spain, France,
United Kingdom. Asia: South Korea, Japan.
Remarks: Isobutyl alcohol can be used to dissolve hydrochloric acid for use in the
production of cocaine hydrochloride. This solvent is not essential in the cocaine
hydrochloric production, since other alcohols such ethyl, isopropyl and methyl can be
used. It has been found in cocaine hydrochloride samples seized in the United States.
ISOPROPYL ALCOHOL
Other names: 2-propanol; isopropanol; dimethylcarbinol; petrohol; IPA.
Molecular formulas: (CH3)2CHOH / C3H7OH
Molecular weight: 60,09 (C3H8O)
Harmonized code: 2905.12.0050
Density: 0,78
Boiling point: 82,5¼C
Description: Colorless, liquid with a slightly bitter taste.
Hazards: Flammable; inhalation of the vapor in high concentrations and ingestion of the
liquid may result in headache, dizziness, mental depression, nausea, vomiting, narcosis,
anesthesia, and coma; liquid may damage eyes severely.
Illicit use: Recrystallization of hydrochloride salts of some clandestinely produced
controlled substances; solvent used in the conversion of cocaine base to cocaine
hydrochloride.
Where controlled or regulated: Colombia.
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Legitimate uses: Solvent, extractant, dehydration, and defrosting agent; disinfectant; feed
stock for manufacture of acetone and other compounds; premium grade IPA is
formulated into skin lotions, hair care products, nail polish and other personal care
products.
Manufacturing process: Sulfuric acid oxidation of propylene; hydrogenation of acetone.
Shipping and storage: Polyethylene bottles and drums, metal tanks.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Spain, France, The
Netherlands, United Kingdom. Asia: South Korea, Japan, Singapore, Taiwan. Central
America: Mexico. South America: Argentina, Brazil, Peru, Venezuela.
Remarks: Isopropyl alcohol can be used to incorporate hydrochloric acid into the
solvents used in the production of cocaine hydrochloride. IPA is not essential in cocaine
hydrochloride production, since other alcohols (ethyl, isobutyl, and methyl) can be used.
Isopropyl alcohol has been found in combination with other solvents in liquid samples
obtained from South America and in cocaine hydrochloride samples seized in the United
States. It can be used as a starting material in the production of acetone.
ISOPROPYL ACETATE
Other names: 2-Propylacetate; acetic acid isopropyl ester.
Molecular formula: CH3COOO.CH(CH3)2
Molecular weight: 102,13 (C5H10O2)
Harmonized code:2915.39.4550
Density: 0,87
Boiling point: 89¼C
Description: Colorless liquid with mild fruity smell.
Illicit use: Solvent used in the conversion of cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride.
Where controlled or regulated: Colombia.
Manufacturing process: Esterification of acetic acid with isopropyl alcohol and sulfuric
acid as a catalyst.
Shipping and storage: Store and transport in steel or aluminum containers, or tank cars
under nitrogen.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: France, United Kingdom. Asia:
Japan.
Remarks: Isopropyl acetate has been found in a few cocaine hydrochloride samples
seized in the U.S.
ISOPROPYL ALCOHOL
Other names: 2-propanol; isopropanol; dimethylcarbinol; petrohol; IPA.
Molecular formulas: (CH3)2CHOH / C3H7OH
Molecular weight: 60,09 (C3H8O)
Harmonized code: 2905.12.0050
Density: 0,78
Boiling point: 82,5¼C
Description: Colorless, liquid with a slightly bitter taste.
51
Hazards: Flammable; inhalation of the vapor in high concentrations and ingestion of the
liquid may result in headache, dizziness, mental depression, nausea, vomiting, narcosis,
anesthesia, and coma; liquid may damage eyes severely.
Illicit use: Recrystallization of hydrochloride salts of some clandestinely produced
controlled substances; solvent used in the conversion of cocaine base to cocaine
hydrochloride.
Where controlled or regulated: Colombia.
Legitimate uses: Solvent, extractant, dehydration, and defrosting agent; disinfectant; feed
stock for manufacture of acetone and other compounds; premium grade IPA is
formulated into skin lotions, hair care products, nail polish and other personal care
products.
Manufacturing process: Sulfuric acid oxidation of propylene; hydrogenation of acetone.
Shipping and storage: Polyethylene bottles and drums, metal tanks.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Spain, France, The
Netherlands, United Kingdom. Asia: South Korea, Japan, Singapore, Taiwan. Central
America: Mexico. South America: Argentina, Brazil, Peru, Venezuela.
Remarks: Isopropyl alcohol can be used to incorporate hydrochloric acid into the
solvents used in the production of cocaine hydrochloride. IPA is not essential in cocaine
hydrochloride production, since other alcohols (ethyl, isobutyl, and methyl) can be used.
Isopropyl alcohol has been found in combination with other solvents in liquid samples
obtained from South America and in cocaine hydrochloride samples seized in the United
States. It can be used as a starting material in the production of acetone.
ISOSAFROLE
Other names: 1,2-(methylenodioxy)-4-propenylbenzene; 5-(1-propenyl)-1,3benzodioxole.
Molecular formula: (CH2OO)C6H3(CH=CHCH3)
Molecular weight:162,18 (C10H10O2)
Harmonized code: 2932.90.6000
Density: 1,12
Boiling point:253¼C (trans)
Melting point:8¼C (trans)
Description: Liquid with the odor of anise. Isosafrole may exist in cis or trans isomeric
forms. The trans form is more stable. Generally, a mixture of both forms is found.
Hazards: Poison by intravenous routes; moderately toxic by ingestion and subcutaneous
routes; suspected carcinogen; irritates skin; when heated to decomposition, it emits acrid
smoke and fumes.
Illicit use: Clandestine production of MDA, MDMA, MDE or N-hydroxy-MDA.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA, United Nations (UN).
Legitimate uses: Production of perfumes and fragrances, root beer and sarsaparillas
flavors and general organic syntheses.
Manufacturing process: Reaction of safrole with alcoholic potassium hydroxide .
Manufacturers: Unknown.
Remarks: Isosafrole is used either to synthesize 3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl-2-propanone
or piperonal, both of which are intermediates in the synthesis of MDA, MDMA, MDE
52
and N-hydroxy-MDA. Isosafrole has been identified in U.S. clandestine laboratories
producing MDA or MDMA. It is available from U.S. chemical suppliers such as Aldrich.
KEROSENE
Other names: Deobase; Kerosine.
Harmonized code: 2710.00.2000
Density: about 0,8
Description: Clear, colorless to pale yellow, mobile, oily liquid. A mixture of
hydrocarbons, chiefly of methane series.
Hazards: Flammable; inhalation of high concentrations causes headache, drowsiness and
coma; ingestion causes irritation with vomiting and diarrhea; induction of vomiting
following ingestion is contraindicated.
Illicit use: Extraction of cocaine from coca leaves.
Where controlled or regulated: Unknown.
Legitimate uses: Fuel (stoves and lamps), degreaser and cleaner. Solvent in cosmetics
and insecticides.
Manufacturing process: Fractionation of petroleum.
Manufacturers: Petroleum processors.
Remarks: Kerosene is used to extract cocaine from coca leaves. It is the most widely
used organic liquid in cocaine extraction. Other organic liquids, such as gasoline, can be
used, however, the physical properties (flammability and high volatility) make some of
these alternative organic compounds less desirable to use.
LYSERGIC ACID
Other names: 9,10-didehydro-6-methylergoline-8-carboxylic acid.
Molecular formula: C16H16N2O2
Molecular weight: 268,32
Harmonized code: 2939.60.0000
Melting point: 240¼C (decomposition)
Description: Crystalline material which is only sparingly soluble in water and neutral
organic solvents.
Illicit use: Production of LSD .
Where controlled or regulated: Schedule III controlled substance under the US CSA;
Organization of American States (OAS); United Nations. Removed as a listed chemical
from CSA effective 04/16/94.
Legitimate uses: In general organic syntheses; medical investigations.
Manufacturing process: Alkaline hydrolysis of ergot alkaloids such as ergotamine or
ergonovine; fermentation of cultures of Claviceps purpurea o de Aspergillus clavatus.
Shipping and storage: Keep in tightly closed containers in a cool place, protected from
light.
Manufacturers: Unknown.
Remarks: Lysergic acid is the main precursor in at least two methods of synthesizing
LSD; often it is synthesized or obtained from ergot or ergot alkaloids. Lysergic acid can
53
be found in U.S. and Japanese chemical supply catalogues. There was no identified U.S.
production, importation or exportation of lysergic acid during 1992 or 1993.
METHYL ALCOHOL
Other names: Methanol; carbinol, wood spirit, wood alcohol, methyl hydroxide.
Molecular formula: CH3OH
Molecular weight: 32,04 (CH4O)
Harmonized code: 2905.11.1000 / 2905.11.2000
Density: 0,79
Boiling point: 64,7¼C
Description: Clear, colorless, mobile liquid; burns with a bluish flame.
Hazards: Flammable, inhalation of high concentrations of vapor may cause dizziness,
stupor, cramps and digestive disturbances; lower concentrations may cause headache,
nausea, vomiting, and irritation of the mucous membranes; vapor and liquid are very
dangerous to the eyes; ingestion damages the central nervous system especially the optic
nerve causing temporary or permanent blindness; ingestion also injures kidneys, liver,
heart and other organs; unconsciousness may develop after some hours and may be
followed by death.
Illicit use: Recrystallization of hydrochloride salts of some clandestinely produced
controlled substances; solvent in the conversion of cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride.
Where controlled or regulated: Colombia.
Legitimate uses: Industrial solvent; antifreeze; octane booster; to denature ethanol; raw
material for making formaldehyde and methyl esters of inorganic and organic acids;
solvent used in the manufacture of pharmaceuticals.
Manufacturing process: Destructive distillation of wood; from hydrogen and carbon
monoxide or carbon dioxide; oxidation of hydrocarbons. By-product in the manufacture
of polyethylene terephthalate when dimethyl terephthalate is used.
Shipping and storage: Preserve in tight containers, remote from heat, sparks and open
flames.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Greece, Italy, The
Netherlands, United Kingdom, Switzerland, Russia. Asia: Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia,
Thailand, Taiwan. South America: Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Chile, Venezuela.
Central America: Mexico.
Remarks: Methanol can be used to dissolve hydrochloric acid in the manufacture of
cocaine hydrochloride. This solvent is not essential to cocaine hydrochloride production,
since other alcohols such as ethyl, isopropyl, etc. can be used. This solvent is used in
combination with water insoluble solvents. It has been identified in cocaine
hydrochloride samples.
METHYLAMINE
Other names: Monomethylamine; aminomethane; methanamine.
Molecular formula: CH3NH2
Molecular weight:31,06 (CH5N)
Harmonized code: 2921.11.0000
54
Description: Gas at ordinary temperature and pressure, corrosive liquid when liquefied
by cooling in ice and salt mixture; commonly sold as 33-40% aqueous solutions. The
hydrochloride exist as deliquescent tetragonal crystals.
Hazards: Gas and liquid are flammable; gas irritates the skin, eyes and respiratory
system; sustained contact may cause burns; highly corrosive to the skin, mucous
membranes and respiratory tract.
Illicit use:
Used with P2P to produce methamphetamine and with 3,4methylenedioxyphenyl-2-propanone to produce MDMA.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA, covers mono-methylamine. Dimethylamine and
trimethylamine are not included.
Legitimate uses: Production of bactericides, insecticides (36%), explosives (31%) and
N-methylpyrrolidine (lube oil additive) (15%).
Manufacturing process: Produced from methanol and ammonia; by heating methanol,
ammonium chloride and zinc chloride; by heating ammonium chloride and
formaldehyde.
Shipping and storage: Stored in carbon steel or stainless steel containers; small amounts
are stored in glass or ceramic vessels. Methylamine must be stored under pressure at
room temperature. It should be kept under nitrogen to avoid contact with carbon dioxide
(forms carbonates) and moisture.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, Belgium, Spain, Italy, The Netherlands, United
Kingdom. Asia: South Korea, Japan. North America: United States.
Remarks: The P2P/methylamine process to manufacture methamphetamine is used in less
than one third of the clandestine laboratories seized in the U.S. Methylamine is a
necessary chemical in these processes. It is also a necessary chemical for the production
of MDMA. Is readily available from U.S. chemical supply houses.
METHYLENE CHLORIDE
Other names: Dichloromethane, methylene dichloride; methylene bichloride.
Molecular formula: CH2Cl2
Molecular weight: 84,94
Harmonized code: 2903.12.0000
Density: 1,36
Boiling point: 39,7¼C
Description: Clear, colorless liquid.
Hazards: Vapor irritates the eyes and respiratory system and may cause headache and
nausea, high concentrations may result in cyanosis and unconsciousness, liquid irritates
the eyes; vapor is not flammable and not explosive.
Illicit use: Solvent is used in the production of cocaine hydrochloride and other
substances.
Where controlled or regulated: Organization of American States (OAS).
Legitimate uses: Solvent for cellulose acetate; degreasing and cleaning fluid; solvent in
food processing (coffee); solvent in paint and varnish removers.
Manufacturing process: Chlorination of methane and methyl chloride.
Shipping and storage: Preserve in tightly sealed glass, metal or plastic containers; or
metal drums.
55
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Spain, France, Italy,
The Netherlands, United Kingdom. Asia: South Korea, Japan.
Remarks: Methylene chloride is found in combination with other solvents in cocaine
samples. Due to its properties, this solvent does not appear to be usable by itself in the
manufacture of cocaine because cocaine hydrochloride is soluble in methylene chloride.
It could probably be used in a mixture of solvents. Methylene chloride can also be used
in the separation and purification of other controlled substances.
3,4-METHYLENEDIOXYPHENYL-2-PROPANONE
Other names: 3,4-methylenedioxyphenylacetone; piperonylmethylketone; 3,4methylenedioxybenzyl methyl ketone.
Molecular formula: (CH2OO)C6H3(CH2COCH3)
Molecular weight:178,19 (C10H10O3)
Harmonized code: 2932.90.6000
Density: 1,20
Boiling point:120-122¼C
Description: Colorless to pale yellow liquid.
Hazards: Irritating to the skin and eyes.
Illicit use: Production of MDA, MDMA, MDE and N-hydroxy-MDA.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA, Organizations of Americans States (OAS), United
Nations.
Legitimate uses: Organic syntheses.
Manufacturing process: From isosafrole and formic acid; hydrogen peroxide sulfuric
acid.
Shipping and storage: Carbon steel containers for short-term storage and transportation;
stainless steel or containers with a thin lining for long-term storage.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany.
Remarks: 3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl-2-propanone is the primary precursor in a one-step
synthesis of MDA and its analogues. It has also been synthesized from safrole and
isosafrole and then used to produce MDA and its analogues.
N-METHYLEPHEDRINE
Other names: Alpha-[1 (dimethylamino)ethyl] benzenemethanol; methylephedrine; 2dimethylamino-1-phenylpropanol; N,N-dimethylnorephedrine.
Molecular formula: (C6H5)CH(OH)CH(N[CH3]2)CH3
Molecular weight: 179,25 (C11H17NO)
Harmonized code: 2939.40.0050
Melting point: 86-87¼C
Hazards: Moderately toxic if ingested.
Illicit use: Used with hydriodic acid to produce N,N-dimethylamphetamine.
Where controlled or regulated:CSA.
Legitimate uses: Organic syntheses.
56
Manufacturing process: Levo isomer of this chemical occurs naturally in several species
of the plant genus “Ephedra”.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany.
Remarks: This chemical is available from many specialty chemical suppliers in the
United States.
METHYL ETHYL KETONE
Other names: 2-butanone; ethylmethyl ketone; MEK; 2-oxobutane; methyl acetone.
Molecular formula: CH3COCH2CH3
Molecular weight: 72,1 (C4H8O)
Harmonized code: 2914.12.0000
Density: 0,81
Boiling point: 79,6¼C
Description: Clear liquid with an acetone-like odor.
Hazards: Flammable, inhalation of vapor may cause dizziness, headache and nausea;
liquid irritates the eyes and may cause severe damage; if ingested may cause gastric
irritation and narcosis; weak teratogen.
Illicit use: Solvent used in cocaine hydrochloride production.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA, Organization of American States (OAS), United
Nations.
Legitimate uses: Production of coatings solvents (60%); adhesives (15%); magnetic
tapes (10%);lube oil de-waxing (5%), printing inks (5%), synthetic leather; transparent
paper, printing inks; aluminum foil; lacquers; degreasing agents; extraction of fats, oils,
waxes, natural and synthetic resins; and manufacture of smokeless powder.
Manufacturing process: Dehydrogenation of sec-butyl alcohol; catalytic oxidation of Nbutenes.
Shipping and storage: Carbon steel containers for short-term storage and transportation;
stainless steel or containers with tin linings are for long-term storage.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, France, The Netherlands, United Kingdom. Asia:
Japan, Taiwan. North America: United States.
Remarks: MEK is a List II chemical under the CSA. It is a solvent used in the
conversion of cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride. In recent years it has been the most
frequently identified solvent in cocaine hydrochloride samples (approximately 90% in
1993). MEK can be used alone.
METHYL ISOBUTYL KETONE
Other names: Isopropylacetone; hexone; 4-methyl-2-pentanone; MIBK
Molecular formula: (CH3)2CHCH2COCH3
Molecular weight:100,16 (C6H12O)
Harmonized code: 2914.13.0000
Density: 0,80
Boiling point: 117-118¼C.
Description: Colorless liquid, faint ketonic and camphor odor.
57
Hazards: Flammable; inhalation of vapors may cause dizziness, headache and nausea;
liquid irritates the eyes and may cause severe damage; if ingested may cause gastric
irritation and narcosis.
Illicit use: Solvent used in the production of cocaine hydrochloride.
Where controlled or regulated: Colombia.
Legitimate uses: Solvent for gums, resins, nitrocelullose, etc.
Manufacturing process: Controlled catalytic reduction of mesityl oxide.
Shipping and storage: Carbon steel containers for short term storage and transportation;
stainless steel or tin lined containers for long term storage.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, France, The Netherlands, United Kingdom. Asia:
South Korea, Japan, Taiwan. North America: United States.
Remarks: Found in combination with other solvents in cocaine samples. It has solvent
properties suitable for use in the conversion of cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride.
N-METHYLPSEUDOEPHEDRINE
Molecular formula: (C6H5)C(OH) HCN (N(CH3)2)CH3
Molecular weight: 179,25 (C11H17NO)
Harmonized code: 2939.40.0050
Illicit use: Used with hydriodic acid to produce N, N-dimethylamphetamine.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA
Manufacturers: Unknown
Remarks: Although this chemical could be used in place of N-methylephedrine to
synthesize N-methylpseudoephedrine, N,N-dimethylamphetamine has not been identifies
at clandestine laboratories.
NITROETHANE
Molecular formula: CH3CH2NO2
Molecular weight: 75,07 (C2H5NO2)
Harmonized code: 2904.20.5000
Density: 1,05
Boiling point: 114¼C-115¼C
Description: Oily liquid with a pleasant odor. Miscible with methanol, ethanol, ether.
Hazards: Vapor irritates eyes and respiratory system; liquid irritates eyes and mucous
membranes; absorption by skin contact or ingestion may cause liver and kidney damage.
Illicit use: Synthesis of P2P, amphetamine, MDA and its analogues.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA
Legitimate uses: Solvent in organic syntheses and experimentally as a liquid propellant.
Manufacturing process: Nitration of ethane with nitric acid.
Manufacturers:North America: United States.
Remarks: Nitroethane, in combination with benzaldehyde and butylamine, has been used
to clandestinely manufacture a nitropropane intermediate which can be converted to P2P
and/or amphetamine. This reaction is being encountered more frequently in clandestine
P2P/amphetamine labs. Nitroethane can also be reacted with piperonal to produce
58
MDA/MDMA or reacted with benzaldehyde derivatives to produce other amphetamine
analogues.
NORPSEUDOEPHEDRINE
Other names: Cathine (d-norpseudoephedrine); pseudonorephedrine; threo-1-phenyl-1hydroxy-2-aminopropane; threo-2-amino-1-hydroxy-1-phenylpropane.
Molecular formula: (C6H5)CH(OH)CH(NH2)CH3
Molecular weight: 151,20 (C9H13NO)
Harmonized code: 2939.40.0050
Melting point: 78¼ C (base)
Description: Crystalline material; base i in the form of plates; hydrochloride salt is in the
form of prisms.
Illicit use: Production of amphetamine and 4-methylaminorex.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA, United Nations.
Legitimate uses: Laboratory analytical purposes and therapeutically as an anorectic
agent.
Manufacturing process: The d-isomer is isolated from “Catha edulis” (Khat) leaves.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, Switzerland.
Remarks: Norpseudoephedrine and its isomer, phenylpropanolamine, can be used in the
synthesis of amphetamine. This synthetic route is not commonly used.
PETROLEUM ETHER
Other names: Naphta; petroleum naphta; petroleum benzini; benzin.
Molecular formulas: Mixture of low boiling fractions of petroleum; chiefly pentanes
(C5H12) and hexanes (C6H14).
Harmonized code: 2710.00.0000
Density: 0,62-0,66
Boiling point: 35-80¼C
Description: Clear, colorless, non-fluorescent, highly flammable, volatile liquid.
Hazards: Highly flammable; toxicity similar to hexane.
Illicit use: Solvent to hash oil from marijuana; also used in cocaine production.
Where controlled or regulated: Peru.
Legitimate uses: Pharmaceutical aid (solvent).
Manufacturing process: Distillation of petroleum.
Shipping and storage: Keep tightly closed in a cool place and away from fire.
Manufacturers: Petroleum manufacturers.
Remarks: Petroleum ether could be used to extract cocaine from coca leaves, however,
the physical properties (flammability and volatility) make it less desirable than kerosene.
It can also be used in the conversion process of cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride.
PHENYLACETIC ACID
Other names: Benzeneacetic acid; alpha-toluic acid.
Molecular formula: C6H5(CH2COOH)
59
Molecular weight: 136,14 (C8H8O2)
Harmonized code: 2916.33.1000
Density: 1,09
Melting point: 76-77¼C
Boiling point: 265,5¼C
Description: White powder with a very disagreeable pungent odor; salts usually sold as
50% aqueous solutions; available as sodium or potassium salts.
Hazards:Moderately toxic by ingestion; teratogen in experimental animals; when heated
to decomposition it emits acrid smoke and irritating fumes.
Illicit use: Production of amphetamine, methamphetamine and P2P.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA, Organization of American States(OAS), United
Nations.
Legitimate uses:
Manufacture of perfumes, phenylacetic acid esters, herbicides, penicillin and other
pharmaceutical products; flavoring agent for beverages and sweetened foods.
Manufacturing process:
Hydrolysis of benzyl cyanide using dilute sulfuric or
hydrochloric acid.
Shipping and storage: Solutions sold in 4000 gallons lots, shipped by bulk tank car or
truck; also sold in 55 gallon (208.2 liter) drums as the potassium or sodium salts in
carbon steel tanks; sodium salt requires heating since it freezes at 10¼C; non-salt form
should be stored in dark bottles in a cool dry area.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, Denmark, Spain, France, United Kingdom. Asia:
Japan.
Remarks: Phenylacetic acid is used in the two most frequently employed methods to
synthesize P2P in clandestine laboratories. P2P is then used in the clandestine production
of amphetamine and methamphetamine. Esters of phenylacetic acid (e.g. phenylacetic
acid ethyl esters) can be easily converted to the parent compound by heating with an
aqueous acid or base and now are regulated under the CSA.
PHENYLPROPANOLAMINE
Other names:
Alpha-(1-aminoethyl)benzenemethanol; dl-norephedrine; alpha-(1aminoethyl)benzyl alcohol; alpha-hydroxy-§-aminopropylbenzene.
Molecular formula: (C6H5)CH(OH)CH(NH2)CH3
Molecular weight: 151,18 (C9H13NO)
Harmonized code: 2939.40.0050
Melting point: 194¼C (hydrochloride salt)
Description: Crystalline material with an odor resembling that of benzoic acid; available
as the hydrochloride salt.
Hazards: A poison by ingestion causing sleep, increased pulse rate and pulmonary edema
or congestion.
Illicit use: Production of amphetamine and 4-methylaminorex.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA, Organization of American States (OAS).
Legitimate uses:
Preparations containing the hydrochloride salt are used as
vasoconstrictors to decongest mucous membranes; over-the-counter anorectic agent.
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Manufacturing process: Reaction of propiophenone with an alkyl nitrite, followed by
catalytic (palladium or platinum) hydrogenation.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany. Asia: Japan, Taiwan.
Remarks: Phenylpropanolamine is the main precursor in an infrequently used synthesis
for amphetamine; it is also the primary precursor in the synthesis of 4-methylaminorex,
an amphetamine-like central nervous system stimulant.
PHENYL-2-PROPANONE
Other names: 1-phenyl-2-propanone; phenylacetone; benzyl methyl ketone; P-2-P;
methyl benzyl ketone; BMK.
Molecular formula: CH3COCH2(C6H5)
Molecular weight: 134,18 (C9H10O)
Harmonized code: 2914.30.0050
Density: 1,02
Boiling point: 214¼C
Description: Clear, moderately viscous liquid.
Hazards: Irritating to skin and eyes.
Illicit use: Production of amphetamine and methamphetamine.
Where controlled or regulated: Controlled as an immediate precursor in Schedule II of
the US CSA, United Nations, Organization of American States (OAS).
Legitimate uses: Production of amphetamine, methamphetamine and propylhexedrine; in
organic syntheses.
Manufacturing process: From phenylacetic and acetic acids; from benzyl cyanide
through alpha-phenylacetoacetonitrile; from benzaldehyde and nitroethane through a
nitropropene intermediate.
Shipping and storage: Tightly closed containers in cool dry areas; 55 gallon drums
(208.2 liters) containing 460 pounds (209.1 kg) net.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: France.
Remarks: P2P was the most widely used precursor in the synthesis of amphetamine/
methamphetamine in the U.S. until its control in Schedule II of the CSA in 1980. It has
been replaced by ephedrine as the most widely used precursor. P2P continues to be used
in less than one-third of the amphetamine / methamphetamine clandestine labs but most
often it is synthesized in these laboratories.
PIPERIDINE
Other names: Hexahydropyridine, pentamethyleneimine, hexazane.
Molecular formula: (CH2)5NH
Molecular weight:85.15 (C5H11N)
Harmonized code: 2933.39.9000
Density: 0.86
Boiling point: 106¼C
Melting point: -9¼ C
Description: Colorless, combustible liquid with the odor of pepper and a soapy feel; salts
(hydrochloride, nitrate, bitartrate, phosphate) are crystalline materials.
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Hazards: Toxic by inhalation; may cause burns to skin; keep away from sources of
ignition; strong irritant.
Illicit use: Synthesis of PCP.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA, OAS, UN
Legitimate uses: Manufacture of local anesthetics, analgesics and other pharmaceutical
products, wetting agents and germicides; intermediate for rubber vulcanization
accelerators; hardening agent for epoxy resins; solvent; catalyst and complexing agent.
Manufacturing process: Electrolytic reduction of pyridine; heating piperine with
alcoholic potassium hydroxide; small amounts in black pepper.
Shipping and storage: Shipped in drums and stored in tightly closed containers in cool
dry area.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, France y United Kingdom. Asia: Japan. North
America: United States
Remarks: Piperidine is used along with sodium cyanide, cyclohexanone and sodium
metabisulfite in the first step of the most widely used method to make PCP. It can be
replaced by other chemicals (morpholine, pyrrolidine)to produce pharmacologically
similar analogues such as PCM or PCPy.
PIPERONAL
Other names: Heliotropin; 3,4-(methylenodioxy)benzaldehyde; piperonylaldehyde.
Molecular formula: (CH2OO)C6H3(CHO)
Molecular weight:150,13 (C8H6O3)
Harmonized code: 2939.90.3000
Melting point: 37¼C
Boiling point:263¼C
Description: Colorless, lustrous needle-shaped crystals with a characteristic fragrance.
Hazards: Moderately toxic by ingestion and intraperitoneal routes; irritating to skin; may
cause central nervous system depression; combustible when exposed to heat or flame; can
react with oxidizing materials.
Illicit use: Production of MDMA, MDE, MDA or N-hydroxy-MDA.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA, Organization of American States (OAS), United
Nations.
Legitimate uses: Fragrance in perfumes; flavoring agent in cherry and vanilla flavors;
organic syntheses.
Manufacturing process: Reaction of isosafrole with sodium dichromate and sulfuric acid;
from vanillin, aluminum chloride and methylene chloride or dibromomethane in
dimethylformamide or dimethylsulfoxide.
Shipping and storage: Keep in cool place protected from light.
Manufacturers: Europe: Austria, France, United Kingdom. Asia: Japan, Taiwan. North
America: United States.
Remarks: Piperonal is used to produce MDA or its analogues, MDMA, MDE and Nhydroxy-MDA using a method which proceeds through a nitrostyrene intermediate. This
process has been used in clandestine MDA and MDMA laboratories in the U.S. and is a
good alternative to the process using 3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl-2-propanone. Other
chemicals used in the synthesis are nitroethane and a strong reducing agent such as
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lithium aluminum hydride. Piperonal is available from United States suppliers. The U.S.
imports substantial quantities from China and other countries.
POTASSIUM CARBONATE
Other names: Pearl ash; salt of tartar.
Molecular formula: K2CO3
Molecular weight: 138,2
Harmonized code: 2836.40.1000
Melting point: 891¼C
Density: 2,29
Description: Hygroscopic, odorless granules or granular powder that is insoluble in
alcohol. Its aqueous solution is strongly alkaline.
Hazards: Poisonous if ingested; strong caustic.
Illicit use: Alkaline material that can be used in the production of coca paste, cocaine
base and other clandestinely produced substances.
Where controlled or regulated: Organization of American States (OAS).
Legitimate uses: Manufacture of soaps, liquid shampoos, glass, pottery, and potassium
salts; engraving and lithography; tanning and finishing leather; removal of water from
organic liquids; alkalizer.
Manufacturing process: Obtained by treating potassium hydroxide with carbon dioxide;
heating potassium chloride under pressure with magnesium carbonate, water and carbon
dioxide.
Shipping and storage: Glass containers, polyethylene containers, fiber drums.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Belgium, Spain,
France, Italy, United Kingdom. Asia: South Korea, Taiwan.
Remarks: An alkaline material is essential for the production of cocaine. Potassium
carbonate is one of a number of alkaline substances such as sodium or calcium carbonate,
sodium hydroxide or calcium oxide, which may be used in the production of cocaine and
other substances.
POTASSIUM CYANIDE
Molecular formula: KCN.
Molecular weight: 65,11
Harmonized code: 2837.19.0010
Density: 1,52
Melting point: 634¼C
Description: White, granular, hygroscopic; powder with a slight odor of hydrogen
cyanide (odor of bitter almond).
Hazards: Highly poisonous; poisoning may occur by ingestion, absorption through
injured skin or inhalation of hydrogen cyanide gas, liberated by action of carbon dioxide
or other acids; strong solutions are corrosive to skin; when mixed with acids will produce
hydrogen cyanide gas which can be lethal if exposures of 300 ppm exceed a few minutes.
Illicit use: Production of PCP and its analogues.
Where controlled or regulated: Unknown.
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Legitimate uses: Similar to sodium cyanide; electroplating; metal surface hardening;
organic and inorganic synthesis; extracting gold and silver from ores; fumigating citrus
and other fruit trees.
Manufacturing process: Reaction of a solution of potassium hydroxide with liquid or
gaseous hydrogen cyanide (Costner Process).
Shipping and storage: Steel drum stored in a dry place and protected from corrosion;
solutions must be stored in steel/stainless steel containers.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Italy, United
Kingdom. Asia: Japan.
Remarks: Potassium cyanide is used along with piperidine, cyclohexanone and sodium
metabisulfite to produce the PCP intermediate (PCC) which is reacted with a Grignard
reagent (phenylmagnesium bromide) to synthesize PCP. Sodium cyanide is more
commonly used.
POTASSIUM DICHROMATE
Other names: Potassium bichromate.
Molecular formula: K2Cr2O7
Molecular weight: 294,21
Harmonized code: 2841. 40.0000
Density: 2,68
Melting point: 398¼C
Description: Bright orange-red crystals.
Hazards: Irritating to eyes, respiratory system and skin; may cause sensitization by skin
contact; internally a corrosive poison; contact produces caustic effect.
Illicit use: Oxidizing agent in the manufacture of methcathinone.
Where controlled or regulated: Unknown.
Legitimate uses: Oxidizer in the manufacture of organic chemicals; tanning leather,
dyeing, painting, decorating porcelain, printing, photo lithography, pigment-prints,
staining wood, pyrotechnics, and safety matches; for bleaching palm oil, wax and
sponges; waterproofing fabrics; in electric batteries as depolarizer for dry cells.
Manufacturing process: Reaction of potassium chloride on sodium dichromate.
Shipping and storage:Keep in tightly closed containers and away from heat.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, United Kingdom.
Asia: Japan, Taiwan.
Remarks: Potassium dichromate is used to oxidize ephedrine in the synthesis of
methcathinone. Sodium dichromate is a stronger oxidizing agent and is most often used
in this synthesis.
POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE
Other names: Potassium hidrate, caustic potash, potassa.
Molecular formula: KOH
Molecular weight: 56,1
Harmonized code: 2815.20.0000
Density: 2,04
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Melting point: 360¼C; 380¼C, when anhydrous
Description: White or slightly yellow lumps, rods or pellets which rapidly absorb
moisture and carbon dioxide when exposed to air.
Hazards: Extremely corrosive to the eyes, skin and mucous membranes; poisonous by
ingestion; eye irritant and severe skin irritant.
Illicit use: Alkaline material used in the production of coca paste, cocaine base and other
controlled substances.
Where controlled or regulated: Organization of American States (OAS)
Legitimate uses: Manufacture of liquid soap, printing inks, paint and varnish removers; in
electroplating, photo engraving; as a pharmaceutical aid (alkalizer), carbon dioxide
absorbent, mordant for wood.
Manufacturing process: Electrolysis potassium chloride.
Shipping and storage: Containers of glass, metal, plastic or fiber board, fiberboard boxes
with inside paper bags not over 50 pounds, fiberboard with plastic bags, metal drums,
fiber drums, plastic drums, fiberglass or rubber tanks, metal sift-proof cargo tank or tank
car, or hopper type bulk vehicle.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, Belgium, Spain, France, Italy, United Kingdom,
Sweden. Asia: South Korea, Japan, Taiwan. North America: United States.
Remarks: Potassium hydroxide has been found at clandestine cocaine production sites.
An alkaline material is essential for the production of cocaine. Potassium hydroxide is
one of a number of alkaline substances such as sodium, calcium or potassium carbonate,
which may be used in the production of cocaine.
POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE
Other names: Permanganic acid potassium salt; chamaleon mineral.
Molecular formula: KMnO4
Molecular weight: 158.03
Harmonized code: 2841.60.0010
Density: 2.70
Melting point: 240¼ C (decomposition)
Description: Dark purple crystals with blue metallic sheen. Sweetish astringent taste,
odorless. Soluble in water and acetone; decomposed by alcohol.
Hazards: Great caution must be exercised in handling, as explosions may occur if it is
brought in contact with organic or other readily oxidizable substances. Harmful if
swallowed; dilute solutions are mildly irritating and high concentrations are caustic;
explosive if it comes in contact with acid.
Illicit use: Oxidizing agent to remove impurities in coca paste.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA, OAS, UN
Legitimate uses: Bleaching resins, waxes, fats, oils, straw, cotton, silk and other fibers;
dyeing wood brown; printing fabrics; washing carbon dioxide in manufacturing mineral
waters; photography; insecticide; tanning leathers; purifying water; disinfectant; as an
important reagent in analytical and synthetic organic chemistry. Medicinal applications
include use as an antibacterial and anti-fungal agent in treating eczema and poison ivy
and in treatment of poisoning after oral ingestion of barbiturates, chloral hydrate and
many alkaloids.
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Manufacturing process: Electrolytic oxidation of manganese ore.
Shipping and storage: Bottles and drums; preserved in well closed containers at ambient
temperature with open vents.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, Spain. Asia: Japan, Taiwan. North America: United
States.
Remarks: It is used to remove cinnamoylcocaine and other oxidizable alkaloids from
cocaine. Potassium permanganate is still the most commonly used oxidizing agent due to
its violet pink color in solution which is used as an indicator. It can be used to oxidize
ephedrine to ephedrone (N-methylcathinone), a central nervous system stimulant. Other
permanganate salts such as calcium and sodium, are strong oxidizing agents which can be
substituted for potassium permanganate.
PROPIONIC ANHYDRIDE
Other names: Propionic acid anhydride, propanoic anhydride, methylacetic anhydride.
Molecular formula: (CH3CH2CO)2O
Molecular weight: 130,14 (C6H10O3)
Harmonized code: 2915.90.5000
Density: 1,01
Boiling point: 167¼C
Description: Colorless liquid with a pungent odor.
Hazards: Moderately toxic if ingested; mildly toxic through skin contact; corrosive
irritant to skin, eyes and mucous membranes.
Illicit use: Production of fentanyl and its analogues.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA.
Legitimate uses: Esterifying agent for certain perfume oils, fats, and especially cellulose;
production of alkyd resins, dyes and drugs; dehydrating agent in sulfonation and nitration
processes.
Manufacturing process: Dehydration of propionic acid; carbonylation of esters of
propionic acid; catalyzed oxidation of propionaldehyde; from carbon monoxide and
ethanol.
Shipping and storage: Dark, dry and tightly closed containers to prevent decomposition
due to moisture; tank cars.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany. Asia: Japan.
Remarks: Propionic anhydride is a precursor used in one of the syntheses of fentanyl,
meperidine and their analogues.
PSEUDOEFEDRINE
Other names: 2-methylamino-1-phenyl-1-propanol; 1-phenyl-1-hydroxy-2methylaminopropane, alpha-[1-(methylamino)ethyl] benzyl alcohol.
Molecular formulas: (C6H5)C(OH)HCH(NHCH3)CH3
Molecular weight: 165,23 (C10H15NO)
Harmonized code: 2939.40.0010
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Melting point: 117-119¼C
Description: Base and salts (hydrochloride and sulfate) are crystalline materials.
Hazards: Harmful if swallowed in large quantities; do not breathe dust; avoid contact
with skin and eyes.
Illicit use: Production of methamphetamine and methcathinone.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA, Organization of American States (OAS), United
Nations.
Legitimate uses: Pharmaceutical preparations as nasal decongestants (d-form) and
bronchodilators (l-form).
Manufacturing process: Extracted from several species of the plant genus ephedra;
produced from ephedrine.
Shipping and storage: Keep in well-closed container and protected from light.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany. North America: United States.
Remarks: Pseudoephedrine is used in the same way as ephedrine in the clandestine
synthesis of methamphetamine. It is not seen as often as ephedrine. It is produced in the
U.S. from ephedrine which is imported into the U.S. Pseudoephedrine is an ingredient in
over-the-counter preparations such as Sudafed and is sold by generic firms. DPseudoephedrine is the preferred form since this is converted to d-methamphetamine.
RED PHOSPHORUS
Atomic symbol: P
Atomic weight: 30,97
Harmonized code: 2804.70.0000
Density: 2,34
Description: Red to violet powder. Insoluble in organic solvents.
Hazards: Vapor from ignited phosphorous irritates the nose, throat, lungs and eyes.
Illicit use: Manufacture of methamphetamine.
Where controlled or regulated: Unknown.
Legitimate uses: Pyrotechnics; manufacture of safety matches; organic synthesis;
manufacture of phosphoric acid, phosphine, phosphoric anhydride and phosphorous
hydrochloride; manufacture of fertilizers, pesticides, incendiary shells, smoke bombs and
tracer bullets.
Manufacturing process: Purified from mineral phosphates: chlorapatite, vivianite and
phosphorite.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, France, Italy, The Netherlands. Asia: Japan. North
America: United States.
Remarks: Phosphorus exists in three allotropic forms: white, black and red. Only the red
form is used. It is a catalyst in the Hl reduction of ephedrine to methamphetamine. It
also catalyzes the formation of Hl from iodine and water.
SAFROLE
Other names: 5-(2-Propenyl)-1,3-benzodioxole; 4-allyl-1,2-methylenedioxybenzene;
allylcatechol methylene ether.
Molecular formula: (CH2OO)C6H3(CH2CH=CH2)
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Molecular weight: 162,18 (C10H10O2)
Harmonized code: 2932.90.37000
Density: 1,10
Boiling point: 232-234¼C
Freezing point: 11¼C
Description: Colorless or slightly yellow liquid with sassafras odor.
Hazards: Poisonous by intraperitoneal and intravenous routes; moderately toxic by oral
ingestion and subcutaneous routes; produces carcinogenic and adverse effects on the
reproductive system in experimental animals; a skin irritant; combustible when exposed
to heat or flame; when heated to decomposition it emits acrid smoke and irritating fumes.
Illicit use: Production of MDA, MDMA, MDE or N-hydroxy-MDA.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA, United Nations, Organization of American States.
Legitimate uses: Flavoring and fragrance industry; soap manufacturing; production of
piperonal.
Manufacturing process: Extraction of several essential oils, notably sassafras (75%);
from 3,4-methylenedioxybenzene through a 1-bromo-intermediate.
Shipping and storage: Keep in cool place and protected from light.
Manufacturers: Asia: Taiwan. North America: United States.
Remarks: Safrole can be used to synthesize 3,4-metilenodioxifenil-2-propanona, isoafrole
or piperonal, each of which can be converted to MDA, MDMA, MDE y N-hydroxyMDA. Safrole has been identified in clandestine laboratories producing MDA or its
analogues in the U.S. It’s also obtained from sassafras oil which contains greater than
70% safrole and is considered regulated.
SODIUM BICARBONATE
Other names: Baking soda, Sodium hydrogen carbonate; sodium acid carbonate.
Molecular formulas: NaHCO3
Molecular weight: 84,00
Harmonized code: 2836.30.0000
Melting point: Begins to lose carbon dioxide at 50¼C and is converted to sodium
carbonate at 100¼C.
Description: White crystalline powder or granules; commercial U.S.P. product is 99,9%
pure.
Illicit use: Alkaline material used in the production of coca paste, cocaine base and other
substances.
Where controlled or regulated: Unknown.
Legitimate uses: Manufacture of sodium salts; source of carbon dioxide; ingredient in
baking powder, effervescent salts and beverage; in fire extinguishers and cleaning
materials; antacid, urinary and systematic alkalizer in humans and animals; used locally
on burns and to dissolve mucus, exudates and scabs in animals.
Manufacturing process: Prepared from sodium carbonate, water and carbon dioxide.
Shipping and storage: Non-hazardous material available in 50 and 100 pound bags; 25
and 50 kilogram drums; bulk sold in hopper cars.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Austria, Spain,
France, Italy, Portugal, United Kingdom Asia: South Korea, Japan, Taiwan.
68
Remarks: Sodium bicarbonate has been identified at some cocaine processing
laboratories. An alkaline material is essential for the production of cocaine. Sodium
bicarbonate is one of a number of alkaline substances such as sodium hydroxide or
calcium oxide, which may be used in the illicit production of cocaine and other
substances.
SODIUM CYANIDE
Other names: Cyanogran.
Molecular formula: NaCN
Molecular weight: 49,02
Harmonized code: 2837.11.0000
Melting point: 563¼C
Description: Colorless, hygroscopic granules with a slight odor of bitter almond from
hydrogen cyanide gas.
Hazards: Serious risk of poisoning by ingestion, absorption through skin or inhalation of
hydrogen cyanide gas liberated on contact with acids; may cause weakness and heaviness
of the arms and legs, increased difficulty in breathing, headache, dizziness, nausea and
vomiting, possibly followed by pallor, unconsciousness, cessation of breathing an death;
when mixed with acids will produce hydrogen cyanide gas which can be lethal if
exposure to 300 PPM exceeds a few minutes.
Illicit use: Production of PCP and its analogues.
Where controlled or regulated: Unknown.
Legitimate uses: Extracting gold or silver from ores, electroplating; fumigating citrus
and other fruit trees; manufacturing hydrocyanic acids and many others cyanides;
inorganic synthesis.
Manufacturing process: Reaction of a solution of odium hydroxide with liquid or
gaseous hydrogen cyanide (Costner Process); heating sodium carbonate, powdered coal
and nitrogen in the presence of an iron catalyst; fusion of calcium cyanide with sodium
carbonate and carbon.
Shipping and storage: Steel drums stored in a dry place and protected from corrosion ;
solutions must be stores in steel/stainless steel containers.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Belgium, Spain,
France, Italy, The Netherlands, United Kingdom. Asia: South Korea, Japan, Taiwan.
Remarks: Sodium cyanide is used along with piperidine, cyclohexanone and sodium
metabisulfate to produce the PCP intermediate (PCC) which is then reacted with a
Grinard reagent (phenylmagnesium bromide) to synthesize PCP.
SODIUM DICHROMATE
Other names: Sodium bichromate; bichromate of soda.
Molecular formula: Na2Cr2O7
Molecular weight: 291,96
Harmonized code: 2841.30.0000
Density: 2,35
Melting point: 357¼C
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Description: Reddish to bright orange, somewhat deliquescent crystals; becomes
anhydrous with prolonged exposure to heat.
Hazards: Irritating to eyes, respiratory system and skin.
Illicit use: Oxidizing agent in the manufacture of methcathinone.
Where controlled or regulated: Unknown.
Legitimate uses: Oxidizing agent in the manufacture of dyes, synthetic organic
chemicals and inks; in chrome-tanning of hides; electric batteries; bleaching fats, oils,
sponges and resins; refining petroleum; manufacture of chromic acid, other chromates
and chrome pigments; corrosion inhibitors and corrosive inhibiting paints; metal
treatments; electroengraving of copper; mordant in dyeing; for hardening gelatin; for
defoliation of cotton plants and other plants and shrubs.
Manufacturing process: From sodium chromates and sulfuric acid.
Shipping and sorage: Keep in tightly closed containers and away from heat.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Italy, United
Kingdom. Asia: Japan.
Remarks: Sodium dichromate is a strong oxidizing agent in acid and is stronger than
potassium dichromate. It is used to oxidize ephedrine to methcathinone.
SODIUM HYDROXIDE
Other names: Caustic soda; soda lye; sodium hydrate.
Molecular formula: NaOH
Molecular weight: 40,01
Harmonized code: 2815.11.0000
Density: 2,13
Melting point: 318¼C
Description: White hygroscopic powder or white flakes, plates, pellets or sticks; rapidly
absorbs water from the air; available as commercial solutions of 15%, 27%, 31%, and
50% or 97-98% solid.
Hazards: Concentrated material is very corrosive to human tissue; generates considerable
heat when dissolved in water or when mixed with acid; solids and strong solutions cause
severe burns of the eyes and skin; ingestion may cause severe internal irritation and
damage.
Illicit use: Alkaline material used in the production of coca paste, cocaine base and other
substances.
Where controlled or regulated: Organization of American States (OAS)
Legitimate uses: Solutions are used to neutralize acids and make sodium salts, e.g., in
petroleum refining to remove sulfuric and organic acids; to treat cellulose in making
viscose rayon and cellophane; in reclaiming rubber to dissolve out the fabric; in making
precipitate alkaloids (bases such as cocaine) and most metals (as hydroxides) from water
solutions of their salts; in the preparation of glycerin suppositories.
Manufacturing process: Electrolysis of sodium chloride; reaction of calcium hydroxide
with sodium carbonate; from sodium metal and water vapor at low temperature.
Shipping and storage: Solid is hygroscopic and must be kept in tightly sealed containers
made of glass, metal, plastic or fiber board; sold in 50 pound bags, 100, 450, 500 y 750
70
pound drums; bulk sold as 50% solutions in 15 and 55 gallon drums, tank cars and tank
trucks.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, Austria, Belgium, Spain, Finland, France, Greece,
Ireland, Italy, Norway, The Netherlands, United Kingdom, Sweden, Switzerland. Asia:
Indonesia, Philippines, Japan, Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan. North America: United
States.
Remarks: An alkaline material is essential for the production of cocaine. Sodium
hydroxide has been found in clandestine cocaine laboratories. Sodium hydroxide is one
of a number of alkaline substances such as sodium, calcium or potassium carbonate or
calcium oxide, which may be used in the production of cocaine and other substances.
SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE
Other names: Antifomin.
Molecular formula: NaClO
Molecular weight: 74,44
Harmonized code: 2828.90.0000
Melting point:18¼C (Pentahydrate crystals)
Description: Pentahydrate crystals are highly unstable alone, but stable in solution;
alkaline solution is yellow, clear with an odor of hypochlorites.
Hazards: Bleaches and many burn skin; will cause internal irritation and damage if
ingested; contact with acids liberates toxic gas; irritating to eyes and skin.
Illicit use: Potential oxidizing agent for cocaine.
Where controlled or regulated: Unknown.
Legitimate uses: Bleach, germicide, disinfectant, deodorizer.
Manufacturing process: Prepared from sodium hydroxide and chlorine gas in the
presence of water.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, Austria, Belgium, Spain, Finland, France, Greece,
Italy, Norway, The Netherlands, Portugal, United Kingdom, Switzerland, Sweden. Asia:
South Korea, Philippines, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Taiwan.
North America: United States.
Remarks: Exclusively marketed as a 5-16% solution as a laundry bleach under such
names as Clorox, Purex, and Dazzle. Sodium hypochlorite may be used as an oxidizing
agent in the purification of cocaine, but current intelligence indicates that it is not being
utilized at this time.
SODIUM SULFATE
Other names: Occurs in nature as the minerals mirabilite, thenardite.
(anhydrous); Glauber’s salt (decahydrate).
Molecular formula: NaSO4 (anhydrous); Na2SO410H2O (decahydrate)
Molecular weight: 142,06
Harmonized code: 2832.30.0000
Density: 2,7
Melting point: 800¼C
Salt cake
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Description: The anhydrous form is a white powder or ortho-rhombic bipyramidal
crystals; the decahydrate is odorless, efflorescent crystals or granules.
Hazards: Moderately toxic by intravenous routes; mildly toxic by ingestion.
Illicit use: Used in clandestine operations to remove water during recycling of organic
solvents.
Where controlled or regulated: Organization of American States (OAS).
Legitimate uses: Drying and printing textiles; standardizing dyes; freezing mixtures;
laboratory use; manufacture of glass and paper pulp; anhydrous form used to dry organic
liquids.
Manufacturing process: Naturally occurring; by-product of hydrochloric acid production;
sodium dichromate by-product; rayon by-product.
Shipping and storage: Glass containers, polyethylene containers, fiber drums.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, Austria, Belgium, Spain, Finland, France, Greece,
Italy, Norway, The Netherlands, Portugal, United Kingdom, Sweden. Asia: South Korea,
Indonesia, Japan, Thailand, Taiwan. North America: United States.
Remarks: Sodium sulfate is occasionally found in clandestine cocaine laboratories in
South America. It is not a critical chemical in the cocaine manufacturing process. It
could be used to remove water from solvents (ether, acetone, etc.) in one form of
recycling.
SODIUM THIOSULFATE
Other names: Sodium hyposulfite; ÒhypoÓ; antichlor; sodothiol; sulfothiorine; ametox.
Molecular formula: Na2S2O3
Molecular weight:158,13
Harmonized code: 2807.00.0000
Density: 1,69
Melting point:48¼C
Description: Powder; odorless crystals or granules which melt at 48 degrees when rapidly
heated.
Hazards: Moderately toxic by subcutaneous routes.
Illicit use: Clandestine manufacture of methamphetamine.
Where controlled or regulated: Unknown.
Legitimate uses: Removes chlorine from solutions; antichlor in bleaching of paper pulp;
fixer in photography; extraction of silver from ores; mordant in dyeing and printing
textiles, reducer in chrome dyeing; manufacturing leather; bleaching bone, straw and
ivory.
Shipping and storage: Keep in cool, dry place.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, Spain, United Kingdom. Asia: Japan, Taiwan. North
America: United States.
Remarks: Sodium thiosulfate is used in some clandestine methamphetamine laboratories
which use the ephedrine-Hl reduction method. It removes the remaining iodine from
solution which makes the product less colored.
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SULFURIC ACID
Other names: Oil of vitriol, hydrogen sulfate.
Molecular formula: H2SO4
Molecular weight: 98,08
Harmonized code: 2807.00.0000
Boiling point: 330¼C (Concentrated solution 98%)
Freezing point: 3¼C (Concentrated solution 98%)
Density: 1,84 (Concentrated solution 98%)
Description: Clear, colorless, odorless, oily liquid; considerably more viscous than water;
concentrated sulfuric acid is 93-98% hydrogen sulfate in water.
Hazards: Concentrated acid is extremely corrosive to skin; causes severe burns; when
mixed with other liquids it should be added slowly, stirring constantly; when diluting
always add acid to water, never add water to acid; reacts with water or steam to produce
heat.
Illicit use: Dilute solutions (5-10%) are used in the extraction of cocaine from coca
leaves and in the conversion of the paste to the base; production of sulfate salts of
controlled substances.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA; Organization of American States (OAS), United
Nations.
Legitimate uses: Manufacture of fertilizers, explosives, dye stuffs, other acids, paper and
glue; purification of petroleum; oxidation of metals and other materials; drying agent;
component of toilet bowl cleaners, drain cleaners, metal cleaners and antirust compounds
and automobile battery fluids.
Manufacturing process: Catalytic oxidation of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide which is
converted to sulfuric acid by the “Contact Process”, reaction of sulfur dioxide, oxygen,
water vapor and nitrogen oxides in a lead-lined chamber (lead-chamber process).
Shipping and storage: Corrosive substance; shipped in glass carboys in boxed, steel
portable tanks, lined tank cars and trucks and metal barrels and drums, depending on the
concentration of the sulfuric acid; stored in airtight containers of glass or other inert
material.
Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Austria, Belgium,
Denmark, Spain, Finland, France, Greece, Italy, Norway, The Netherlands, Portugal,
United Kingdom, Sweden, Switzerland. Asia: South Korea, Indonesia, Japan, Thailand,
Taiwan. South America: Colombia, Bolivia, Peru. Middle East: Syria.
Remarks: More sulfuric acid is produced in the U.S. and the world than any other
chemical. U.S. exports are relatively low compared to production; sulfuric acid is
produced and available throughout the world. An acid such as sulfuric acid is essential to
the production of coca paste and cocaine base. Although other acids such as nitric,
hydrochloric or phosphoric may be used, sulfuric acid is most commonly used when
available. A procedure for the extraction of cocaine alkaloids from coca leaves using less
organic solvent (kerosene) is being seen in South America. Dilute sulfuric acid is added
to the leaves to convert the cocaine alkaloids into water soluble sulfate salts which are
dissolved in the acid solution, made alkaline and extracted with kerosene.
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TARTARIC ACID
Other names: Dihydroxysuccinic acid, 2,3-dihydroxybutanedioic acid; occurs as dtartaric acid, l-tartaric acid, meso-tartaric acid and racemic tartaric acid.
Molecular formula: (COOH)(OH)HCCH(OH)(COOH)
Molecular weight: 150,09 (C4H6O6)
Harmonized code: 2918.12.0000
Melting point: 167-169¼C (d- and l-tartaric) / 206¼C (racemic); 140¼C (mesotartaric).
Description: Colorless crystals or white granular to fine crystalline powder with strong
acidic taste.
Hazards: Moderately toxic by intravenous routes; mildly toxic by oral ingestion.
Illicit use: Purification of morphine base prior to its conversion to heroin; preparation of
tartrate salts of heroin and other substances.
Where controlled or regulated: Unknown.
Legitimate uses: Soft drink industry, confectionery products, bakery products, gelatin
desserts; photographic, tanning and ceramic industries; manufacture of tartrate salts and
in pharmaceutical products as a buffering agent.
Manufacturing process: Levo-tartaric acid occurs naturally in many fruits; it is found as
the potassium salt deposited as a fine crystalline crust during fermentation of grape juice;
prepared from this material by neutralization with calcium carbonate followed by
addition of sulfuric acid.
Shipping and storage: Non-hazardous substance sold in 50 or 100 pounds bags and
drums.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, Spain, France, Italy, Switzerland. Asia: Japan.
Remarks: Tartaric acid is found in some heroin laboratories. The use of tartaric acid is
not critical to the production of heroin but its uses increases the purity of heroin obtained.
THIONYL CHLORIDE
Other names: Sulfurous oxychloride.
Molecular formula: SOCl2
Molecular weight: 118,98
Harmonized code: 2827.90.0000
Density: 1,64
Boiling point: 76¼C
Description: Colorless to pale yellow or reddish, fuming, refractive liquid.
Hazards: Reacts violently with water; contact causes burns; irritating to respiratory
system if inhaled; may ignite other combustible material.
Illicit use: Manufacture of methamphetamine.
Where controlled or regulated: Unknown.
Legitimate uses: Making acyl chlorides, to replace -OH or -SH groups with chlorine
atoms; reacts with Grinard reagents to form sulfoxides.
Manufacturing process: Oxidation of sulfur dichloride with sulfur trioxide.
Shipping and storage: Keep away from temperatures greater than 140¼C, hydrolyzed by
water.
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Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Switzerland. Asia:
Japan.
Remarks: Thionyl chloride is used in a two step synthesis of methamphetamine
occasionally seen at clandestine laboratories. Ephedrine or pseudoephedrine is reacted
with thionyl chloride to form an intermediate which is reduced with hydrogen gas in the
presence of a catalyst (palladium or platinum) to yield methamphetamine. Phosphorus
pentachloride can be substituted for thionyl chloride in this synthesis.
TOLUENE
Other names: Methylbenzene; toluol; phenylmethane; Methacide.
Molecular formula: C6H5(HC3)
Molecular weight: 92,13 (C7H8)
Harmonized code: 2902.30.0000 / 2707.20.0000
Density: 0,87
Boiling point: 110,6¼C
Description: Refractive liquid with a benzene-like odor.
Hazards: Flammable; avoid inhalation; may burn or irritate mucous membranes, eyes
and respiratory tract; severe exposure may result in pulmonary edema; incompatible with
strong oxidants; vapors may cause dizziness.
Illicit use: Solvent used in the production of cocaine hydrochloride and other controlled
substances.
Where controlled or regulated: CSA, Organization of American States (OAS), United
Nations.
Legitimate uses: Manufacture of benzoic acid, benzaldehyde, explosives, dyes, and
many other organic substances; solvent for paints, lacquers, gums, resins; extraction of
various plant principals; gasoline additive; substitute for benzene in chemical
laboratories; production of toluene diisocyanate which is used to make polyurethane
foams and other elastomers; about 45% of toluene in the United States is converted to
benzene.
Manufacturing process: Obtained from tar oil and petroleum.
Shipping and storage: Shipped in glass carboys, metal barrels and drums, fiberboard
boxes lined with glass or earthware; tank cars, tank trucks, barges, tankers and ocean
vessels; store in airtight containers.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, Austria, Belgium, Spain, France, Italy, The
Netherlands, Portugal, United Kingdom. Asia: South Korea, Japan, Singapore, Taiwan.
North America: United States. South America: Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Chile.
Remarks: Toluene is a solvent used in the conversion of cocaine base to cocaine
hydrochloride. It is identified in cocaine hydrochloride samples seized in the United
States. It is also found in fuels.
ORTHO-TOLUIDINE
Other names: O-toluidine; ortho-methylaniline; 2-aminotoluene.
Molecular formula: (CH3)C6H4(NH2)
Molecular weight: 107,15 (C7H9N)
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Harmonized code: 2921.43.8000
Density: 1,01
Boiling point: 200-202¼C
Description: Light yellow liquid becoming reddish-brown when exposed to air and light.
Hazards: Excessive breathing of vapor, ingestion or absorption through the skin may
cause headaches, drowsiness, cyanosis, mental confusion and in severe cases,
convulsions; vapor is dangerous to the eyes; it is a suspected carcinogen.
Illicit use: Clandestine manufacture of methaqualone.
Where controlled or regulated: Unknown.
Legitimate uses: Manufacture of various dyes; printing textiles blue-black; making color
fast to acids.
Manufacturing process:
Amination of toluene with methylhydroxylamine
or
hydroxylammonium salts in the presence of aluminum trichloride.
Shipping and storage: Keep well closed and protected from light or air.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, France, Italy, United Kingdom. Asia: Japan. North
America: United States.
Remarks: Ortho-toluidine is reacted with N-acetylanthranilic acid in the presence of a
catalyst to produce methaqualone.
TRICHLOROETHYLENE
Other names: Trichloroethene; ethinyl trichloride, Trilene; triclene.
Molecular formula: ClHC=CCl2
Molecular weight: 131,40 (C2HCl3)
Harmonized code: 2903.33.0000
Density: 1,47
Boiling point: 86,7¼C
Description: Colorless, non-flammable liquid with a chloroform-like odor; industrial
grades contain stabilizers (triethanolamine stearate and cresol).
Hazards: Inhalation of vapor may cause headache, dizziness and nausea; high
concentrations may cause unconsciousness; ingestion produces similar effects; vapor and
liquid irritate the eyes; moderate exposure can cause intoxication; high concentrations
produce central nervous system depressant effects. High acute doses may cause hepatic
and renal failure, coma and death. Sudden death may occur possibly due to the induction
of ventricular fibrillation. Possible human carcinogen; must be use with adequate
ventilation. Avoid prolonged exposure to light or heat to prevent decomposition.
Illicit use: Solvent used alone or with other solvents in the conversion of cocaine base to
cocaine hydrochloride.
Where controlled or regulated: Organization of American States (OAS).
Legitimate uses: Solvent for fats, waxes, resins, oils, rubber, paints, varnishes, cellulose
esters and ethers; solvent extraction in many industries (coffee, spices); degreasing and
dry cleaning; manufacture of organic chemicals and pharmaceutical products.
Manufacturing process: Prepared from tetrachloroethane by boiling with lime; passing
tetrachloroethane vapor over heated calcium chloride catalyst.
76
Shipping and storage: Stored in sealed, light-resistant ampoules or glass tubes; avoid
prolonged exposure to excessive heat; shipped in 55 gallon drums, tank cars, trucks,
barges and ships.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, France. Asia: Japan. North America: United States.
Remarks: There have been no documented reports of the use of trichloroethylene in
cocaine hydrochloride laboratories. Its general solvent characteristics indicate that it
could be used, either alone or in combination with other solvents, in cocaine
hydrochloride laboratories. It is being replaced by less toxic substances (trichloroethane,
methylene chloride) in industrial and household applications.
UREA
Other names: Carbamide, carbonyldiamide.
Molecular formula: CO(NH2)2
Molecular weight: 60,06 (CH4N2O)
Harmonized code: 3102.10.0000
Density: 1,32
Melting point: 132,7¼C
Description: Colorless tetragonal crystals with the odor of ammonia.
Hazards: Moderately toxic by ingestion, intravenous and subcutaneous routes; irritating
to skin.
Illicit use: Alkaline material used in the production of coca paste and cocaine base;
synthesis of barbituric acid.
Where controlled or regulated: Unknown.
Legitimate uses: High nitrogen content fertilizer (73%); animal feeds (6,5%);
manufacture of resins (urea-formaldehyde) ( 5%) and plastics (melamine) (2,5%); paper
industry to soften cellulose; diuretic .
Manufacturing process: Reaction of ammonia and carbon dioxide at high temperature
followed by dehydration to urea; hydrolysis of cyanamide; product of protein
metabolism.
Shipping and storage: Non-hazardous substance; available in 50 and 100 pound bags,
200 pound drums, tank cars, tank trucks and hopper cars; also available as 50% and 73%
aqueous solutions.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, Austria, Belgium, Spain, France, Italy, Ireland, The
Netherlands, Portugal, Estonia. Asia: South Korea, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Taiwan.
North America: United States. South America: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia,
Chile, Peru, Venezuela. Middle East: Syria.
Remarks: Urea has been identified at cocaine processing laboratories. An alkaline
material is essential for the production of cocaine. Urea is one of a number of alkaline
substances such as sodium, calcium or potassium carbonate, sodium hydroxide or
calcium oxide, which may be used in the production of cocaine and other substances.
U.S. exports are relatively low. Urea is available wherever farm fertilizers are used.
XYLENES
77
Other names: Dimethylbenzene; xylol; mixed xylenes. Ortho-xylene; o-xylene; (1,2dimethylbenzene);meta-xylene;
m-xylene; (1,3-dimethylbenzene);para-xylene;
pxylene; (1,4-dimethylbenzene).
Molecular formula: C6H4(CH3)2
Molecular weight: 106,16 (C8H10)
Harmonized code: Ortho 2902.41.000 / 2707.30.0020meta 2902.42.0000
/2707.30.0010para 2902.43.0000 /2707.30.0030
Density: Ortho: 0,880 / Meta: 0,868 / Para: 0,861
Boiling point: Ortho: 144¼C / Meta: 139¼C / Para: 138¼C
Description: The xylene are flammable. Xylene refers to either a mixture of the ortho,
meta and para isomers of xylene or any of the individual isomers. Commercial xylene is a
mixture of the three isomers and generally contains small amounts of toluene,
ethylbenzene, phenol, trimethylbenzene and other substances. Mixed xylenes-mobile
liquid; ortho-xylene and meta-xylene-colorless liquids; para-xylene colorless plates or
prisms at low temperature, colorless liquid at 13-14¼C.
Hazards: Inhalation of the vapor may cause dizziness, headache, nausea and mental
confusion; vapor and liquid irritate the eyes, skin, mucous membranes and respiratory
tract; absorption through the skin and ingestion causes poisoning; repeated breathing of
vapor over long periods may cause blood disease; prolonged skin contact may cause
dermatitis; they are respiratory depressants which produce nausea, headache and ataxia at
low doses and confusion, respiratory depression and coma at high doses .
Illicit use: Solvent used in the conversion of cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride.
Where controlled or regulated: Unknown.
Legitimate uses: Mixed xylene are used as octane boosters in gasoline and for aviation
fuel. Ortho-xylene is used in the production of phthalic anhydride for use in the
manufacture of polyester fibers and in the manufacture of pesticides. Meta-xylene is used
in the production of isophthalic acid which is used for paints, finishes and resin
manufacture and for the production of isophthalonitrite used in the manufacture of
agricultural chemicals. Para-xilene is the most important xylene commercially; it is
primarily used to produce terephthalic acid which is used in the manufacture of polyester;
small amounts are used as solvents and in the manufacture of coatings and pesticides.
Manufacturing process: Mixed xylene are obtained from aromatic streams in oil
refineries for further refinement into individual isomers (ortho, 16%; meta, 3%; para,
81% based on end use). They are converted to the individual isomers through a metalcatalyzed process using high temperature and a hydrogen environment. Toluene and
other aromatics can be converted to xylene .
Shipping and storage: Flammable liquid; shipped in glass carboys, metal barrels and
drums and fiberboard boxes lined with glass or earthenware. Sold in 55-gallon drums,
tank cars, tank trucks, barges, tankers and ocean vessels.
Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, Austria, Belgium, Spain, France, Italy, The
Netherlands, Portugal, United Kingdom. Asia: South Korea, Japan, Singapore, Taiwan.
North America: United States. Central America: Mexico.
Remarks: Xylene, usually in combination with other solvents, has been identified by
DEA laboratories in cocaine samples. The xylenes have solvent properties similar to
those of toluene. They have not been specifically reported at cocaine laboratories except
possibly as aviation fuel.
78
REFERENCES
1.- Diccionario de Química y de Productos Químicos, Gesner G. Hawley, 2nd. Edition,
Edit. Omega, S.A., Barcelona, 1991
2.- Enciclopedia Química, George L. Clark, Edit. Universal, México, 1993
3.- Directory of Chemical Producers, United States of America, SRI International,
Menlo Park, California, 1994
4.- Directory of Chemical Producers, Western Europe, Vol. II, SRI International, Menlo
Park, California, 1994
5.- Directory of Chemical Producers, South America, SRI International, Menlo Park,
California, 1994
6.Model Regulation to Control Chemical Precursor and Chemical Substance,
Machines and Materials, Organization of American States, Washington D.C., 1990.
7.- Chemical Used in the Clandestine Production of Drugs, U.S. Department of Justice,
Drug Enforcement Administration, Office of Diversion Control, Drug and Chemical
Evaluation Section, 1995.
8.- Química General, James Kendall, FRS, Edit. Nacional, México, 1989.
9.- Hazards of Chemical Laboratories, Wayne Jeffery, Royal Canadian Mounted Police.
79
Appendix I
MODEL REGULATIONS TO CONTROL CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES USED IN
THE ILLICIT PRODUCTION OF NARCOTIC DRUGS AND PSYCHOTROPIC
SUBSTANCES
SECRETARY GENERAL
ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES
WASHINGTON, D.C.
1999
80
MODEL REGULATIONS TO CONTROL CHEMICAL
SUBSTANCES USED IN THE ILLICIT
PRODUCTION OF NARCOTIC DRUGS AND
PSYCHOTROPIC SUBSTANCES
`
PART I
PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF APPLICATION
ARTICLE 1
The purpose of these Model Regulations is to monitor and control the production,
manufacture, preparation, transformation, storage, importation, exportation, marketing,
transportation or other type of transaction involving chemical substances used in the
production, manufacture, preparation, or extraction of narcotic drugs, psychotropic
substances or other substances having a similar effect.
ARTICLE 2
The tables of substances in these Regulations shall contain, as a minimum the
substances included in Table I and Table II of the Annex to the United Nations
Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, 1988
and may contain other substances in order to address regional needs and problems
following verification of their use in the illicit manufacture or production of narcotic drugs
and psychotropic substances or other substances having a similar effect.
ARTICLE 3
These Regulations shall be applicable in all national jurisdictions including
free-trade zones and free ports or other customs operations.
PART II
DEFINITIONS
ARTICLE 4
The following definitions shall be applicable throughout the text of the Model
Regulations except when another is expressly indicated or the context calls for another
interpretation:
Chemical substances: Substances used in the illicit production,
manufacturing, preparation or extraction of narcotic drugs, psychotropic
substances or other substances having similar effects.
81
Customs transit: Customs procedure whereby goods are transported
under customs control from one customs jurisdiction to another, whether
within the same country or to another.
Importation and exportation: respectively, entry into or exit from, a
customs jurisdiction including temporary placement in the jurisdiction.
Marketing: Any transaction, whether direct or indirect, among natural and
juridical persons.
Mixture: Any combination of one or more substances included in Tables I,
II or III of the Model Regulations with one another or with another
substance or substances, and that may be used in the illicit production,
manufacture, preparation or extraction of narcotic drugs or psychotropic
substances or other substances having similar effects.
Production and Manufacturing: As the case may be, whether carried out
by industrial or non-industrial means.
Transshipment: procedure whereby goods are transferred under customs
jurisdiction and control from one means of transportation to another.
PART III
TABLES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES
ARTICLE 5
Chemical substances shall be identified by the names and corresponding
numeric codes under which they are listed in the Harmonized Commodity Description
and Coding System (HS) of the World Customs Organization (WCO). These
classification systems should also be used in statistical records and in documents
pertaining to importation, exportation, transit and transshipment and apply to other customs operations and in free trade zones and free ports.
ARTICLE 6
The competent authorities of each Member State may add, delete or relocate
chemical substances in the pertinent tables under their internal norms, in accordance
with national needs and circumstances.
These decisions will be reported to the Secretary General of the Organization of
American States (OAS) through the Executive Secretariat of the Inter-American Drug
Abuse Control Commission (CICAD).
ARTICLE 7
Countries that have identified the need to add, delete or relocate chemical
substances included in Tables I or II, shall send a request to that effect to the Executive
Secretariat of CICAD accompanied by the reasons underlying its proposal.
82
The Executive Secretariat will distribute the proposal to the member states for
comments, which must be returned to the Secretariat within three months. The
Secretariat will prepare a paper summarizing these comments for consideration by the
Commission at its next Session.
The decision of the Commission will be communicated to the Member States and
where the change proposed is adopted, it shall be duly reflected in the applicable table
or tables of the Model Regulations.
PART IV
SUBSTANCES UNDER SURVEILLANCE
ARTICLE 8
There is hereby established a Table III containing substances not found in Tables
I and II that, in the experience of some member countries, are being diverted to or are
being used as substitutes in the production, manufacture, preparation, or extraction of
narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances or other substances having similar effects.
ARTICLE 9
In accordance with their respective national legal systems and constitutional
principles, member states may, as they deem appropriate, adopt, with respect to
substances included in Table III, some or all of the control and monitoring measures in
Parts VI, VII and IX of these Regulations.
PART V
MIXTURES
ARTICLE 10
Mixtures of substances included in the tables to these Model Regulations shall
be subject to the control or monitoring measures set out in Parts VI, VII, VIII and IX. In
determining the controls or measures of surveillance to be applied, countries shall take
into consideration the following:
a)
A mixture that contains in any concentration, one or more substances
included in Table I, shall be subject to the controls applicable to Table I
substances;
b)
A mixture that contains chemical substances included in Table II at
a level of concentration above 30%, shall be subject to the controls
applicable to Table II substances. When a mixture contains two or
83
more of the substances included in this table, the applicable
controls shall be applied when the level of concentration of each of
the substances added together exceeds the percentage as
determined by each country.
Notwithstanding the foregoing, in accordance with its particular situation, a
country may establish in its respective norms, percentages greater or less than those
suggested, and may consider, in addition, other factors in subjecting mixtures to the
applicable controls. Such factors could include, among others, the quantity and
composition of the mixture and its importance in illicit production.
ARTICLE 11
When a mixture contains one or more substances included in Table III, the
applicable measures shall be applied when the level of concentration of the substance
alone, or the substances in combination, as the case may be, exceeds the percentage
as determined by each country.
ARTICLE 12
Notwithstanding the foregoing, a mixture that contains substances included in
Tables I, II or III that are not likely to be used as such in the illicit production,
manufacture, preparation, or extraction of narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances or
others having a similar effect, or from which it is difficult or impractical to extract those
substances, shall not be subject to the controls or measures mentioned above.
II.
III.
I.
PART VI
CONTROL MEASURES
A. LICENSES AND REGISTRATION
ARTICLE 13
Whosoever produces, manufactures, prepares, transforms, stores, imports, exports, markets, uses or engages in any other type of transaction involving substances
included in Table I shall be subjected to controls, consisting of a permit, licensing or
similar system.
The competent authorities shall maintain a record of all authorizations, licenses
and the like, either granted, denied or revoked.
ARTICLE 14
Whosoever produces, manufactures, prepares, transforms, stores, imports,
exports, markets, uses or engages in any other type of transaction involving substances
84
included in Table II, shall register with the competent authorities so that the scope and
nature of the activities they conduct may be known.
The licenses, permits and registration to which this Part refers shall be updated
periodically.
ARTICLE 15
Member States may stipulate exceptions to the licensing, permit or registration
requirements of this Part in accordance with their national needs and circumstances,
provided that such exceptions are not inconsistent with the objectives of these
Regulations.
ARTICLE 16
In addition, with respect to the issuance of licenses, permits or other forms of
authorization, Member States may take into account background information relating to
the applicant, such as evidence of his ability to maintain effective controls over the
chemical substances, his compliance with applicable national laws for the control of
chemical substances, whether he has been convicted of an offence relating to the
trafficking of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances or whether there have been
convictions for such offences of senior managers in his employ.
In accordance with national law, factors such as the foregoing may be taken into
account in order to suspend or revoke an existing license, permit or other authorization.
IV.
B. RECORDS
ARTICLE 17
The persons referred to in Articles 13 and 14 shall keep, for a period of not less
than two years, a complete, accurate and up-to-date record of each of the substances
listed in Tables I and II, including the following information at a minimum:
(1) Amounts received;
(2) Amounts produced, manufactured, prepared or extracted;
(3) Amounts imported;
(4) Amounts used to manufacture or prepare other products;
(5) Amounts marketed domestically;
(6) Amounts exported;
(7) Existing stocks;
85
(8) Amounts lost, destroyed or reduced by effects such as shrinkage and
other causes such as accidents and pilferage;
(9) Amounts received in excess.
ARTICLE 18
Records of the amounts of substances referred to in items 1, 3, 5 and 6 of the
preceding article shall include the following information, at a minimum:
(1) Date of the transaction;
(2) Name, address, telephone, facsimile number and e-mail address,
where available, as well as license or registry number of each and
every party involved in the transaction and those of the final
consignee if not one of those parties;
(3) Name, amount, unit of measurement and form of presentation and
packaging of the precursor, other chemical substance.
(4) Means of transportation and identification of the transport company.
PART VII
IMPORT, EXPORT TRANSIT AND TRANSSHIPMENT REQUIREMENTS
ARTICLE 19
In addition to the license and registry requirements, but without prejudice to any
other authorizations required by the respective foreign trade system, importers and
exporters of the substances listed in Table I shall obtain an import, export, transit or
transshipment permit from the competent authorities.
The competent authorities may subject all or some of the substances listed in
Table II to the same system as above.
ARTICLE 20
The competent authorities may also determine which of the substances included
in Tables II and III shall be subject to an import, export, transit or transshipment
notification.
ARTICLE 21
In all cases, the importer or exporter shall make the application for a license or
the notification referred to above at least 15 days prior to the anticipated date of
importation, exportation, transit or transshipment.
86
ARTICLE 22
Import or export permits shall expire not later than 180 days after the date of their
issue. Such permits shall be issued for a single substance only and may not be used
more than once.
If the 180-day period has passed and no importation or exportation has occurred,
application for a new permit must be made.
ARTICLE 23
The application for a permit or notification shall contain the following information,
at a minimum:
1.
The importer’s or exporter’s name and address, license or registration,
telephone, telex and fax numbers and e-mail address, where available;
2.
The name and address and telephone, telex, and fax numbers and e-mail
address, where available, of the agent of the importer or exporter and of
the forwarder, if any;
3.
The name and corresponding numeric codes under which they are listed
in the Commodity Description and Coding System of the WCO for each
substance included in each of the Tables, and the description appearing
on the drums, barrels or other containers or packaging in which the
substance is contained;
4.
Net weight or volume of the commodity, in kilograms or litters and
fractions thereof;
5.
Quantity and net weight of the drums, barrels or other containers or
packaging;
6.
Quantity and identification of containers, if applicable;
7.
Scheduled shipping and import or export date. Place of origin, and the
points of shipment, stopover ports, place of entry into the country, and
final destination;
8.
Means of transportation and identification of the carrier;
9.
Names, addresses and telephone, telex and fax numbers and e-mail
addresses, where available, of the supplier and purchaser;
10.
Name, address and telephone, telex and fax numbers and e-mail
address, where available, of the end-user or consignee, if known, or
ascertainable through reasonable inquiry.
ARTICLE 24
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The competent authorities may deny the permits, licenses or authorizations
referred to herein or suspend a transaction when there exists a substantiated reason to
believe that such items may be used for illicit production, manufacture, preparation or
extraction of narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances, or other substances having similar
effects.
PART VIII
PRE NOTIFICATION OF INTERNATIONAL MOVEMENTS
ARTICLE 25
Before exporting a substance included in Table I, a country intending to export
such a substance shall provide, through its competent authorities the information
required under Article 23 to the competent authorities of the importing country.
ARTICLE 26
The information requirements of the preceding article shall also be applied to
acetic anhydride and potassium permanganate. Such requirements may also be applied
to some or all of the remaining substances in Table II, where countries participating in
the respective transactions so decide.
ARTICLE 27
Within 15 days of receipt of pre notification by the importing country, the
competent authority of the importing country shall advise the exporting country whether
or not the transaction is legitimate. Failure by the competent authority of the importing
country to advise the exporting country within the above-noted time frame, shall signify
acceptance of the transaction.
ARTICLE 28
The state receiving the pre notification shall preserve the confidentiality of any
industrial, trade, commercial or professional information contained therein and any shall
observe any other requirement made by the competent authority with respect thereto.
PART IX
REPORTS OF IRREGULAR MOVEMENTS
ARTICLE 29
Persons engaged in the production, manufacture, preparation, processing,
storage, importation, exportation, marketing or transportation of chemical substances
listed in Tables I, II or III shall immediately report to the competent authorities any
88
transaction or proposed transaction to which they are parties when they have
reasonable grounds to suspect that such substances may be used in the production,
manufacture, preparation or extraction of narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances or
other substances with similar effects.
It will be considered that there are reasonable grounds particularly when the
quantity of the above-mentioned chemical substances involved in a transaction, the
method of payment or the personal characteristics of the purchaser are extraordinary or
unusual.
ARTICLE 30
The competent authorities shall also be apprised of any losses or unusual or
significant disappearances of such substances under the person's control.
The report shall contain all available information and shall be made to the
competent authorities, as soon as the circumstances that warrant suspicion are known,
by the quickest means and as far in advance of the completion of the transaction as
possible.
After the information has been confirmed, the competent authorities shall notify
those authorities of the country of origin, destination or transit as soon as possible and
provide them with all available information.
ARTICLE 31
All information provided shall be treated as confidential and not divulged to any
person save and except for law enforcement, judicial or internal control purposes, or for
international cooperation.
PART X
OFFENCES
ARTICLE 32
The following acts will be considered to constitute punishable offences:
1.
The production, manufacture, preparation, processing, storage,
importation, exportation, marketing, transportation, possession or any
other type of transaction involving chemical substances listed in Tables I
and II, knowing that they are intended to be used for the production,
manufacturing, preparation or extraction of narcotic drugs, psychotropic
substances, or other products having similar effects, in any manner prohibited by law, and whether or not the production, manufacture,
preparation or extraction of these drugs or psychotropic substances
themselves occurs in the same national territory or abroad.
2.
The organization, management, or financing of the offences cited in the
preceding paragraph.
89
3.
The use of any means to induce or publicly incite the commission of any
of the activities offences stipulated in this article.
4.
Participation in, association or conspiracy to commit, attempts to commit
and aiding, abetting, facilitating and counseling the commission of any of
the offences cited in this article.
PART XI
INVESTIGATION AND PROOF OF OFFENCES
ARTICLE 33
In accordance with national law, Member States may employ the following
techniques, among others, in the investigation of the offences referred to in the
preceding paragraph:
(1) controlled deliveries of the chemical substances listed in Tables I and II;
(2) interventions, the opening or interception of private documents or
communications and the surveillance of suspects, with the prior approval of
the appropriate competent authority; and
(3) undercover agents and informants.
ARTICLE 34
Any evidence obtained by employing the techniques referred to in the previous
article shall be admissible in criminal proceedings and will be afforded the evidentiary
value afforded to such evidence by national law.
PART XII
EXTRADITION AND MUTUAL LEGAL
ASSISTANCE
ARTICLE 35
The offences referred to in Part X of these Regulations shall be extraditable, in
accordance with the constitutional and legal principles of each respective Member State.
ARTICLE 36
90
Such offences shall be afforded the widest possible mutual legal assistance
under the international treaties and agreements subscribed to by each respective
Member State.
PART XIII
CIVIL, ADMINISTRATIVE AND OTHER CRIMINAL OFFENCES
ARTICLE 37
Contraventions of the control measures set out in these Model Regulations may
result in the application of the following measures:
1. civil proceedings which can lead to the application of financial sanctions or
injunctions;
2. administrative proceedings which can lead to the application of financial
sanctions or the revocation, suspension or application of other sanction involving
the required license or registration;
3. criminal sanctions in cases where the contravention is considered as an offence
punishable under corresponding national law.
PART XIV
COMPETENT AUTHORITIES FOR INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION
ARTICLE 38
Member States shall designate a competent authority to attend to requests for
international cooperation and information pursuant to these Model Regulations or to
convey them to the authority responsible for their execution.
The authorities designated for these purposes and any changes of such
authorities shall be identified to the Secretary General of the OAS and the Secretary
General of the United Nations.
PART XV
COOPERATION WITH THE PRIVATE SECTOR
ARTICLE 39
Member States shall promote the creation and application of cooperation
measures in collaboration with the entities of the private sector who carry out activities
related to the subject matters covered by these Model Regulations such as, for example,
the establishment of joint task forces or the creation of a voluntary code of cooperation
and conduct.
91
IN ADDITION, THE EXPERT GROUP RECOMMENDS TO THE
GOVERNMENTS OF THE MEMBER STATES OF THE ORGANIZATION OF
AMERICAN STATES:
That each Member State:
1.
Enact legislation or update its current legislation, to control national and
international transactions in chemical substances. Insofar as possible, such laws
should be compatible with those of the other countries, taking into account these
Model Regulations prepared by the CICAD Expert Group.
2.
Improve its national and international communication systems for the exchange
of information on transactions of chemical substances.
3.
Ensure the application of a surveillance system of any movement of chemical
substances at crossings and borders wherever traffic between or border trade
with neighboring countries takes place.
4.
Ensure that the authorities entrusted with border control exercise a close watch
over any large quantities of chemical substances held there that are not used for
consumption in the area or for a licit transaction.
5.
Enact or update its pertinent legal norms to prevent and control the diversion of
tableting and encapsulating machines from legitimate purposes to the illicit
manufacture of narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances or other substances
having similar effect.
6.
Give consideration to requiring the registration of brokers of the chemical
substances governed by these Model Regulations and requiring them to notify
the governments of the countries in which they are registered whenever they are
engaged in arranging international transactions of those chemical substances.
7.
In accordance with its concerns, incorporate safety measures into national laws
relating to the handling and storage of chemical substances taking into account
their physical-chemical properties and grouping them separately to prevent
contact between those that produce toxic gases that could cause harm to the
environment.
8.
Where possible, to avoid environmental pollution resulting from the destruction of
such substances countries should consider appropriate means of storage and
may consider the possible recycling of substances for purposes of non-profit
scientific or educational research or disposing of them in such other ways as are
authorized by domestic law.
9.
That the competent authorities investigate alleged diversion and illicit uses of
precursors or other chemical products, machines and materials at another country's request and report their findings promptly.
92
10. Finally, the Group of Experts wishes to make
clear that these Model Regulations are not
intended to be an exhaustive treatment of this
extensive subject matter.
93
TABLE I / CUADRO I
Harmon
ized
Code/
Código
Armoni
zado
291431
293292
292422
Product/Producto
1-Phenyl-2Propanone/1-Fenil-2-Propanona
3,4-Methylenedioxyphenyl1-2propanone/
3,4-Metilenodioxifenil-2propanona
N-acetylanthranilic acid and its salts/ Acido Nacetilantranílico y sus sales
292219
Phenylpropanolamine its salts, optical isomers,
and salts of its optcal isomers
salts/Fenilpropanolamina sus sales, isómeros
ópticos y sales de sus isómeros ópticos
293291
Isosafrole and its optical isomers/Isosafrol y sus
isómeros ópticos
Safrole/Safrol
Lysergic Acid/Acido Lisérgico
Ephedrine, its salts, optical isomers, and salts of
its optical isomers/Efedrina, sus sales, isómeros
ópticos y sales de sus isómeros ópticos
Ergometrine and its salts/ Ergometrina y sus
sales
Ergotamine and its salts/Ergotamina y sus sales
Piperonal/Piperonal
Pseudoephedrine, its salts, opticla isomers and
salts of its optical isomers/ Seudoefredina, sus
sales, isómeros ópticos y sales de sus isómeros
ópticos
293294
293963
293941
293961
293962
293293
293942
Synonym/Sinón
imo
P-2-P
2-carboxy acetanilide/ 2
carboxiacetalinida
Ergonovine and its salts/
Ergonovina y sus sales
/heliotropina
/isoefedrina
94
TABLE II / CUADRO II
Harmonized
Code/ Código
Armonizado
292243
Product/Producto
Synonym/
Sinónimo
O-aminobenzoic acid and its salts/ Acido oaminobenzoico y sus sales
280610
Hydrochloric acid/ Acido Clorhídrico
280700
Sulfuric Acid/ Acido Sulfúrico
281420
281520
Ammonia (anhydrous or in aqueous
solution) / Amoníaco Anhídro o en
disolución acuosa.
Potassium Hydroxide/ Hidróxido de Potasio
281500
Sodium Hydroxide/ Hidróxido de Sodio
283311
Sodium Sulfate/Sulfato de Sodio
283640
283620
Potassium Carbonate/ Carbonato de
Potasio
Sodium Carbonate/ Carbonato de Sodio
284161
Potassium Permanganate/ Permanganato
de Sodio
Anthranilic Acid and its
salts/ Acido antranílico
y sus sales
Muriatic Acid, Hidrogen
Chloride/ Acido
Muriático, Cloruro de
Hidrógeno
Hydrogen Sulfate/
Sulfato de Hidrógeno
Caustic Potash/Potasa
Caustica
Caustic Soda/ Soda
Caustica
Disodium Sulfate/
Sulfato Disodico
Potash/Carbonato
Neutro de Potasio
Soda Ash, Washing
Soda/ Carbonato
Neutro de Sodio, Soda
Solvay
95
96
Harmonized
Code/
Código
Armonizado
290110
Hexane/Hexano
290220
290230
Benzene/Benceno
Toluene/Tolueno
290241
290312
290911
291411
291412
291413
291521
291524
291531
291634
293332
Product/Producto
Synonym/Sinónimo
N-Hexane/Hexano
Normal
Methylbenzene/Metilbenc
eno
Xylenes/Xylenos
o-Xylenes, m-Xylenes, pXylenes/1,2Dimeltibenceno, 1,3
Dimeltibenceno, 1,4
Dimeltibenceno
Methylene
Chloride/Cloruro
de DichloroMetileno
metane/Diclorometano
Ethyl Ether/ Eter Etílico
Sulfuric
Ether,
Ethyl
Oxide,
Diethyl
Ether/
Ether
Sulfúrico,
Oxido de Etilo, Eter
Dietílico
Acetone/Acetona
Propane/Propanona
Methyl Ethyl Ketone/Metil Etil Cetona Butanone/Butanona,
MEK
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone/ Metil Isobutil Isopropilacetone/Isopropil
Cetona
acetona, MIBK
Acetic Acid/Acido Acético
Acetic Anhydride/Anhídrido Acético
Acetic Ether, Acetic Acid,
Ethyl Ether/Acetato de
Etilo, Eter Etílico del
Acido Acético
Ethyl Acetate/ Acetato Etílico
Phenylacetic acid and its salts/Acido
Fenilacético y sus sales
Piperidine/Piperidina
97
TABLE III / CUADRO III
Harmonized
Product/Producto
Code/ Código
Armonizado
290329
Acetyl Chloride/Cloruro de Acetilo
282710
Ammonium Chloride/Cloruro de Amonio
281420
291221
Ammonium Hydroxide/Hodróxido de
Amonia
Benzaldehyde/Benzaldehido
290369
Benzyl Chloride/Cloruro de Bencilo
292690
Benzyl Cyanide/Cianuro de Bencilo
292600
Bromobenzyl Cyanide/Cianuro de
Bromobencilo
Synonym/
Sinónimo
Ethanoyl Chloride/
Cloruro de Etanoílo
Ammonium
Muriate/Muriato de
Amonia
Ammonia Solution/
Amoníaco Acuoso
Benzoic Aldehyde,
Artificial oil of
almond,
Benzenecarbonal/Al
dehido Benzoico,
aceite sintetico de
almendras amargas
Chloromethylbenzen
e, a –chlorotoluene/
Clorometilbenceno,
alfa-clorotolueno
Benceneacetonitrile,
phenyl-acetonitrile,
a-tolunitrile,
cyanotoluene/
Acetronitrilo, de
Benceno, 2Fenilacetonitrilo,
Alfatoluinitrilo
Bromo-benzylacetonitrile/
Bromobenceno
acetonitrilo
98
Harmonized
Code/
Código
Armonizado
281590
Product/Producto
Calcium Hidroxide/ Hidróxido de Calcio
282590
Calcium Oxide/Oxido de Calcio
291422
Cyclohexanone/Ciclohexanona
292112
Diethylamine/Dietilamina
220710
Ethyl Alcohol/ Alcohol Etílico
292410
Formamide/Formamida
291511
281119
280120
290514
Formic Acid, its salts and
derivatives/Acido Fórmico, sales y sus
derivados
Hydriodic Acid/Acido Yodhidrico
Iodine/Yodo
Isobutyl Alcohol/ Alcohol Isobutílico
291539
Isopropyl Acetate/ Acetato Isopropílico
290512
Isopropyl Alcohol/ Alcohol Isopropílico
290512
Isopropyl Alcohol/ Alcohol Isopropílico
271000
Kerosene/Kerosene
Synonyms/
Sinónimo
Calcium Hidrate,
Caustic
Lime/Hidrato
Calcácico, Hidrato
de Cal
Lime, Burnt
Lime/Cal, Cal viva
Pimelic Ketone,
Nadone/Cetona
Pimélica,
Cetohexametileno
N-Ethyletamine/
Amina Dietílica
Ethanol, Ethyl
Hidroxide/Etanol,
Alcohol Anhidrido
Methanamide/Meta
namida
Aminic Acid/Acido
Metanoico
2-Methyl-1Propanol/
2-Metil-1-Propanol
2-Propylacetate/
acetato2-propílico
2-Propanol,
isopropanol,
dimethyl carbinol,
petrohol, secondary
porpyl
alcohol. IPA/2propanol,
isopropanol,
dimetilcaronil,
petrohol, IPA
Kerosine/Kerosina
99
2207700
Methyl Alcohol/Alcohol Metilico
291211
Methylamine/Metilamina
290420
290300
Nitroethane/Nitroetano
Trichloroethylene/Tricloroetileno
Methanol, Carbinol,
Wood Alcohol/
Metanol;
Carbinol, Alcohol
de Madera
Methanamine/
Monometilamina
100
Appendix II
CLANDESTINE CHEMICAL LABORATORIES
This section will deal with the following topics:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Hazard Assessment.
Knowledge Requirements.
Types of Booby Traps.
Safety Equipment
Chemicals and Safety
- safety concerns in a lab.
- health, flammability, reactivity rating of chemicals.
- general considerations for safe handling of chemicals
- acids
- bases
- solvents
6. Toxic effects of chemicals.
7. Disposal of Hazardous Material
- re-cycle, re-use.
- disposal:
- incineration of flammables
- dilution, then incineration
- neutralization
- landfill.
8. Toxic Effects of Chemicals.
- Factors Influencing Toxicity
- Toxic Effects of Various Chemicals
- First Aid in Chemical Exposure
PROCEDURES ON CHEMICALS LABS:
1.
The most immediate dangers in the lab are from fires, explosions,
inhalations of chemicals and skin contact with chemicals.
2.
Most chemicals on a lab are corrosive, explosive or flammable under most
conditions.
3.
Do not: smell or taste chemicals/drugs, smoke, drink, or eat in a
clandestine lab.
101
HAZARD ASSESSMENT:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
A wide variety of chemicals
A wide variety of chemical equipment
Many chemical processes and many possible drug products.
Initial observations may not tell you what chemicals or drugs are involved.
Possible mislabeling of chemicals.
The hazard assessment is difficult even when chemicals are labeled and the route of
manufacture known because the hazards may not have been determined. You must treat
all labs as potentially dangerous until proven otherwise. You need minimum safety
standards.
Don't overlook safety precautions because they are inconvenient,
cumbersome, or you think they are unnecessary. They may safe your life.
KNOWLEDGE REQUIREMENTS:
1. How to handle a potentially dangerous situation.
2. Be familiar with the chemical used in the process and the hazards involved.
3. Be familiar with the routes of manufacture, and the hazards involved.
4. If unsure get somebody who knows.
5. Use a clandestine lab team, they have more intense training.
THE CLANDESTINE LAB TEAM:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
The Police.
The Police Scientist.
Health and Safety Officers.
The Fire Department.
Other Agencies
- Utilities;
- Gas, power, electrical, telephone
- Armed Forces
- SPCA
BOOBY TRAPS:
The purpose of booby traps are to prevent:
- drug rip-offs, destruction by animals, prevent police from entering and to
destroy evidence.
The traps are usually not designed to kill, only to maim.
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
SAFETY EQUIPMENT USED IN CLANDESTINE
LABORATORIES
LEVELS OF PROTECTION:
Level A:
FULLY ENCAPSULATED: Protection for highly corrosive and
toxic material which have severe acute hazards
by skin contact or by gas or vapor
skin absorption, or when the materials and hazards have not been identified.
1.
SCBA.
2.
Fully encapsulated chemical resistant suit.
3.
Chemical resistant gloves and safety boots.
4.
Two way radio communication
5.
Hard hat.
Level B:
HIGHEST LEVEL OF PROTECTION IS NEEDED BUT
THE
ENVIRONMENT IS NOT CONSIDERED ACUTELY TOXIC TO SKIN
CONTACT OR BY GAS OR VAPOUR SKIN ABSORPTION.
1.
Same as level A, except full face piece SCBA, and chemical
resistant clothing (not fully encapsulated).
Level C:
THE CRITERIA FOR WEARING RESPIRATORY
PROTECTION IS NEEDED AND THE ENVIRONMENT IS NOT
CONSIDERED TO BE TOXIC BY SKIN ABSORPTION.
1.
Same as level B, except the SCBA is replaced with a full face
piece air purifying canister/cartridge equipped respirator.
Level D:
WHEN THE ATMOSPHERE CONTAINS NO KNOWN
HAZARDS, WORK FUNCTIONS PRECLUDE SPLASHES, NO
POTENTIAL FOR INHALATION, OR CONTACT WITH HAZARDOUS
LEVELS OF CHEMICALS.
1.
Coveralls.
2.
Safety boots.
3.
Safety classes.
4.
Hard hat.
5.
Face mask.
PERSONAL SAFETY EQUIPMENT:
Coveralls or fatigues rated as chemical and flame resistant, (Saranex, Nomex, Chemklos,
Cellulosic). Chemical Splash Impact Goggles, (Encon 160, Monogoggles). Chemical
resistant gloves, (neoprene, nitrile, PVC/nitrile). Chemical resistant safety boots.
109
Respirators (chemical cartridge, canister gas mask, self-contained breathing apparatus).
Safety line, hard hat and explosion proof flashlight.
RESPIRATORS
CHEMICAL CARTRIDGES:
1. Organic vapor for use indoors or outdoors.
2. Acid gas cartridge for use indoors or outdoors.
3. A combination of 1 and 2. Outdoors means all well ventilated area and
indoors means chemicals are in sealed containers.
CANISTER GAS MASKS:
These are used with specific chemicals and can be combined, as for chemical
cartridges.
SELF CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS (SCAB):
These are used in poorly ventilated areas, especially indoors if chemicals are not sealed
and they are in high concentrations. They are also used if you are unsure of what type of
chemicals are present, or you are working in an oxygen deficient area (trenches).
HAZARDOUS CHEMICAL RESPONSE UNIT EQUIPMENT
Tyvek suits (full body), hats shoe and boot covers; PVA gloves; Neoprene gloves; latex
and vinyl gloves; cartridges for respirators (acid gas, organic, combination), disposable
respirators; spare safety goggles, hard hat and spare respirators (all types).
SCENE SAFETY EQUIPMENT
Barricade tape, TLV sniffer, Matheson/kitagawa detector and tubes, non-sparking tools,
no smoking signs, fire extinguishers, (Co2, halon, dry chemical), fire blanket, first aid kit,
eye wash, explosion proof fluorescent light, caps for all types of containers, army knife,
safety line, and explosion proof flashlight.
AIR MONITORING EQUIPMENT
GASTECH 314:
It only detects flammable organic chemicals, and the percentage of oxygen. It
does not detect low concentration of flammable and toxic chemicals.
DRAGER TUBES:
These tubes allow for the detection of chemicals not detected by the GASTECH.
110
DECONTAMINATION PROCEDURES:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Wash down employee with hose (trap water for disposal)
Remove and discard disposable garments.
Dispose of inexpensive sampling tools.
Wash and rinse SCBA and air purifying respirators.
Wash down air monitoring equipment.
Wash hands and face prior to leaving the scene.
Remove and dispose of wash down solutions for disposal.
8.
Scene must have: soap, fresh water, scrub brush, papertowels, respirator/decontamination kits.
CHEMICALS AND SAFETY
SAFETY CONCERNS:
1. Working in the clandestine lab
- check for different vapors: Organic, Hydrocarbons, and Gases.
- Ventilate the area: Open all doors and use fans.
- remove all flammable substances.
- no smoking eating or open flames.
- avoid electric sparks.(flash cameras)
- compressed gases. Shut off valve on tank first. (Located on top
of tank). Shut off regulator at side of tank.
- shut off vacuum pumps.
- shut off external heat sources.
- cool all reactions.
- If spills in laboratory, use sand and baking soda and scoop up into a bucket
COMMON HAZARDS:
1. Heat. Acid + Water: Base + water
2. Fires. Solvents.
3. Explosions: Build up of solvents.
4. Release of Toxic Gases, Conc. HCl
5. Toxic by-products: Hydrochloric Acid + Potassium permanganate, yields
chlorine gas.
6. Shock sensitive substances.
111
DEFINITIONS:
Reagent:
A substance used for various purposes because it takes part in one or more
chemical reactions or biological processes.
Precursor:
A substance from which another substance is formed.
Solvent:
A substance capable of dissolving one or more other substances.
DEA DEFINITIONS:
Reagent:
A reagent reacts chemically with one or more precursors, but does not
become part of the finished product.
Precursor:
Is raw material for a controlled substance that becomes part of the finished
product.
Solvent:
Do not react chemically with a precursor or reagent and does not become
part of the finished product. Solvents are used to dissolve precursors or
reagents, to dilute reaction mixtures, and to separate and purify other
chemicals.
HEALTH, REACTIVITY AND FLAMMABILITY RATINGS:
HEALTH RATINGS:
4.
A few whiffs of the gas or vapor could cause death. The gas vapor or liquid could
be fatal on penetrating the protective clothing.
3.
Material is extremely hazardous to health, area may be entered with extreme care.
Full protective clothing must be used. No skin surface should be exposed.
2.
Material is hazardous to the health, but area may be entered freely with SCBA.
1.
Material only slightly hazardous to health, it may be desirable to wear face piece
SCBA.
0.
No hazard.
REACTIVITY RATINGS:
112
4.
Materials which in themselves are readily capable of detonation or of explosive
decomposition or explosive reaction at normal temperature and pressure.
3.
Materials which
decomposition or
materials which
temperature and
requiting heat.
2.
Materials which are normally unstable and readily undergo violent chemical
change but do not detonate. Includes materials which react violently with water
or which may form potentially explosive mixtures with water.
1.
Materials which are normally stable but may become unstable at elevated
temperatures and pressures. May react with water with some release of energy
but not violently.
0.
Materials which are normally stable even under fire exposed conditions and
which are not reactive with water.
in themselves are capable of detonation or of explosive
reaction, but which require a strong initiating source. Includes
are sensitive to thermal or mechanical shock at elevated
pressures, or which react explosively with water without
FLAMMABILITY RATINGS:
4.
Very flammable gases and very volatile liquids and materials that in the form of
dust or mist, readily form explosive
mixtures when dispersed in air.
3.
Liquids which can be ignited under almost all normal temperature conditions.
Any material that ignites spontaneously at normal temperatures in air.
2.
Liquids which must be heated before ignition can occur.
Solids which give off flammable vapors.
1.
Materials which must be preheated before ignition can occur.
0.
Materials that will not burn.
****NOT ALL CHEMICALS ARE RATED!
UNITED NATIONS CATEGORIES FOR DANGEROUS MATERIAL:
1. Explosives
2. Gases
3. Flammable liquids
4. Flammable Solids
5. Oxidizing Agents
6. Poisons
7. Radioactive Material
8. Corrosive
9. Diverse Dangerous Substances
113
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR SAFE HANDLING OF CONFISCATED
CHEMICALS: FIVE HAZARD CATEGORIES:
1. Flammable liquids. i.e. Ethyl Ether
2. Acids. (Corrosive). Hydrochloric Acid
3. Bases. (Alkali) (Corrosive) Sodium Hydroxide.
4. Strong Oxidizers. Potassium Permanganate.
5. Toxic. (Cancer Causing) Benzene.
Many of the chemicals in clandestine laboratories are mislabeled or not labeled to prevent
identification. Exercise extreme caution in handling unknown material.
1.
Handling and transportation of chemicals should be done by only qualified
Scientific Personnel.
2.
Package for transportation in original containers if possible.
3.
Separate containers to prevent breakage.
4.
Separate into chemical hazard groups.
5.
Transportation must follow dangerous good legislation.
6.
Chemicals should not be stored or handled more than is absolutely
necessary.
7.
Keep only chemicals that are required for evidence.
8.
Accurately label all samples.
9.
Have qualified personnel destroy the rest.
10.
Store incompatible chemicals in separate rooms where possible.
11.
Use explosion proof, fireproof cabinets to store chemicals.
12.
Store acids in an acid resistant cabinet marked "CORROSIVE"
13.
Store bases in a cabinet to exclude water and moisture.
14.
Oxidizers are stored in a cabinet with a non-combustible interior, marked
"OXIDIZERS".
15.
Other compounds can be stored together.
114
16.
Have proper safety equipment available.
17.
Use common sense.
18.
Read labels
19.
Never mix chemicals.
20.
Use partner rule.
MARKINGS ON CONTAINERS:
Red Diamond
White Diamond
Yellow Diamond
Poison
=
=
=
=
Flammable
Corrosive.
Flammable solid, oxidizing agent
Poison
GAS CYLINDER MARKINGS: (MOVE WITH GREAT CARE!).
Red Diamond
Green Diamond
=
=
Flammable Gas
Non-Flammable Gas.
115
116
117
118
INORGANIC ACIDS:
1. Hydrochloric Acid
2. Sulfuric Acid
3. Nitric Acid
=
=
=
Blue Cap
Yellow Cap
Red Cap
PRECAUTIONS WHILE HANDLING:
- Cause severe burns of skin.
- Do not inhale vapors as they cause irritation of the mucous membrane and eyes.
- Wash off with water and Sodium Bicarbonate.
- When handling wear gloves, face-shield and have good ventilation.
ORGANIC ACIDS:
1. Acetic Acid
2. Phosphoric Acid
3. Perchloric Acid
4. Hydriodic Acid
=
=
=
=
Brown Cap
Clear/White Cap
Black Cap (pint bottles)
Black Cap (amber glass)
NOTE: The organic acids are less dangerous than the inorganic acids.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ACIDS:
1. Evaporate very slowly.
2. Turn litmus paper red.
3. Foams when carbonate powder is added.
4. Acid + Water = Heat
5. When mixing always add acid to water.
6. Burns skin tissue.
7. Chars paper and burns holes in clothes.
8. TEST FOR HYDROCHLORIC ACID:
Conc HCl vapors and Conc Ammonia vapors = white vapor.
9. HCl gas can be made from sodium chloride and sulfuric acid and bubble the gas into
water.
119
BASES:
1. Sodium Hydroxide
2. Potassium Hydroxide
3. Ammonium Hydroxide
=
=
=
White Solid Pellets
White Solid Pellets
Liquid with a Green Cap
PRECAUTIONS WHILE HANDLING BASES:
1. They are corrosive and cause severe burns to the skin. Washing with water just
spreads the burn. Therefore must wash with dilute vinegar solution.
CHARACTERISTICS OF BASES:
1. Turn litmus paper blue.
2. Solids are usually white and have the appearance of soap.
3. Liquid (ammonia) is a clear colorless liquid with a strong stinging odor.
4. Ammonia can be made by reacting Urea (fertilizer) and sodium hydroxide, and bubble
the gas into water.
MOST DANGEROUS SOLVENTS:
1. Ethyl Ether or Ether
2. Petroleum Ether
3. Acetone
4. Toluene
5. Methyl Alcohol or Methanol
6. Tetrahydrofuran
7. Methylene Dichloride or
Dichloromethane.
8. Benzene
9. Chloroform
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Extremely Flammable
Extremely Flammable
Flammable
Flammable
Flammable and Toxic
Flammable and Extremely Toxic
Toxic
=
=
Flammable and Carcinogenic
Carcinogenic
COMMON ODORS OF SOLVENTS:
ACETONE: Sweet pleasant odor, similar to finger nail polish remover.
ETHER: Sweet odor, common hospital odor.
ETHYL ACETATE: Pleasant fruit like odor.
METHYL ETHYL KETONE: Similar to Acetone.
TOLUENE: Gasoline Odor.
ALCOHOLS: Usually odorless.
120
PROPERTIES OF ETHER:
- Highly flammable.
- Vapors for explosive mixtures with air.
- Toxic if inhaled or absorbed through skin.
- If stored for a long time, it forms explosive and shock sensitive peroxides.
- Boils at 95 F, the air temperature in hot climates may be above this.
PRECAUTIONS WHEN HANDLING ETHER:
- Keep away from heat and flames.
- Look for white crystals around the lid (peroxides).
- Look for a dark liquid at bottom of container (peroxides).
- Avoid jarring if peroxides present.
- Keep away from oxidizers (potassium permanganate).
PROPERTIES OF ACETONE:
- Clear liquid with burnt sweet, pungent odor.
- Highly flammable.
- Vapors for explosive mixtures with air.
- Avoid handling near heat.
- May dissolve rubber or plastic compounds.
- Avoid contact with skin and eyes.
- Avoid breathing vapors (if done so may produce a drunken like state).
CHARACTERISTICS OF OXIDIZERS:
POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE: It is a purple solid that can come in a fine powder to
solid chunks. It is odorless and turns brown on paper when exposed to air. It dissolves
readily in water giving a purple solution.
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE: It is a colorless unstable liquid that is caustic to the skin. It
will spontaneously ignite flammable material in undiluted form.
MOST
DANGEROUS
LABORATORIES:
CHEMICALS
FOUND
IN
CLANDESTINE
1. LITHIUM ALUMINIUM HYDRIDE: It is used in the manufacture of
Methamphetamine, Amphetamine, Mescaline, and D.M.T. It reacts violently with water
liberating Hydrogen Gas that may ignite and explode. Store in moisture proof containers.
Do not come in contact with the skin. Methanol and Ethanol both contain water and
therefore do not use these solvents with it. Vitride is replacing it - it is more stable,
121
however treat with the same caution. Destroy very carefully with Ether saturated with
water!
2. OXALYL CHLORIDE: It is used in the manufacture of Dimethyl Tryptamine. It is
highly toxic and very corrosive. It can be neutralized with baking soda (Sodium
Bicarbonate).
3. GRIGNARD REAGENT: It is used in the manufacture of Phencyclidine. It is similar
to Lithium Aluminium Hydride. Therefore do not allow coming in contact with moisture
or alcohols.
4. O-TOLUIDINE: It is used in the manufacture of Methaqualone. It is extremely
flammable and highly toxic. It can be absorbed through the skin or inhaled.
5. SODIUM (POTASSIUM) CYANIDE: It is used in the manufacture of Phencyclidine
(PCP). On contact with acids Hydrogen Cyanide Gas is released. When using have the
room well ventilated.
6. DIMETHYL SULFATE: It is used in the manufacture of Mescaline. It causes intense
irritation several hours after exposure, and death occurs in 3 to 4 painful days.
7. ALUMINIUM CHLORIDE: It is used in the manufacture of P-2-P. It is a white
powder that reacts with water to form HCl gas.
8. CHLOROACETONE: It is used in the manufacture of P-2-P. It is very irritating to
the mucous membrane.
9. RAINEY NICKEL: It is used in many chemical reactions. It ignites on contact with
air when dry. Therefore you must keep it wet.
10. PHOSPHOROUS OXYCHLORIDE (TRICHLORIDE). It is used in the manufacture
of Methaqualone. It is highly toxic and corrosive to the respiratory tract.
PROPERTIES OF ACETIC ANHYDRIDE AND ACETYL CHLORIDE:
They have a strong odour of vinegar. It is incompatible with the following compounds:
acids, bases, moisture, alcohol, oxidizing and reducing agents. It has the following
toxicity: destructive to tissues of the mucous membrane, upper respiratory tract, eyes and
skin. Inhalation may be fatal. The symptoms of exposure are as follows: burning
sensation, coughing, wheezing and laryngitis. The first aid treatment is flush with water.
IT HAS A HEALTH RATING AND FLAMMABILITY RATING OF 2.
POTENTIAL EXPLOSIVE COMBINATIONS OF SOME COMMON REAGENTS
FOUND IN A COCAINE LAB:
1. Acetone + Chloroform in the presence of bases (ammonium hydroxide).
122
2. Ammonia + Chlorine, Bromine or Iodine.
3. Diethyl Ether + Chlorine.
4. Ethanol + Calcium Hypochlorite.
OTHER INCOMPATIBLE CHEMICALS:
CHEMICAL
KEEP OUT OF CONTACT WITH
Acetic Acid
Nitric Acid, Hydroxyl Compounds, Perchloric Acid,
Permanganate.
Alkaline Metals
Water, Chlorinate Hydrocarbons.
(aluminum, magnesium, sodium, potassium)
Ammonia (anhydrous)
Calcium Hypochlorite, Iodine, Bromine,
Ammonium Nitrates
Acids, Chlorates, Flammable Liquids,
Combustible Material.
Flammable Liquids
Ammonium Nitrate, Chromic Acid,
Hydrogen Peroxide, Nitric Acid,
Hydrogen Peroxide
Any Combustible Material.
Potassium Permanganate
Glycerin, Ethylene Glycol, sulfuric Acid
DISPOSAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIAL:
RECYCLING:
1. Recycle unused chemicals at Universities and School Laboratories.
2. Give to Industrial Plants:
- Oil Industry
- Paint
- Pharmaceutical Industry
- Agricultural
- Cosmetic
- Printing
- Fertilizer Plants
- Perfume Industry
- Building Industry
Pulp and Paper Industry
Rubber Industry
Refrigeration Plants
Plastic Industry
Munition Plants
Dye Industry
Soap Industry
Pottery Industry
Glass Manufacturing
3. Give to Reputable Chemical Laboratories:
- Private
123
- Government
- Industrial
INCINERATION:
CHEMICAL
H
F
R
Acetone
Benzene
N-Butyl Acetate
2-Butyl Acetate
2-Butyl Alcohol
Carbon Disulfide
Cyclohexane
Diacetone Alcohol
Ethyl Acetate
Ethyl Alcohol
Ethyl Ether
Hexane
Isobutyl Alcohol
Isopropyl Alcohol
Kerosene
Methyl Alcohol
Methyl Ethyl Ketone
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone
Petroleum Ether
Toluene
Xylenes
1
2
3
3
0
1
0
2
1
1
1
0
1
3
3
4
3
3
3
2
3
1
2
1
4
3
0
1
0
0
0
0
MIX WITH COMBUSTIBLE SOLVENT AND INCINERATE:
CHEMICAL
H
F
Chloroform
Methylene Chloride
Oxalic Acid
Potassium Carbonate
Trichloroethylene
Urea.
2
2
3
R
DILUTE WITH WATER, ADJUST TO NEUTRAL pH, FLUSH DOWN DRAIN:
CHEMICAL
Ammonium Hydroxide
H
F
R
124
Hydrochloric Acid
Potassium Hydroxide
Sodium Bicarbonate
Sodium Carbonate
Sodium Hydroxide
Sodium Sulfate
Sulfuric Acid
Note:
rating
H = health rating
3
3
0
1
3
0
1
3
0
2
F = flammability rating
R = reactivity
(NEUTRALIZATION MAY CAUSE HEAT, USE EXTREME CAUTION!)
SPECIAL PROCEDURES:
Acidify to pH 2 with Sulfuric Acid and add 50% excess of aqueous Sodium Bisulfite.
The temperature will start to increase, if not add more Sodium Bisulfite. Adjust pH to 7
and flush down drain.
CHEMICAL
H
Calcium Hydroxide
Hydrogen Peroxide
Potassium Permanganate
2
1
F
R
F
R
BURY IN LANDFILL SITE:
CHEMICAL
H
Calcium Oxide
DISPOSAL OF ETHER AND ACETONE:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Recycle if new
Waste Hauler
Up to 4 litres may be evaporates
Larger volumes may be incinerated
- must dilute with a less volatile liquid
(see procedure for trench incineration)
Must test ether for peroxide
TESTS FOR PEROXIDES:
To 1 ml. of substance to be tested, add 100 mg of sodium iodide in 11 ml of glacial acetic
acid.
125
YELLOW COLOUR
BROWN COLOUR
=
=
Low concentration of peroxides.
High concentration of peroxides.
You can also use commercially available test papers.
REMOVAL OF PEROXIDES FOR SAFE DISPOSAL OR TRANSPORTATION:
1. Add 10 ml of a 5% Ferrous Sulfate Solution.
or
2. Add 6 grams of Ferrous Sulfate (hydrated) and 6 mls. of concentrated Sulfuric Acid in
11 ml of water.
or
3. Add 3.5 grams of Sodium Iodide in 70 ml. of Glacial Acetic Acid.
(TEST DIETHYL ETHER AND METHYL ISOBUTYL KETONE EVERY 6
MONTHS.)
TRENCH INCINERATION:
1.
Select a suitable site. Low spot with elevation up wind.
2.
Prepare trench. If possible use 45 gallon drums, if not dig a trench and clear
burnable material.
3.
Pour liquid in trench (use safety equipment!)
4.
Ignite the material, using flare, long wick, blasting cap, etc.
5.
Observe the burn at all time.
6.
Make sure fire is out before leaving area.
PROCEDURE FOR DILUTION AND NEUTRALIZATION OF ACIDS AND
BASES:
LARGE QUANTITIES:
1.
Dilute concentrated acids with water 10:1, dilute acids are less dangerous.
2.
Select a basic material (sodium, potassium or calcium bicarbonate, or limestone).
Strong bases, sodium, potassium, or ammonium hydroxide must also be dilute
10:1 with water before use.
126
3.
Neutralization Procedure: Add dilute acid to a solution selected on #2, add
slowly, watch for build up of heat and always check the pH.
4.
Continue the process until a pH of 6-8 is obtained.
5.
Dilute the solution further with water 10:1.
6.
Dispose of in trench and fill in.
SMALL QUANTITIES:
1.
Dilute 1 gallon with 100 gallons of water. If pH not 6-8 dilute a further 1:10 with
water.
2.
Dispose of in trench, ground or fast running stream.
DISPOSAL OF POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE:
1.
Dissolve 450 grams (1 lb.) in 8 liters of water.
2.
Prepare a trench, at least 50 feet away from flammable trenches.
3.
Place green leafy material in trench. Do not use dry or combustible material.
4.
Pour solution into trench as follows:
- small amount at a time.
- must change color from purple to brown.
- heat may be generated, be careful.
- Adjust pouring rate so it all turns brown.
5.
Observe the reaction:
- You may have to add more green leafy material.
- Watch for the disappearance of the purple color (The reaction is over).
6.
Add water to the trench, if purple in color, add more leafymaterial.
7.
Refill the trench with dirt when finished.
8.
A dilute solution of Sodium bisulfate will neutralize a solution
of Potassium Permanganate.
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE TOXICITY:
1. The Chemical:
-Composition
-Concentration
-Properties
-Interactions
127
2. Exposure:
-Route
-Quantity
-Time
-Duration
-Number of Exposures
3. The Individual:
-Age
-State of Health
-Sex
4. The Environment:
-Chemical Interactions
-Environmental Conditions
TOXIC EFFECTS OF CHEMICALS:
1.
CYANIDES:
Solid cyanides in contact with acid release Hydrogen Cyanide Gas, which is responsible
for the toxic effects.
- respiratory failure
- coma and possibly death
2.
IRRITANTS AND CORROSIVES:
Volatile Vapors:
- eye irritation
- conjunctivitis
- lacrimation
- corneal damage
Inhalation:
- irritation of nose and throat
- chest pain
- pulmonary edema
- chronic lung disease.
- lung irritation
- shortness of breath
- coughing up blood
High Concentration
-skin irritation
Contact with Skin
-severe burns
Other Effects
- headache
- nausea
- dizziness
- anxiety
SPECIFIC IRRITANTS:
- Phosphine
- Formic Acid
- may explode
- Liver and Kidney damage.
128
- Tetrahydrofuran and
- Perchloric acid
3.
- form explosive crystals.
SOLVENTS:
INHALATION:
- Mild to severe eye, ear, nose and throat irritation
- Symptoms of intoxication, in coordination and
- Drowsiness
- Loss of consciousness.
- Liver and kidney damage
- Death
CANCER CAUSING SOLVENTS:
- Benzene
- Carbon Tetrachloride.
- O-Toluidine
4.
- Chloroform
- Dioxane
- Methylene Dichloride
METALS AND SALTS:
a. Sodium and Potassium Metal and Sodium and Lithium Hydroxide produce
extreme corrosiveness in the presence of moisture.
b. Sodium, Potassium and Magnesium metals, and Lithium Aluminum Hydride
are extremely reactive with air and water and can ignite or explode.
c. Thorium is radioactive.
d. Lead or Mercury over-exposure.
- nausea and vomiting.
- liver and kidney damage.
e. Red Phosphorous if contaminated with phosphorous may explode on contact
with water, heat or friction.
5.
OTHER HAZARDS:
a. Fentanyl: a very potent narcotic at low doses.
b. MPTP, a by-product of the manufacture of MPPP, causes irreversible
parkinsonism.
c. Phenyl Acetic Acid is an irritant
129
d. P-2-P, Phenyl acetone, Phenyl-2-Propanone is an irritant.
e. Piperidine is an irritant
f. Cylcohexanone is an irritant
g. Hydrogen Gas is a flammable explosive gas.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF CHEMICAL EXPOSURE:
1.
Irritation of eyes, ears, nose, throat, skin or respiratory tract producing a burning
sensation.
2.
Headache, light-headness, dizziness.
3.
Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea.
4.
Coughing and breathing difficulties
5.
Sneezing, Sweating or tearing.
6.
Tightness in chest.
7.
Changes in skin color or complexion
8.
Behavioral changes
9.
Irritability
10.
Fatigue and or weakness
11.
Drooling from mouth.
CHEMICAL FIRST AID ACTION:
1.
INHALATION:
- remove to fresh air
- blow nose if particulate
- loosen clothing
- exposure
- maintain airway
- lay victim down
- avoid unnecessary movements
- call ambulance
130
- treat for shock
2.
- monitor pulse and respiration
INGESTION:
- remove from contaminated area
- if conscious, rinse mouth with water
(a). Induce vomiting only if conscious and ingested chemical has been
identified and will not cause burning and re-absorption.
- loosen clothing
- If unconscious
- lay victim down
- prevent aspiration of vomit
- monitor pulse and respiration
- treat for shock
- call ambulance.
3.
SKIN EXPOSURE:
- remove from contaminated area.
- remove contaminated clothing immediately.
- if exposure from acid wash exposed area with sodium bicarbonate.
- if exposure from caustics wash with dilute vinegar
- if exposure from other chemicals or solvents wash with copious amounts of
water.
- lay victim down
- treat for shock
- call ambulance.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF HEAT EXHAUSTION, STRESS OR STROKE:
- cold clammy skin
- dizziness, light-headness and fainting
- confusion
- heat rash (localized red skin)
131
- nausea
- profuse sweating
- slurred, incoherent speech - weak pulse
-convulsions
-hot skin, high temperature (may feel chilled)
-staggering gate
-unconsciousness
-heat cramps
-pale, cool ,moist skin
CHRONIC AND REPRODUCTIVE HAZARDS FOR PERSONNEL:
Little is known about long term health hazards or reproductive risks resulting
from exposure to street drugs and precursor chemicals used in clandestine laboratories.
Certain precursors, chemicals and drugs have been implicated in lasting disabilities to
law enforcement officers.
PAP and its' precursors cause neurological disorders to children born to women
who were occupationally exposed to or users of PAP. Therefore, extreme precaution
must be used at all times. The wearing of protective clothing and equipment is crucial for
all workers.
132