BIOL 2210 AP I Course Objectives
1: The Human Body: An Orientation
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An Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
o Define anatomy and physiology.
o Explain the principle of complementarity.
Levels of Structural Organization
o Name the different levels of structural organization that make up the human body, and
explain their relationships.
o List the 11 organ systems of the body, identify their components, and briefly explain the
major function(s) of each system.
Maintaining Life
o List the functional characteristics necessary to maintain life in humans.
o List the survival needs of the body.
Homeostasis
o Define homeostasis and explain its importance.
o Describe how negative and positive feedback maintain body homeostasis.
o Describe the relationship between homeostatic imbalance and disease.
The Language of Anatomy
o Describe the anatomical position.
o Use correct anatomical terminology to describe body directions, body regions, and body
planes or sections.
o Locate and name the major body cavities and their subdivisions and associated
membranes, and list the major organs contained within them.
o Name the four quadrants or nine regions of the abdominopelvic cavity and list the
organs they contain.
2: Chemistry Comes Alive
PART 1: BASIC CHEMISTRY
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Definition of Concepts: Matter and Energy
o Define matter, energy, potential energy and kinetic energy.
Composition of Matter: Atoms and Elements
o Define chemical element and list the four major elements that form the bulk of body
matter.
o Define atom. List the subatomic particles; describe their relative masses, charges, and
positions in the atom.
o Define atomic number, atomic mass, atomic weight, isotope, and radioisotope.
How Matter Is Combined: Molecules and Mixtures
o Define molecule.
Chemical Bonds
o Explain the role of electrons in chemical bonding and in relation to the octet rule.
o Differentiate among ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds.
o Compare and contrast polar and nonpolar compounds.
Chemical Reactions
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Define the three major types of chemical reactions: synthesis, decomposition, and
exchange.
Comment on the nature of oxidation-reduction reactions and their importance.
Describe factors that affect chemical reaction rates.
PART 2: BIOCHEMISTRY
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Inorganic Compounds
o Explain the importance of water and salts to body homeostasis.
o Define acid and base, and explain the concept of pH.
Organic Compounds
o Describe and compare the building blocks, general structures, and biological functions
of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.
o Explain the role of dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis in the formation and
breakdown of organic molecules.
o Describe the four levels of protein structure.
o Describe enzyme action.
o Compare and contrast DNA and RNA.
o Explain the role of ATP in cell metabolism.
3: Cells: The Living Units
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Overview of the Cellular Basis of Life
o Define cell.
o List the three major regions of a generalized cell and indicate the function of each.
The Plasma Membrane: Structure
o Describe the chemical composition of the plasma membrane and relate it to membrane
functions.
o Compare the structure and function of tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions.
The Plasma Membrane: Membrane Transport
o Relate plasma membrane structure to active and passive transport mechanisms.
o Compare and contrast simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis relative to
substances transported, direction, and mechanism.
o Compare and contrast endocytosis and exocytosis in terms of function and direction.
o Compare and contrast pinocytosis, phagocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis.
o Define membrane potential and explain how the resting membrane potential is
established and maintained.
The Plasma Membrane: Cell-Environment Interactions
o Describe the role of the glycocalyx when cells interact with their environment.
o List several roles of membrane receptors.
The Cytoplasm
o Describe the composition of the cytosol.
o Discuss the structure and function of mitochondria.
o Discuss the structure and function of ribosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum, and the
Golgi apparatus, including functional interrelationships among these organelles.
o Describe and compare the functions of lysosomes and peroxisomes.
o Name and describe the structure and function of cytoskeleton elements.
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Describe the roles of cilia and flagella.
Describe how the two main types of cell extensions, cilia and microvilli, differ in
structure and function.
The Nucleus
o Outline the structure, and function of the nuclear envelope, nucleolus, and chromatin.
4: Tissue: The Living Fabric
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Epithelial Tissue
o List the structural and functional characteristics of epithelial tissue.
o Name, classify, and describe the various types of epithelia, and indicate their chief
function(s) and location(s).
o Define gland.
o Differentiate between exocrine and endocrine glands.
o Describe merocrine, apocrine and holocrine glands.
Connective Tissue
o Indicate common characteristics of connective tissue, and list and describe its structural
elements.
o Describe the types of connective tissue found in the body, and indicate their
characteristic functions.
Nervous Tissue
o Indicate the general characteristics of nervous tissue.
Muscle Tissue
o Compare and contrast the structures and body locations of the three types of muscle
tissue.
Covering and Lining Membranes
o Describe the structure and function of cutaneous, mucous, and serous membranes.
Tissue Repair
o Outline the process of tissue repair involved in normal healing of a superficial wound.
5: The Integumentary System
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The Skin
o Name the tissue types composing the epidermis and dermis. List the major layers of
each and describe the functions of each layer.
o Describe the factors that normally contribute to skin color. Briefly describe how changes
in skin color may be used as clinical signs of certain disease states.
Appendages of the Skin
o Compare the structure and locations of sweat and oil glands. Also compare the
composition and functions of their secretions.
o Compare and contrast eccrine and apocrine glands.
Functions of the Integumentary System
o Know the functions of skin.
o Describe how the skin accomplishes these different functions.
Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin
o Explain why serious burns are life threatening.
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Describe how to determine the extent of a burn and differentiate first-, second-, and
third-degree burns.
Know and apply the “rule of nines”.
Summarize the characteristics of the three major types of skin cancers.
6: Bones and Skeletal Tissues
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Skeletal Cartilages
o Describe the functional properties of the three types of cartilage tissue.
o Locate the major cartilages of the adult skeleton.
o Explain how cartilage grows.
Classification of Bones
o Name the major regions of the skeleton and describe their relative functions.
o Compare and contrast the structure of the four bone classes and provide examples of
each class.
Functions of Bones
o List and describe the functions of bone.
Bone Structure
o Indicate the functional importance of bone markings.
o Describe the gross anatomy of a typical long bone and flat bone. Indicate the locations
and functions of red and yellow marrow, articular cartilage, periosteum, and
endosteum.
o Describe the histology of compact and spongy bone.
o Discuss the chemical composition of bone and the advantages conferred by the organic
and inorganic components.
Bone Development
o Compare and contrast intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification.
o Describe the process of long bone growth that occurs at the epiphyseal plates.
Bone Homeostasis: Remodeling and Repair
o Compare the locations and remodeling functions of the osteoblasts, osteocytes, and
osteoclasts.
o Explain how hormones and physical stress regulate bone remodeling.
o Describe the steps of fracture repair.
Homeostatic Imbalances of Bone
o Contrast the disorders of bone remodeling seen in osteoporosis, osteomalacia, and
Paget’s disease.
7: The Skeleton
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Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton
o Define fontanels and indicate their significance.
o Describe how skeletal proportions change through life.
o Discuss how age-related skeletal changes may affect health.
9: Muscles and Muscles Tissue
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Overview of Muscle Tissues
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o Compare and contrast the basic types of muscle tissue.
o List the important functions of muscle tissue.
Skeletal Muscle
o Describe the gross structure of a skeletal muscle.
o Describe the microscopic structure and functional roles of the myofibrils, sarcoplasmic
reticulum, and T tubule(s) of skeletal muscle fibers.
o Describe the sliding filament model of muscle contractions.
o Explain how muscle fibers are stimulated to contract by describing events that occur at
the neuromuscular junction.
o Describe how an action potential is generated.
o Follow the events of excitation-contraction coupling that lead to cross bridge activity.
o Define motor unit.
o Describe three ways in which ATP is regenerated during skeletal muscle contraction.
o Define oxygen deficit and muscle fatigue. List possible causes of muscle fatigue.
o Describe factors that influence the force, velocity, and duration of skeletal muscle
contraction.
o Describe three types of skeletal muscle fibers and explain the relative value of each
type.
o Compare and contrast the effects of aerobic and resistance exercise on skeletal muscles
and on other body systems.
Smooth Muscle
o Compare the gross and microscopic anatomy of smooth muscle fibers to that of skeletal
muscle fibers.
o Compare and contrast the contractile mechanisms and the means of activation of
skeletal and smooth muscles in the body.
o Distinguish between single-unit and multiunit smooth muscle structurally and
functionally.
10: The Muscular System
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Interactions of Skeletal Muscles in the Body
o Describe the function of prime movers, antagonists, synergists, and fixators.
Naming Skeletal Muscles
o List the criteria used in naming muscles. Provide an example to illustrate the use of each
criterion.
Muscle Mechanics: Importance of Fascicle Arrangement and Leverage
o Name the common patterns of muscle fascicle arrangement and relate these to power
generation.
o Define lever, and explain how a lever operating at a mechanical advantage differs from
one operating at a mechanical disadvantage.
o Name the three types of lever systems and indicate the arrangement of effort, fulcrum,
and load in each. Also note the advantages of each type of lever system.
11: Fundamentals of the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue
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Functions and Divisions of the Nervous System
o List the basic functions of the nervous system.
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o Explain the structural and functional divisions of the nervous system.
Histology of Nervous Tissue
o List the types of neuroglia and cite their functions.
o Define neuron, describe its important structural components, and relate each to a
functional role.
o Differentiate between a nerve and a tract, and between a nucleus and a ganglion.
o Explain the importance of the myelin sheath and describe how it is formed in the central
and peripheral nervous systems.
Membrane Potentials
o Define resting membrane potential and describe its electrochemical basis.
o Compare and contrast graded potentials and action potentials.
o Explain how action potentials are generated and propagated along neurons.
o Define absolute and relative refractory periods.
o Define saltatory conduction and contrast it to conduction along unmyelinated fibers.
The Synapse
o Define synapse. Distinguish between electrical and chemical synapses by structure and
by the way they transmit information.
o Distinguish between excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials.
o Describe how synaptic events are integrated and modified.
Neurotransmitters and Their Receptors
o Define neurotransmitter.
o Recognize classes of neurotransmitters.
Basic Concepts of Neural Integration
o Describe common patterns of neuronal organization and processing.
o Distinguish between serial and parallel processing.
12: The Central Nervous System
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The Brain
o Name the major regions of the adult brain.
o Name and locate the ventricles of the brain.
o List the major lobes, fissures, and functional areas of the cerebral cortex.
o Describe the general function of the basal nuclei (basal ganglia).
o Describe the location of the diencephalon, and name its subdivisions and functions.
o Identify the three major regions of the brain stem, and note the functions of each area.
o Describe the structure and function of the cerebellum.
o Locate the limbic system and the reticular formation, and explain the role of each
functional system.
Protection of the Brain
o Describe how meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, and the blood-brain barrier protect the
CNS.
o Describe the formation of cerebrospinal fluid, and follow its circulatory pathway.
o Indicate the cause (if known) and major signs and symptoms of cerebrovascular
accidents, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and Huntington’s disease.
The Spinal Cord
o Describe the gross and microscopic structure of the spinal cord.
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Recognize the major spinal cord tracts by name, and classify each as a motor or sensory
tract.
Distinguish between flaccid and spastic paralysis, and between paralysis and
paresthesia.
13: The Peripheral Nervous System and Reflex Activity
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Define peripheral nervous system and list its components.
PART 1: SENSORY RECEPTORS AND SENSATION
 Sensory Receptors
o Classify general sensory receptors by structure, stimulus detected, and body location.
 Sensory Integration: From Sensation to Perception
o Outline the events that lead to sensation and perception.
o Describe receptor and generator potentials and sensory adaptation.
o Describe the main aspects of sensory perception.
PART 2: TRANSMISSION LINES: NERVES AND THEIR STRUCTURE AND REPAIR
 Nerves and Associated Ganglia
o Define ganglion and indicate the general body location of ganglia.
o Describe the general structure of a nerve.
o Follow the process of nerve regeneration.
 Cranial Nerves
o Name the 12 pairs of cranial nerves; indicate the body region and structures innervated
by each.
 Spinal Nerves
o Describe the formation of a spinal nerve.
o Define plexus.
PART 3: MOTOR ENDINGS AND MOTOR ACTIVITY
 Peripheral Motor Endings
o Compare and contrast the motor endings of somatic and autonomic nerve fibers.
 Motor Integration: From Intention to Effect
o Compare the roles of the cerebellum and basal nuclei in controlling motor activity.
PART 4: REFLEX ACTIVITY
 The Reflex Arc
o Name the components of a reflex arc and distinguish between autonomic and somatic
reflexes.
 Spinal Reflexes
o Compare and contrast stretch, flexor, crossed-extensor, and Golgi tendon reflexes.
14: The Autonomic Nervous System
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Introduction
o Define autonomic nervous system and explain its relationship to the peripheral nervous
system.
o Compare the somatic and autonomic nervous systems relative to effectors, efferent
pathways, and neurotransmitters released.
o Compare and contrast the functions of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions.
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ANS Anatomy
o For the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions, describe the site of CNS origin,
locations of ganglia, and general fiber pathways.
ANS Physiology
o Define cholinergic and adrenergic fibers, and list the different types of their receptors.
o Describe the clinical importance of drugs that mimic or inhibit adrenergic or cholinergic
effects.
o State the effects of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions on the following
organs: heart, blood vessels, gastrointestinal tract, lungs, adrenal medulla, and external
genitalia.
o Describe autonomic nervous system controls.
o Homeostatic Imbalances of the ANS
o Explain the relationship of some types of hypertension, Raynaud’s disease, and
autonomic dysreflexia to disorders of autonomic functioning.
Lab Part 1 (1st 5 weeks)
Know all four major tissues and their sub-classifications. Students must recognize all categories and
subcategories at the microscope and in projected slides. Students should be able to name, classify,
and describe the various types of epithelia, connective tissues, muscles, and neurons. They should
be able to name their chief function(s) and location(s).
Lab Part 2 (2nd 5 weeks)
Chapter 7: The Skeleton
Identify all bones of the axial and appendicular skeleton along with their structures as listed in the
lab manual. Terminology to accompany this is a must. Name the major parts of the axial and
appendicular skeletons and describe their relative functions.
PART 1: THE AXIAL SKELETON
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The Skull
o Name, describe, and identify the skull bones. Identify their important markings.
o Define the bony boundaries of the orbits, nasal cavity, and paranasal sinuses.
The Vertebral Column
o Describe the structure of the vertebral column, list its components, and describe its
curvatures.
o Discuss the structure of a typical vertebra and describe the regional features of cervical,
thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae.
The Thoracic Cage
o Name and describe the bones of the thoracic cage (bony thorax).
o Differentiate true from false ribs.
PART 2: THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON
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The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle
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Identify bones forming the pectoral girdle and relate their structure and arrangement to
the function of this girdle.
o Identify important bone markings on the pectoral girdle.
The Upper Limb
o Identify or name the bones of the upper limb and their important markings.
The Pelvic (Hip) Girdle
o Name the bones contributing to the os coxae (innominate bone).
The Lower Limb
o Identify the lower limb bones and their important markings.
Lab Part 3 (3rd 5 weeks)
Chapter 10: The Muscular System
A student must be able to recognize, name and properly spell the muscles listed in the lab
manual. He/she is will also be expected to name the actions, origins and insertions of the major
muscles or muscle groups.
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