EURATA
Worldwide Framework Contract – Rural Development & Food Safety
Letter of Contract: N° Silva Domingos1 – FED – EAD/C/5
Framework Contract AMS/451
Rural Profile and Strategic Framework
for Namibia
- Orientations (RPSF)
Final Report
February – June 2001 (mission 1)
October – November 2001 (mission 2)
Ce rapport à été préparé avec l'assistance financière de la Commission des Communautés Européennes. Les avis
émis sont ceux des consultants et ne reflètent pas nécessairement la position officielle de la CE ou du
Gouvernement de la Namibie
Independent Experts (EURATA Consortium) – Mission 1
Pierre VAN ROOSBROECK
Team Leader / Agro-economist
Gustaaf TASSERON
Socio-economist
Laurent CHAZEE
Agro-economist
Anne SIMON
Decentralisation Expert
Pierre COPPOLA
Rural Finance Expert
Brigitte DITNER
Gender Expert
Anne SMULDERS
Education Expert
Diane MOODY
Health - HIV/AIDS Expert
Eline VAN DEN LINDEN
Rural Development Expert
Richard BULLARD
Land Expert
Independent Experts – Mission 2
Luc D'HAESE
Team Leader / Agro-economist
AGRER SA, Belgium
Nadia SIMION
Economist
AGRER SA, Belgium
2
Rural Profile and Strategic Framework Mission
Namibia
Table of Content & List of Annexes
Table of Content
INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER .......................................................................................................................... 1
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................. 3
PART ONE: RURAL PROFILE LIVELIHOOD APPROACH ...................................................................... 8
CHAPTER I: MAIN RURAL POPULATION GROUPS AND THEIR LIVELIHOODS........................................................... 8
I. 1. Rural areas and rural populations .......................................................................................................... 8
I. 1. 1. Geographic features ........................................................................................................................................... 8
I. 1. 1. 1. Bio-climatic zones..................................................................................................................................... 8
I. 1. 1. 2. Land use .................................................................................................................................................... 9
I. 1. 2. Population ....................................................................................................................................................... 10
I. 1. 2. 1. Population distribution ............................................................................................................................ 10
I. 1. 2. 2. Population and human development ....................................................................................................... 10
I. 1. 2. 3. Population and poverty dimension .......................................................................................................... 11
I. 2. The main rural population groups and their livelihoods ....................................................................... 11
I. 2. 1. Approach ......................................................................................................................................................... 11
I. 2. 2. Salient features of the target groups and their livelihoods ............................................................................... 13
I. 3. The rural population groups targeted by the RDPSF ........................................................................... 18
CHAPTER II: INSTITUTIONAL ENVIRONMENT OF RURAL POPULATION GROUPS AND ITS IMPACT ON THE
TARGETED POPULATION GROUPS ...................................................................................................................... 24
II. 1. Introduction.......................................................................................................................................... 24
II. 2. Political and administrative structures ................................................................................................ 24
II. 2. 1. Decentralised authorities ................................................................................................................................ 25
II. 2. 1. 1. Regional Councils .................................................................................................................................. 25
(i) Description .................................................................................................................................................... 25
(ii) Structural composition and human resources capacity ................................................................................. 26
(iii) Financial capacity ....................................................................................................................................... 26
II. 2. 1. 2. Local Authorities ................................................................................................................................... 27
(i) Description .................................................................................................................................................... 27
(ii) Structural composition and human resources capacity ................................................................................. 27
(iii) Financial capacity ....................................................................................................................................... 28
II. 2. 1. 3. Associations ........................................................................................................................................... 29
II. 3. 2. Traditional authorities .................................................................................................................................... 29
II. 2. 4. Non-State Actors ............................................................................................................................................ 30
II. 2. 5. Impact on the targeted population .................................................................................................................. 31
CHAPTER III: PROBLEMS HAMPERING THE ENHANCEMENT OF RURAL LIVELIHOODS ......................................... 32
III. 1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 32
III. 2. Assets under pressure ......................................................................................................................... 33
III. 3. Relevance of these problems for the 7 rural-based socio-economic target groups ............................ 35
III. 4. Priority Problems to be addressed under the RDPSF ........................................................................ 40
CHAPTER IV: GOVERNMENT AND DONOR’S RURAL DEVELOPMENT POLICIES AND ACTIONS .............................. 42
IV. 1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 42
IV. 2. Existing Policies/Programmes aimed at addressing the Priority Problem Areas .............................. 42
IV. 2. Guidelines for RDPSF ........................................................................................................................ 53
PART TWO: STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK AND ORIENTATIONS ......................................................... 55
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................................. 55
Purpose of the strategic framework and orientations part ........................................................................... 55
Regional Economic Context ......................................................................................................................... 55
Principles: .................................................................................................................................................... 56
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RPSF
Table of Content & List of Annexes
1. Integrated approach ................................................................................................................................................ 56
2. Market oriented....................................................................................................................................................... 56
3. Sustainable approach (economic, social and environmental) .................................................................................. 56
4. Development oriented............................................................................................................................................. 56
5. Innovative approach................................................................................................................................................ 56
6. Flexible approach ................................................................................................................................................... 57
7. Complementarity and synergies oriented ................................................................................................................ 57
Partnership with the private sector ......................................................................................................................... 57
Participatory approach............................................................................................................................................ 57
Co-ordination with other donors ............................................................................................................................ 57
8. Gender- and minorities- equity oriented ................................................................................................................. 57
9. Decentralised development – principle of subsidiarity ........................................................................................... 57
10. Consistent with the priorities of the Namibian Authorities ................................................................................... 58
CHAPTER I: STRATEGIES FOR DIVERSIFIED INCOME GENERATING OPPORTUNITIES ON –
AND OFF FARM................................................................................................................................................ 60
I. 1. ON- FARM INCOME GENERATING OPPORTUNITIES DIVERSIFICATION ........................................................ 60
I. 1. 1. Background ....................................................................................................................................... 60
I. 1. 2. Major Constraints ............................................................................................................................. 61
I. 1. 3. Strategy Proposal .............................................................................................................................. 61
I. 1. 3. 1. Productivity strategy .................................................................................................................................... 62
(i) soil productivity ................................................................................................................................................. 63
(1) role of fertilisers ........................................................................................................................................... 63
(2) anti-erosion measures ................................................................................................................................... 63
(3) overgrazing containment .............................................................................................................................. 64
(4) fires containment .......................................................................................................................................... 64
(5) lime against salinity ...................................................................................................................................... 64
(6) improved access to water ............................................................................................................................. 64
(ii) animal productivity........................................................................................................................................... 65
(1) improved genetic material ............................................................................................................................ 65
(2) improved animal health ................................................................................................................................ 65
(3) improved animal nutrition ............................................................................................................................ 65
(iii) plant productivity ............................................................................................................................................ 66
(1) access to and use of improved varieties of seeds .......................................................................................... 66
(2) effective crop management (including introduction of cash crops) .............................................................. 66
(3) improved use of fertilisers and other agricultural chemicals ........................................................................ 66
(4) post harvest management ............................................................................................................................. 66
(iv) farm management & agricultural system intensification ................................................................................. 66
I. 1. 3. 2. Input strategy ............................................................................................................................................... 66
(i) seeds .................................................................................................................................................................. 67
(ii) fertilisers and other agricultural chemicals ....................................................................................................... 67
(iii) engineering services (ploughing, …)............................................................................................................... 67
(iv) input of post-harvest technology (storage, …) ................................................................................................. 67
(v) agricultural credits and savings and seasonal finance ....................................................................................... 67
I. 1. 3. 3. Output strategy ............................................................................................................................................ 67
(i) access to market ................................................................................................................................................. 67
(ii) improved incentive environment ...................................................................................................................... 68
(iii) standardisation and quality assurance .............................................................................................................. 68
(iv) storage facilities at decentralised levels ........................................................................................................... 68
I. 1. 3. 4. Agricultural support services strategies ....................................................................................................... 69
(i) agricultural research and development .............................................................................................................. 69
(ii) extension services ............................................................................................................................................. 69
(iii) income diversification ..................................................................................................................................... 69
(1) introducing new (cash)-crops and new ways of using water ........................................................................ 70
(2) utilising the oshana (ephemeral waters) for tree crops and aquaculture ....................................................... 70
(3) other on-farm based diversified activities..................................................................................................... 70
(4) farm forestry as a farm diversification option .............................................................................................. 70
(iv) farmers organisations ....................................................................................................................................... 71
(v) community-based organisations and women-organisations .............................................................................. 71
I. 2. OFF- FARM INCOME GENERATING OPPORTUNITIES DIVERSIFICATION ....................................................... 72
I. 2. 1. Small and Medium Micro Enterprises (SMMEs) ............................................................................... 72
I. 2. 1. 1. Background ................................................................................................................................... 72
I. 2. 1. 2. Major Constraints ......................................................................................................................... 74
I. 2. 1. 3. Strategy Proposal .......................................................................................................................... 75
I. 2. 1. 3. 1. Building effective & accessible rural finance institutions ....................................................................... 76
(i) improve the financial institutions ...................................................................................................................... 76
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RPSF
Table of Content & List of Annexes
(ii) improve the environment of financial institutions ............................................................................................ 77
(iii) Build effective systems of secured transactions .............................................................................................. 77
(iv) develop sustainable micro-finance institutions ................................................................................................ 77
(1) restructuring AGRIBANK ........................................................................................................................... 78
(2) supporting the extension and diversification of NAMPOST ........................................................................ 78
(3) promotion of SACCOs and SCAs ................................................................................................................ 78
(4) national support programme for the micro-finance industry ........................................................................ 79
I. 2. 1. 3. 2. Create a proper enterprise environment including support of the diversification efforts ......................... 80
I. 2. 1. 3. 3. Capacity building and access to information and communication ........................................................... 80
Capacity building at the level of emerging entrepreneurs and comunity-based groups .......................................... 80
Access to information and communication ............................................................................................................ 81
I. 2. 2. Tourism.............................................................................................................................................. 82
I. 2. 2. 1. Background ................................................................................................................................... 82
I. 2. 2. 2. Major Constraints ......................................................................................................................... 83
I. 2. 2. 3. Strategy Proposal .......................................................................................................................... 84
I. 2. 2. 3. 1. Human Resource Development ............................................................................................................... 85
I. 2. 2. 3. 2. Community-based Tourism Development ............................................................................................... 85
I. 2. 2. 3. 3. Namibia Wildlife Resorts ........................................................................................................................ 85
I. 2. 2. 3. 4. Resource Management and Environmental Conservation ....................................................................... 85
I. 2. 2. 3. 5. Marketing and Promotions ...................................................................................................................... 85
I. 2. 3. Fisheries and aquaculture sector ...................................................................................................... 86
I. 3. LINKAGES BETWEEN FARMS AND SMMES ................................................................................................. 87
I. 3. 1. Background ....................................................................................................................................... 87
I. 3. 2. Major Constraints ............................................................................................................................. 87
I. 3. 3. Strategy Proposal .............................................................................................................................. 87
I. 3. 3. 1. Conducive / supportive environment – creating synergies .......................................................................... 88
I. 3. 3. 2. Increased information dissemination ........................................................................................................... 88
I. 3. 3. 3. Links with other sectors and development strategies ................................................................................... 88
CHAPTER II: IMPROVED LAND POLICY FRAMEWORK AND LAND STRATEGIES (INCLUDING
HOUSING AND NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT) ................................................................... 89
II. 1. BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................................................... 89
I. 1. 1. Dualistic structure of the Land Tenure System .................................................................................. 89
II. 1. 2. Actors involved in the on-going land reform process and their responsibilities .............................. 90
II. 1. 2. 1. Ministry of Lands, Resettlement and Rehabilitation (MLRR) ................................................................... 90
II. 1. 2. 2. Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Rural Development ............................................................................ 90
II. 1. 2. 3. Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET) ........................................................................................... 90
II. 1. 2. 4. Ministry of Regional, Local Government and Housing (MRLGH) ............................................................ 91
II. 1. 2. 5. Agribank .................................................................................................................................................... 91
II. 1. 2. 6. Local Authorities and Regional Councils ................................................................................................... 91
II. 1. 2. 7. Non-state actors.......................................................................................................................................... 92
II. 1. 3. Review of the current national policy and legislation relevant to land reform ................................ 93
II. 1. 3. 1. Land survey Act 1993 ................................................................................................................................ 93
II. 1. 3. 2. Agricultural (Commercial) Land Reform Act 1995 ................................................................................... 93
II. 1. 3. 3. National Land Policy – White Paper 1998 ................................................................................................. 93
II. 1. 3. 4. National Resettlement Policy – Draft White Paper June 2000 ................................................................... 94
II. 1. 3. 5. Communal Land Reform (Act) Bill ........................................................................................................... 94
II. 1. 3. 6. Proposed Land Valuation and Taxation Regulations – Agricultural (Commercial) Land Reform Act ...... 94
II. 1. 4. Current policies on land reform and resettlement ........................................................................... 95
II. 1. 4. 1. Resettlement Scheme ................................................................................................................................. 95
II. 1. 4. 2. Affirmative Action Loan Scheme .............................................................................................................. 95
II. 1. 4. 3. North-South Incentive Scheme .................................................................................................................. 95
II. 1. 4. 4. National Agricultural Credit Policy............................................................................................................ 96
II. 1. 4. 5. Other initiatives .......................................................................................................................................... 96
II. 1. 5. Land issues in official documents..................................................................................................... 96
II. 1. 5. 1. Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS) ............................................................................................................. 96
II. 1. 5. 2. National Poverty Reduction Action Programme (NPRAP) ........................................................................ 96
II. 1. 5. 3. National Development Plan II (NDPII) ...................................................................................................... 96
II. 1. 5. 4. Evaluation Report of the EC Country Strategy for Namibia (1996 – 2000) ............................................... 97
II. 1. 5. 5. Namibia – EC Country Strategy Paper (2001 – 2007) ............................................................................... 97
II. 2. MAJOR CONSTRAINTS AND CHALLENGES FOR THE LAND REFORM PROCESS ............................................. 98
II. 2. 1. Linked to the Communal Land Reform Bill ...................................................................................... 98
II. 2. 2. Limited budget for the establishment of decentralised authorities................................................... 98
II. 2. 3. Linked to the Resettlement Programme ........................................................................................... 98
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RPSF
Table of Content & List of Annexes
II. 2. 4. Limited Land Surveying and Land Registration System Capacities ................................................. 99
II. 2. 5. Absence of coherent Land Use Legal Framework and Management Responsibilities ..................... 99
II. 2. 6. Implementation of certain clauses of the Agricultural (Commercial) Land Reform Act ................ 100
II. 2. 7. Lack of skills .................................................................................................................................. 100
II. 3. STRATEGY PROPOSAL ............................................................................................................................. 101
II. 3. 1. Technical Assistance for Setting a Legal Framework for Land Reform ........................................ 105
II. 3. 1. 1. TA aimed to support the formulation of an Action Plan on Land ............................................................ 105
II. 3. 1. 2. TA for training and community-facilitation aimed to support the implementation of the Land Legislation
.................................................................................................................................................................................. 106
(i) Supporting actions targeting those who’s land rights are being legally confirmed .......................................... 106
(ii) Supporting actions targeting staff of the new institutions mandated to implement the legislation ................. 106
(iii) Supporting actions targeting organisations whose role and authorities have been changed .......................... 106
II. 3. 1. 3. TA for setting up an appropriate Land Registration System .................................................................... 106
II. 3. 1. 4. TA for improving the security of tenure for communities and individuals on communal areas ............... 106
II. 3. 2. Technical Assistance for Capacity Building .................................................................................. 107
II. 3. 2. 1. Capacity building for land administration and technical areas such as surveying, mapping and land-use
planing ...................................................................................................................................................................... 107
II. 3. 2. 2. Capacity building for managing the environmental challenges of the land reform .................................. 107
II. 3. 2. 3. Support for Infrastructure Improvements ................................................................................................. 108
III. 3. 3. Contribution to the establishment of economically viable resettlement schemes ......................... 108
III. 3. 3. 1. Support for the preparation of the resettlement schemes on the Communal Lands................................. 109
II. 3. 3. 2. Provision of adequate rural services and creation of adequate infrastructures in the resettlement areas .. 109
II. 3. 3. 3. Evaluation of the resettlement options on the Commercial Lands ........................................................... 109
II. 3. 4. Land Acquisition ............................................................................................................................ 109
II. 3. 4. 1. Recapitalisation of the Agribank and technical assistance to support commercially viable land transfer
projects ..................................................................................................................................................................... 110
II. 3. 4. 2. Assessing the feasibility and financing of a scheme providing grants to local governments for the purchase
of municipal commonage ......................................................................................................................................... 110
II. 3. 5. Housing strategy ............................................................................................................................ 110
II. 3. 5. 1. Background .............................................................................................................................................. 110
II. 3. 5. 2. Major Constraints ..................................................................................................................................... 111
II. 3. 5. 3. Strategy Proposal ..................................................................................................................................... 111
(i) Supporting local authorities in the planning of land developments and housing provision ............................. 111
(1) supporting the implementation of the decentralised process ...................................................................... 111
(2) improve access to finance........................................................................................................................... 111
(3) promoting partnership with the private sector ............................................................................................ 111
(4) implementation of a flexible land tenure system ........................................................................................ 112
(ii) Supporting programme aimed to give low income groups access to the housing opportunities ..................... 112
(1) daily savings among the communities ........................................................................................................ 112
(2) surveys ....................................................................................................................................................... 112
(3) improving incomes ..................................................................................................................................... 112
(4) construction of affordable housing facilities .............................................................................................. 112
(5) lowering the cost of the land and housing developments ........................................................................... 112
(6) provision for land development, aimed to assure the land availability for housing projects ...................... 112
CHAPTER III: RURAL SERVICES AND RURAL INFRASTRUCTURE STRATEGIES..................... 113
III. 1. IMPROVED COMMUNICATIONS ............................................................................................................... 113
III. 1. 1. General background ..................................................................................................................... 113
III. 1. 1. A. Specific background for information dissemination and communication networks ................. 113
III. 1. 1. B. Specific background for transport facilities in rural areas ...................................................... 114
III. 1. 2. Major constraints.......................................................................................................................... 116
III. 1. 3. Strategy proposal .......................................................................................................................... 116
III. 1. 3. 1. Improved information dissemination ...................................................................................................... 116
(i) traditional use of communication channels by development agents ................................................................ 116
(ii) radio-listening clubs ....................................................................................................................................... 117
(iii) community newsletters .................................................................................................................................. 117
(iv) exchange visits............................................................................................................................................... 118
(v) farmers groups ................................................................................................................................................ 118
(vi) church role in information dissemination ...................................................................................................... 118
III. 1. 3. 2. Improved communication network ......................................................................................................... 118
III. 1. 3. 3. Improved transport .................................................................................................................................. 119
(i) access and mobility.......................................................................................................................................... 120
(ii) improve and maintain rural transport infrastructure through labour-intensive works ..................................... 121
III. 2. HEALTH STRATEGY ............................................................................................................................... 123
III. 2. 1. Background ................................................................................................................................... 123
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RPSF
Table of Content & List of Annexes
III. 2. 2. Major constraints.......................................................................................................................... 128
III. 2. 3. Strategy proposal .......................................................................................................................... 129
III. 2. 3. 1. Improve the performance of the health sector ......................................................................................... 130
(i) physical accessibility of health services and facilities ..................................................................................... 130
(ii) financial accessibility of health services and facilities ................................................................................... 130
(iii) availability of material resources ................................................................................................................... 130
(iv) strengthening community-driven primary health care services, prevention actions and grass-root level safety
nets ....................................................................................................................................................................... 131
III. 2. 3. 2. Support “Environmental Health” at the community level ....................................................................... 131
(i) HIV/AIDS ....................................................................................................................................................... 131
(ii) occupational health ......................................................................................................................................... 133
(iii) rural sanitation, solid waste disposal, and rural water supply, collection and storage ................................... 133
(iv) food hygiene, safety and quality assurance .................................................................................................... 134
III. 2. 3. 3. Cross-cutting and multi-sectoral issues ................................................................................................... 134
(i) education and health ........................................................................................................................................ 134
(ii) transportation and health ................................................................................................................................ 134
(iii) communication, information dissemination and health ................................................................................. 134
(iv) gender and vulnerable groups health issues ................................................................................................... 134
III. 3. SMALL-FARM INFRASTRUCTURE STRATEGY ........................................................................................... 134
III. 4. MARKET INFRASTRUCTURE STRATEGY .................................................................................................. 134
III. 5. ACCESS TO WATER ................................................................................................................................. 135
III. 5. 1. Background ................................................................................................................................... 135
III. 5. 2. Major constraints.......................................................................................................................... 136
III. 5. 3. Strategy proposal .......................................................................................................................... 139
III. 5. 3. 1. Improved water infrastructure in rural areas ........................................................................................... 139
(i) provision of water small-infrastructure and equipment ................................................................................... 139
(ii) community-based management for water supply and water infrastructure & equipment maintenance .......... 139
III. 5. 3. 2. Improved use, conservation and protection of all water resources in an environmentally sustainable
manner ...................................................................................................................................................................... 140
(i) public-awareness programmes and water-demand management ..................................................................... 140
(ii) clear definition of legal and functional links at local level ............................................................................. 140
(iii) participatory approach for water-resource management ................................................................................ 140
(iv) capacity building at all levels ........................................................................................................................ 140
CHAPTER IV: STRATEGIES SUPPORTING THE DECENTRALISED PROCESS ............................. 141
IV. 1. BACKGROUND ....................................................................................................................................... 141
IV. 2. MAJOR CONSTRAINTS............................................................................................................................ 142
IV. 2. 1. Roots and challenges of the decentralisation process ................................................................... 142
IV. 2. 2. Future policy framework for Civil Society and Economic and Social partners ............................ 143
IV. 2. 3. Decentralisation, a starting-process in Namibia based on young structures ............................... 145
IV. 3. STRATEGY PROPOSAL ............................................................................................................................ 146
IV. 3. 1. Capacity Building and Overarching Issues .................................................................................. 146
IV. 3. 1. 1. Creating Economic Opportunities for Poor ............................................................................................ 149
(i) Improved incitating environment – reform legal and regulatory framework for agricultural producer
organisations and community-based organisations .............................................................................................. 150
(ii) Support establishment of national and local APOs and CBOs ....................................................................... 150
(iii) Build capacity of APOs and other CBOs ...................................................................................................... 150
(iv) Improve linkages at national / regional level between research and extension services ................................ 151
(v) Provide training for extension subject matter specialists ................................................................................ 151
(vi) Provide education support and training, including basic education & managerial and accounting skills ...... 151
(vii) Improve ability to exploit the export market ................................................................................................ 151
(viii) Assist in formulation of rural micro-finance policy and programme strategy ............................................. 151
(ix) Support establishment of micro-finance institutions and provide funds in support of diversified income
generating activities.............................................................................................................................................. 151
(x) Support communities to implement projects improving production infrastructure and increasing agricultural
production and food security ................................................................................................................................ 151
(xi) Improve information and communication technologies and access to information ....................................... 151
IV. 3. 1. 2. Increased Capabilities for Poor ............................................................................................................... 152
(i) Coverage & access to basic services and social protection .............................................................................. 152
(ii) Adequate and predictable resources for local authorities................................................................................ 153
(iii) Demarcation of responsibilities for delivery ................................................................................................. 153
(iv) Capable and motivated civil servants ............................................................................................................ 153
(v) Accountability downwards ............................................................................................................................. 153
(vi) Development of local capacity to and manage local development ................................................................ 153
(vii) Divisional level institutions operational and supporting local development ................................................. 153
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RPSF
Table of Content & List of Annexes
(viii) Establishing and operationalising programme management and monitoring units ...................................... 154
IV. 3. 1. 3. Increased Security for the Poor ............................................................................................................... 154
(i) Development of risk preventing and bearing capacity ..................................................................................... 155
(ii) Improve rural safety nets & prevention interventions at community level ..................................................... 155
IV. 3. 1. 4. Empowerment of the Poor ...................................................................................................................... 155
(i) Improved participatory development policies through decentralisation .......................................................... 156
(ii) Definition of pro-poor governance rules and priorities................................................................................... 156
(iii) Improved gender equity................................................................................................................................. 156
(1) improved access to education ..................................................................................................................... 156
(2) improved access to health services ............................................................................................................. 156
(3) support women’s associations .................................................................................................................... 156
(4) increase autonomy of women ..................................................................................................................... 156
IV. 4. 2. Institutional Strengthening - Assessing the design of intergovernmental relations for the poverty
reduction strategy ....................................................................................................................................... 157
CHAPTER V: STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK AND ORIENTATIONS ..................................................... 159
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RPSF
Table of Content & List of Annexes
List of Annexes
Annex 1:
Terms of Reference – For technical assistance to assist in the design of a Rural Profile and
Strategic Framework (RPSF) for Namibia
Annex 2:
Mission(s) Schedule
Annex 3:
Maps, geographic features and land use
Annex 4:
Population density, migration and the impact of HIV/Aids
Annex 5:
Rural profile – North-central Region
Annex 6:
Rural profile – Caprivi Region
Annex 7:
Rural profile – Kavango Region
Annex 8:
Rural profile – Kuene Region
Annex 9:
Rural profile – Tsumkwe Region
Annex 10:
Rural profile – Labourers on Commercial Farms
Annex 11:
Rural profile – Communal Areas (Eastern Region, Herero Ethnic Group + Southern Region,
Nama-Damara Ethnic Group)
Annex 12:
Donors Interventions
Annex 13:
Training and Education
Annex 14:
Gender & Minorities
Annex 15:
Health vulnerability & HIV/AIDS
Annex 16:
Developing sustainable Microfinance Institutions
Annex 17:
Decentralisation & Non-State Actors
Annex 19:
Poverty and Human Indicators
Annexe 20:
NIP / CSP 2001 – 2007 Intervention Frameworks
Annex: 21:
Main rural groups and their livelihoods: Assets and Strategy
Annex 22:
Background Paper 2
Annex 23:
Background Paper 1
Annex 25:
Bibliography
Annex 26:
Further comments – further issues to be addressed by follow-up missions
"On- and Off- Farm Diversification"
Annex 27:
vii
Land Reform in Namibia, Final Report (Richard Bullard, March 2002)
Introductory Chapter
The Rural Profile and Strategic Framework (RPSF) exercise in Namibia was started in February 2001.
The study process was conducted in a participatory manner between the relevant state and non-state
actors, EU Members States, EU Delegation, and project representatives, and RPSF mission team.
The objective of the study was to identify orientations 1 for International Donors' support in
rural areas within a coherent strategic framework for Namibia. This country framework is guided
by the overall objective set by the Second National Development Plan of Namibia (NDPII), namely, to
support a satisfactory trend towards the sustainable enhancement of rural population livelihoods in
Namibia. In this approach, “rural” is not identified with a sector, but is considered as an overarching
theme, allowing the logical analysis and integration of the multiple factors which affect the living
conditions of rural people.
The EC Rural Development Policy further contributes to the four goals set for the Development and
Co-operation Policy of the EC in the Maastricht Treaty, namely2:

to alleviate poverty;

to support economic growth based on improved competitiveness on open markets;

to consolidate democracy, the rule of law and respect for human rights; and

to promote sustainable management of natural resources.
As such, these four components also guide the formulation of the Namibian Strategic Framework for
Rural Development (the RPSF). More in specific they are translated into a rural setting as striving
towards the achievement of the following six complementary results 3:

more peaceful, equitable, open and democratic rural societies;-

more effective and accountable rural institutions;

economic policies which enable rural growth;

enhanced individual assets of rural dwellers;

a more sustainable management of natural resources;

a greater coherence between the donors development policies and other related policies such
as agriculture, trade, fisheries, environment and immigration.
The Rural Development Profile and Strategic Framework (RPSF) for Namibia will be used to device
future interventions by the International Donors in the area of Rural Development.
1 This mission identified possible orientations for the strategies regarding the Poverty Reduction and Rural Development interventions.
Financed by the EC, the RPSF defines the focal areas on which the EC financement under the 9th EDF could be channelled. Those
orientations are the basis for a further prioritisation exercise (follow-up mission January/February 2002).
2
EC Policy and Approach to Rural Development – Fighting Rural Poverty, 15 June 2000, DG Development and Food Security
3
idem
1
RPSF Namibia
Introduction
In many developing countries rural populations make up a large share of the population and still a
larger share of the poor people. In such countries, progressing towards the results targeted by the
overall Development Policies implies implementing actions focusing on rural populations and areas. A
RPSF may contribute to improving the design and implementation of these actions, thus impacting
positively on their relevance and effectiveness. This is also valid for Namibia.
The livelihood approach has been adopted as an appropriate methodology for the RPSF in that it
considers the various components that contribute to people’s livelihoods in rural areas and not
concentrates on one sector only.
In finding answers to the questions listed below, the consultants' team - in joint consultation with the
various stakeholders - have tried to give shape to the Namibian RPSF:
1. Which rural population groups will be targeted and how to these groups make their
living?
This involved the identification of the rural population groups with focus to poverty reduction and a
description of their livelihoods (assets, strategy, outcomes) and the relevant sectoral and crosscutting issues (environment, gender, education, decentralisation, non-states actors, HIV/AIDS,
micro-finance, land reform).
2. How does the institutional environment impact on rural population groups?
This included an assessment of the capacity of traditional and non-traditional governance bodies
and also an assessment of the impact of the Government’s decentralisation policy.
3. What are the main problems hampering the enhancement of the target group’s living
conditions?
In addressing this question, the problems faced by the target groups were identified ad an
assessment made of their impact. In conclusion, a prioritisation of the problems was made.
4. What are the policies and actions addressing the main problems identified, implemented
by the Government of Namibia, the EC, other donors and non-state actors?
In relation to the priority problems identified, the strategic orientation and impact of the various
existing and planned interventions was assessed, followed by an identification of the initiatives
that could or should be undertaken or supported by the International Donors.
5. What are the strategic orientations and the key parameters for the strategic framework
for support to rural development in Namibia?
Subsequently, based on the framework, rural development potential interventions were identified.
At the end of the exercise, the RPSF is aimed to become a co-ordination tool, an instrument
supporting the development of a policy and intervention dialogue between the Namibian Authorities
and the International Donors. The RPSF should encourage building complementary efforts upon the
"comparative advantages" among the various donors and thus avoid any duplication or conflict in the
respective interventions.
2
Executive Summary
The methodology used in the formulation of the Namibian Rural (Development) Profile and Strategic
Framework – RPSF - has been that of a participatory approach combined with in-depth background
research by the consultants’ team which included field visits. A strong emphasis has been given to the
support for decentralisation and to the subsidiarity of implementation (lowest most appropriate level
with a proper balance between public and private sectors). The research findings are detailed in a
total of 27 annexes, and the key findings synthesised in the main report.
The design process took place in two stages (parts) and two field missions.
The first part of the design process - "Rural Profile Livelihood Approach" – aims at characterising
the rural profile which the strategy will have to deal with, and is organised in 4 chapters:

Chapter I: Main rural population groups and their livelihoods
In this chapter are presented the findings of the 8 rural profiles that describe the livelihoods of the
rural population in the geographic locations: North-Central area, the Kavango Region, the Kunene
Region, the Caprivi Region, the Otjonzondjupa Region, the Tsumkwe district area, the communal
areas in Okakarara, Otjinene and Gobabis and the communal areas in the Hardap and Karas
regions and a rural group not bound by geographic location, namely labourers on commercial
farms. It is here that the target groups that will benefit from development assistance under the
Framework are identified.

Chapter II: Institutional Environment of Rural Population Groups and its impact on the Targeted
Population Groups
This chapter describes the institutional environment faced by the rural target groups, in terms of
local, regional and central government and traditional governance bodies as well as non-state
actors active in the rural areas where the target groups reside.

Chapter III: Problems hampering the enhancement of rural livelihoods
In chapter III the various problems encountered by the rural target groups are identified, analysed
and prioritised. Also, the inter-relationship between the various problems is highlighted.
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
Executive Summary
Chapter IV: Government and donor’s rural development policies and actions
Chapter IV provides an overview of existing and planned development activities by Government,
the EC and other donors and non-state actors that address the priority problem areas. The
constraints faced are highlighted with a view to identify the gaps in the development interventions.
The second part of the design process - "Strategic Framework and Orientations" – deals with the
strategy and its implementation, and is structured in 4 chapters:

Chapter I: On- and Off- Farm Diversification Strategies
This chapter addresses the following strategic pillars: on-farm income generating opportunities
diversification, off-farm income generating opportunities diversification and increased linkages
between farms and SMMEs.
The first strategic pillar (on-farm diversification) addresses three key constraints and challenges
inhibiting the rural development: (i) low productivity and inadequate on-farm management; (ii)
ineffective input and output strategies; and (iii) ineffective and/or insufficient agricultural support
services. Intervention options are intended to promote diversification of income generating
opportunities on- and off- farm, in environmentally sustainable rural livelihoods attaining a more
equitable income distribution, through several orientations: (1) productivity strategy; (2) input
strategy; (3) output strategy; and (4) agricultural support services strategy.
The second strategic pillar (off-farm diversification) addresses four key constraints and challenges
inhibiting the SMME development in Namibia: (i) reduced access to the financial services; (ii) lack
of technical skill, and lack of knowledge in financial management and marketing; (iii) limited
access to regional/international market due to lack of information and absence of quality
standards regulation; (iv) lack of information on legal regulations. Interventions are focused on: (1)
building effective and accessible rural financial institutions; (2) creating a proper enterprise
economic environment; (3) capacity building; and (4) improving access to information and
communication technologies. Tourism development is regarded as an important component for
off-farm diversification strategies, due to the capacity of the tourism industry to both create new
jobs and generate new income sources, and to broaden the economic base of local communities.
The different areas of interventions in the tourism sector encompass: (1) human resource
development; (2) development of community based tourism; (3) development of wildlife resorts;
(4) natural resource management and environmental conservation; (5) Namibian destination and
image building and marketing.
The third strategic pillar (linkages between farms and SMMEs) addresses the possible cooperation opportunities to be created between the on- and off-farm activities and encourages a
4
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Executive Summary
continuos exchange of information and increased communication between both the inhabitants of
one specific region and the neighbouring regions. The final objective of this component, is to
enhance the regional and sectorial synergies.

Chapter II: Land Reform Strategies
The proposed land reform interventions are based on experience-based principles: rapid
implementation of actions, economic viability of options, political acceptability and legitimacy of
the programmes, clear definition of the role that the public sector can and should play and
coherence of the land reform with the broader, comprehensive programme of economic
restructuring going on in the country.
Intervention options presented focus on the enhancement of the policy framework and support to
the implementation of GRN measures with regards the land strategies, including housing and
natural resources management, through: (1) improved legal framework; (2) increased assistance
for capacity building; (3) establishment of economically viable resettlement schemes; (4)
improved scheme for land acquisition; (5) improved housing legal framework and strategies; and
(6) enhanced and integrated natural resources management strategies.

Chapter III: Rural Services and Rural Infrastructures
Intervention options focus on the improvement of the rural services and rural infrastructures
addressing the following strategic pillars: communications, health, small-farm infrastructure,
market infrastructure and access to water.
In terms of communications, the interventions will be aimed to improve: (1) the information
dissemination
by
proposing
adapted
provision
of
infrastructures
giving
access
to
telecommunication services, information and communication technologies to marginalised
communities and (2) the transport facilities by proposing adapted provision of transport
infrastructure and services in order to increase the access to remote and/or disadvantaged areas
and the mobility of target groups in terms of access to medical services, education, market and
inputs.
In terms of health strategies, the interventions will be aimed to: (1) support accessibility,
availability and appropriateness of primary health care; (2) reduce inter-regional disparities in
terms of health expenditures and assuring an equitable access to health services and facilities for
poor and other vulnerable groups; and to (3) increase participatory initiatives at the local
community level in terms of health services, access maintenance and awareness building to care
and prevention services. In a broader context, health strategies are viewed as a cross-cutting and
multi-sectoral issue and co-ordination between the different interventions is highly advised.
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Executive Summary
In terms of small-farm infrastructure and market infrastructure, the interventions are aimed to
guarantee an appropriate provision of services and infrastructures related to the on- and off-farm
activities.
In terms of access to water, the strategic orientations addresses the major constrains
encountered at the rural level by proposing interventions aimed to: (1) promote a more equitable
and efficient allocation of water; (2) promote water conservation; and (3) facilitate the co-operation
with the private sector. It is highlighted in this chapter the importance of involving the local
communities in the management of the water resources (in terms of maintenance of water supply
local infrastructures and of sustainable use of water resources). The question of land use and
land rights (in terms of access to water and water resources exploitation) is also of an extreme
importance, as it can hamper the efficient and sustainable use of water resources.

Chapter IV: Capacity Building and Institutional Strengthening through a Decentralised Process
Intervention options presented are aimed to foster the rural livelihoods by strengthening the
decentralisation process in rural areas. This strategic orientation comprises capacity building for
development planning and implementation at decentralised level, institutional capacity building
support for the non-state actors and covers all pro-poor governance measures and policies
supporting the alleviation of gender and minorities discrimination.
During the first mission (February to June 2001) various documents were consulted including the
Second National Development Plan for Namibia, other Government policy documents and
programmes and EDF 7 and 8. A one-day workshop was held on 17 April 2001 with some 80
representatives of various stakeholders representing cross-sectoral interests, followed by a second
workshop took place on 27 April 2001 with a group of 25 persons, mainly directors from key line
ministries, representatives of several NGOs, the EC headquarters, the EU delegation and some of the
EU member states. Bilateral meetings were held with key resources persons, and written comments
on the first draft RDP report were received from a wide range of people.
A second mission took place in Windhoek between the 18 th and the 27th November 2001, during
which the two consultants invited the Namibian Authorities (National Planning Commission –NPC and
representatives of the line ministries – Agriculture, Land, …) and the EC Delegation to discuss the
draft of the "Strategic Framework and Orientations". The mission supported its affirmations and
proposals by official studies and documents such as the National Development Plan II, the Poverty
Reduction Strategy and the Poverty Reduction Action Programme and the EC – Namibia Country
Strategy (evaluation of the 1996-2000 period and the new document for the 2001-2007 period). A
restitution meeting has been organised on the 26th November where have been invited
representatives of the line ministries, the EC Delegation members and representatives of other donors
and stakeholders. During this meeting, a "Zero-Draft" has been officially been presented on the
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Executive Summary
Strategic Orientations report. The content of the report has been deeply discussed and build on basis
of meetings between the consultants and the Namibian Authorities.
The current, final version of the Rural Profile and Strategic Framework Report is the result of a
participatory analysis process having involved the Namibian Authorities (at the central and
decentralised levels), the EC representatives and other development partners, the civil society and
representatives of the target groups. It is intended to be a sourcebook, for both international donors in
the definition of their country strategy (with reference to focal sectors) and for the Namibian
authorities, supposed to effectively take the lead on the Poverty Reduction initiatives and to
internationalised the process of development and economic restructuring.
7
Part One: Rural Profile Livelihood Approach
Chapter I: Main rural population groups and their livelihoods
The first step in the design of the RPSF aims to identify the most significant population groups of the
overall rural population, to select those to be targeted in priority by the external donors' interventions,
and to describe the main features of their livelihoods.
I. 1. Rural areas and rural populations
I. 1. 1. Geographic features
I. 1. 1. 1. Bio-climatic zones
Namibia covers 823,988 km2. The overwhelming features of Namibia’s bio-climate are the low fertility of the soil and the scarce
and unpredictable rainfall. The climatic pattern of the country is mostly semi-arid (69%) with 200-400 annual rainfall. About 16%
of the land is arid with 50-200 mm annual rainfall, 12% is hyper-arid in the west with 0-50 mm annual rainfall, and 3% is tropical
semi-humid in the north-east with 400-750 mm annual rainfall.
Namibia can be divided into four major landforms4: 1) the coastal plain and Namib desert; 2) the broken and rugged Namib
escarpment; 3) the rocky central plateau; and 4) the Kalahari sandveld.
The coastal plain and Namib desert, with sandy and rocky soils, less than 100 mm annual rainfall, high water deficit and a less
than 30 days growing period, is not suitable for any type of farming development. The vegetation covers less than 5% of the
territory, composed of desert grasses and shrubs. Most of this area is inhabited and under protected and restricted land tenure.
The population density in the rural areas is low while people involved in fisheries and mining live in the coastal towns.
The broken and rugged Namib escarpment, with poor sandy, lime and rocky soils, watered by less
than 150 mm annual rainfall, records very high water deficits and a less than 40 days growing period.
The area is not suitable for annual crops or cattle husbandry. Between an altitude of 600 and 2500
meters, the vegetation is composed of desert grass species and savannah. Population density is very
low, and people live on privately owned or communal land.
The rocky central plateau, with sandy and rocky soils on 1000-2000 meters altitude, receives 150 to
500 mm annual rainfall, causing a high water deficit, and less than 90 days growing period, which
corresponds to the semi-arid climatic area. The savannah, shrub and clear woodland is suitable for
extensive livestock husbandry. Most of the plateau is divided into private and fenced commercial
ranches. Some areas are under communal tenure.
The Kalahari sandveld, with soils ranging from sandy to clay texture has poor to medium fertility. The
annual rainfall is 350 to 750 mm, causing a medium water deficit. With a growing period of 50-130
days, it is the most appropriate area for both cropping and livestock husbandry. Situated at an altitude
of 900-1200 meters in the northern fringe of the country, bordered by some permanent rivers, it is by
4
See Annex 3: "Maps, geographic features and land use"
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far the most populated area. The farmers use the communal savannah and woodland vegetation for
small-scale farming and livestock husbandry.
I. 1. 1. 2. Land use
Namibia has a poor farming potential. Despite this, about 60% of the territory are used for farming,
gathering and conservancies' purposes. This area includes 300,000 km 2, and consists for 36% of
semi-arid and tropical semi arid areas with farming possibility.
With 90-120 days growing period, rain-fed cropping of maize, sorghum, millet, sugarcane, cotton,
vegetable and fruits can only take place in the tropical semi-humid in the north-east (3% of the
national territory, 400-750 mm annual rainfall) and in the north-western part of the semi-arid area
(3,5% of the semi-arid area corresponding to the 400 mm annual rainfall pattern). Short-cycle and
drought resistant crops such as sorghum, millet, cotton, and granadilla (passion fruit) can be grown in
60-90 days periods in a zone of about 8% of the national territory.
Historically, the national land5 is divided into communal mostly subsistence-farming-oriented land
(335,000 km2), privately owned commercial farmland (362,000 km2), state-controlled protected land
(114,000 km2) and protected industrial areas (26,000 km 2).
About 120,000 households inhabit the communal areas. In the Kalahari sandveld, comprising the North Central, Kavango and
Caprivi, where most of the people are small-scale farmers. The main components of their farming systems are cereal crops,
small and large livestock, gathering and fishing. Large state or individual farms, protected areas and conservancies can also
be found.
In the communal areas of the rocky central plateau, north of Windhoek, cattle husbandry, gathering and hunting are the main
activities. Tourism oriented conservancies are being developed in Kunene and Tsumkwe.
In the communal areas of the south rocky central plateau and south of the broken and rugged Namib escarpment, extensive
sheep and goat husbandry, gathering and hunting takes place as the main activities. Some areas are state protected and
tourist oriented. Specific farming conditions allow large market-oriented grape plantation near the Orange River, and some date
palm plantations.
The private commercial farms occupy the central of the rocky central plateau. Traditionally planned for
extensive market-oriented meat cattle ranching, several of the 6,200 private farms are currently
diversifying their activities towards dairy farming and ostrich growing, game hunting and tourism.
Some of these farms are purchased for resettlement programmes.
The state-controlled protected areas are managed for conservation and tourism purposes. There are
3 national parks, 5 game parks, 2 coastal recreational areas, 3 recreational resorts, 1 game camp, 1
hot spring, the Waterberg plateau park, the Skeleton Coast Park, the South West Nature Park, the AiAIS/Hunsberg Reserve Complex, the Cape Cross Seal reserve and the Namib-Naukluft Park.
The protected industrial area can be found in the Sperrgebiet mining areas, along the southern coast,
where diamonds are extracted.
5
See Annex 3: "Maps, geographic features and land use"
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I. 1. 2. Population
I. 1. 2. 1. Population distribution
The population, amounting to 1.7 million persons, is unequally distributed over the 13 regions of
Namibia. About 70% of the national population are concentrated in the north of the Veterinary Cordon
Fence, with Omusati (15.1 pers/km²), Ohangwena (17,9 pers/km²) and Oshana (26.0 pers/km²) being
the most populated regions of the north. According to the latest census (of 1991), 90% of the
households in the north are living in rural areas and 10% in the urban and semi-urban areas. The
region of Khomas (4.4 pers/km²), including Windhoek, is the most populated southern and the most
urbanised region with only 12% of the households living in rural areas. The population density figure
for the whole of Namibia is 1.7 pers/km². Since 1991, available data shows a continuous migration
from rural to urban areas.
There are 10 main language groups represented in the country. The Oshiwambo speakers are the
most numerous, living principally in the North Central but also in many towns in central and coastal
Namibia (Windhoek, Walvis Bay, Swakopmund, Otjiwarongo and Tsumeb). Similarly to the
Rukavango speakers living mainly in Okavango and the Caprivi/Lozi in Caprivi, they have a long
tradition of farming based on cropping, livestock husbandry, fishing and gathering. The Otjiherero
speakers, Nama/Damara and Tswana are animal owners, with a traditional farming system based on
nomadic or semi-nomadic way of life. The English, German and Afrikaners are involved in commercial
farming, fishing and businesses. The San people are traditionally hunters and gatherers though few
make their living that way nowadays.
I. 1. 2. 2. Population and human development
The Human Development Index (UNDP 1998 6) is 0.632. Compared to the Sub-Saharan Africa
countries, Namibia is well above average of 0.464, though this obscures marked differences amongst
the various groups in society. This ranking is the result of relatively high GDP per capita (5,176 US$),
high education index (0.82) and adult literacy rate (80.8%) and a low life expectancy index (0.42 or
50.1 years) in Namibia.
A measure for the distribution of income is the GINI coefficient. A coefficient of 1 would reflect a
perfectly equal distribution of income. In Namibia the GINI coefficient is 0.64, reflecting the highly
skewed distribution of income.
Namibia ranks 96 amongst 174 countries, in the gender-related development index (0.624).
Compared to the Sub-Saharan Africa countries, Namibia is well above average and ranks 6 after
Seychelles, Mauritius, South Africa, Cape Verde and Swaziland.
6
Data from the (International) Human Development Report 2000, UNDP.
See also Annex 19: "Poverty and Human Indicators"
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Within Namibia, Caprivi scores the lowest human development indices amongst the regions, followed
by Ohangwena, Okavango, Oshikoto and Kunene regions. Caprivi records also the lowest life
expectancy while Ohangwena region has the lowest recorded average income.
Amongst the different linguistic groups, the San communities are by far the group with the lowest human development index,
followed by the Rukavango, the Nama / Damara, the Caprivi / Lozi and the Oshiwambo. The San people combine the lowest
score for all the HDI indicators, with a particular low index for adult literacy and school enrolment.
I. 1. 2. 3. Population and poverty dimension
On the Human Poverty Index (HPI), Namibia scores 26.6 or 44th place in the group of 174 countries
(1998)7. This ranking is based on the non survival rate to age 40 (33.5%), adult illiteracy rate (19.2%),
people without access to safe water (17%), population without access to sanitation (38%), underweight children under age five (26%), and a population below income poverty line (34.9%).
Since 1990, there has been an increase in poverty due to the reduction of life expectancy caused by
HIV/AIDS. From 1995 to 2000, life expectancy dropped significantly from 55 to 48 years.
Within Namibia, Caprivi region records the highest poverty (32.7), also caused by the high occurrence
of HIV/AIDS. Ohangwena and Omaheke are following immediately with 32.6 and 31 respectively.
Omaheke and Kunene have the highest illiteracy rate. Omusati and Ohangwena have the highest rate
of population with unsafe water. Omaheke. Oshikoto and Ohangwena have the highest rate of
population without health facilities nearby. Omaheke and Okavango have the highest percentage,
25.1% and 19.6% respectively, of households spending over 80% income on food, suggesting that
those households are chronically living under the poverty line.
If we look at the linguistic groups, the San score high in poverty, with 58.1. This is caused by a high
non-survival rate to 40 years (35.0%), high illiteracy rate (84%), poor health facilities, and a high
percentage of income (28.7%) spend on food. The Rukavango and the Oshiwambo linguistic groups
score 31.4 and 29.4 poverty index respectively. The English, German and Afrikaners have the lowest
poverty indices with 7.0, 9.2 and 9.3 respectively.
I. 2. The main rural population groups and their livelihoods
I. 2. 1. Approach
The sustainable livelihood approach, adopted for the Namibian RDPSF, offers an opportunity to
improve poverty reduction efforts by taking an all round view of the circumstances of the poor, as they
themselves view them, rather than jumping to early conclusions and immediately proceeding to
conduct isolated, in-depth analysis of particular attributes.
The methodology describes the assets which the target groups can mobilise in the making of their
living: human, natural, social, physical and financial assets, highlighting the development trends of
7
See Annex 19: "Poverty and Human Indicators"
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these assets, and possibly the shocks that may impact on them. It characterises the strategies
implemented by these rural populations groups, i.e. the way they utilise their assets in order to
achieve some targeted outcomes. These outcomes are assessed in terms of income, well-being,
reduced vulnerability to risks, food security and sustainable use of natural resources.
For the Namibian RDPSF the process of profiling the rural population and their development covered
all areas of Namibia inhabited by rural population. A geographic separation was made based first on
the assumption that the land tenure between the privately-owned land and the communal land was
one of the main criteria explaining the diversity of livelihood and production systems. In the northern
part of the country, the Veterinary Cordon Fence, divided those two tenures. The secondary criteria
for territory selection was based on regional administrative boundaries, supported by the fact that
most of the quantitative and qualitative information, survey, statistics and planning data available is
organised by region. However, for the regions combining privately-owned and communal tenures, the
profile was separated by tenure. One of the profiles was not based on territorial criteria but on socioeconomic characteristics.
Using this division, 8 rural groups were identified, 7 based on geographic location and 1 group
characterized by socio-economic factors8, namely: 1) North-Central area; 2) Kavango; 3) Kunene; 4)
Caprivi; 5) Otjonzondjupa - Tsumkwe district area; 6) Communal areas in Okakarara, Otjinene and
Gobabis, 7) communal areas in Hardap and Karas regions; and 8) laborers and their families on
commercial farms.
Livelihoods differ from community to community, from household to household 9. There are several
possible approaches and criteria to classify different households. In the process to built strategies
towards the objective to reduce poverty in rural areas, two concepts were selected to differentiate the
groups:

Dependency ratio, the number of potentially active persons in relation to the number of nonactive persons in one household. Said differently: the number of producers per number of
people to feed in the household.

Labour productivity: the capacity of potentially economically active persons to turn his/her
labour into income. Said differently: the return value in kind and cash provided by the total
household labour force, and originating from the sum of activities carried out over a ‘normal
year10’ cycle.
See Annexes 5 to 11: Rural profiles – "Main features of the target groups and their livelihoods: Assets and strategy"
In the context of our study, household refers to the family members attached to the same main residence represented by a shelter or cluster
of shelters, and sharing the same production territory, staple crop field, budget, and external sources of income provided by family members
or pensions. Members working seasonally outside the residential area and attached to this residential area are part of the household.
Members of a family based in another main residence, often married, but sending remittance in kind and cash, do not belong to the same
household as the main production and budget are separated.
10
Normal year is an analytical concept based on a year without major natural disaster (drought, pest on crops, flood, disease of livestock)
and family difficulties (disease, death, accident, divorce). In reality, normal years are infrequent.
8
9
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I. 2. 2. Salient features of the target groups and their livelihoods
Based on the profiles made for the 8 groups as listed above and applying the two concepts to
differentiate between them, i.e. the dependency ratio and labour productivity, a total of seventeen
rural groups11 were identified. However, for reasons of reporting and clarity these seventeen groups
have been consolidated into four categories. Who they are, what are their common characteristics,
what is the composition of the households in these rural groups and the way in which they use their
assets (financial, human, natural, physical and social) towards targeted outcomes 12 are outlined
below. Their scoring in terms of dependency ratio and labour productivity is also reflected. This is in
fact a key determinant in categorising the 17 groups.
The features of the rural-based socio-economic groups are outlined in Text Boxes 1.1 – 1.4 below.
11
The definition of each group is based on the salient features that have emerged from the available quantitative and qualitative studies. For
farm-based households, the number of cattle is a recognised indicator of saving, which give an indicator of physical, financial and social
assets. Small stock and crops are not relevant indicators to classify assets
12
See Annex 21: "Main rural groups and their livelihoods: Assets and Strategy'
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Text Box 1.1: Salient Features of the Rural-Based Socio-Economic Groups of CATEGORY 1
CATEGORY 1 RURAL GROUPS (NO. 1-4)
SCORING LOW ON DEPENDENCY RATIO AND LOW ON PRODUCTIVITY
Who they are:
1. Subsistence farmers without cattle, permanent wage or pension incomes;
2. Labourers dismissed from commercial farms, mines, fisheries and other sectors;
3. Not employed or partially employed people living in or around urban areas;
4. Subsistence farmers without large livestock, permanent wage or pension incomes and involved in newly operating conservancies.
Common
characteristics:
-
Weak labour force compared to number of people to feed and low labour productivity;
-
Food insecurity; vulnerable to economic and social changes, and drought;
-
Not enough income to finance the socio-economic improvements of the household. They are obliged to rely on second choice of coping
activities such as harvesting veld foods and hunting, local exchange, labouring for others, eating less preferred food and reducing their
consumption in case of drought and lack of food. Some of them depend on governmental food assistance;
Composition of the
Households:
Outcomes:
14
Weak labour force and no means to create savings are the two main features constraining socio-economic development.
Elderly with grandchildren, often orphaned from their parents, women headed households, households headed by unemployed persons,
widows with non-working dependants, disabled people suffering of chronic diseases, and alcohol abuse. They have families, which depend
totally on the small quantities of food or cash that comes in.
The negative trends and shocks that go with the lives of the category 1’ rural groups are often difficult to cope with and increase their
misery, keeping them in vicious poverty cycle. The socio-economic groups included in category 1 are the most affected by insufficient
income, poor well being, are vulnerable to number of risks including HIV/AIDS, and food insecurity. Risks, negative trends and shocks
mostly affect farm-based households, who have no non-farm activities. Those involved in conservancies better manage their natural
resources compared to those not involved in conservancies. Unemployed or under employed labourers face less number of risks compared
to farm-based households.
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EURATA Consortium
Text Box 1.2: Salient Features of the Rural-Based Socio-Economic Groups of CATEGORY 2
CATEGORY 2 RURAL GROUPS (NO. 5-9)
SCORING LOW ON DEPENDENCY RATIO AND MEDIUM ON PRODUCTIVITY
Who they are:
5. Subsistence farmers with less than 6 cattle;
6. Households with some members permanently employed and/or access to pension, food aid, project assistance;
7. Some subsistence farmers involved in tourism activities (e.g. in conservancies);
8. Households with small size rural off-farm activities;
9. Subsistence farmers with one or two permanent external sources of income.
Common
characteristics:
-
Weak labour force compared to number of people to feed and medium-high labour productivity;
-
Food security obtained in normal year 13 but no/low capacity of saving. Food and economic vulnerability and sometimes use of coping
activities;
-
The farm production does not ensure food sufficiency, but access to cash income supplements the food intake of the household;
-
Strategy focus on basic needs and sustainability of the income source;
-
Not enough savings to improve the socio-economic situation of the household, economic vulnerability;
-
Obligation to use preferred and secondary coping activities such as food purchase, gathering, working for others, especially in case of
natural disaster or sudden unemployment;
-
Lack of labour force in the household is the main common limiting factor for development.
Composition of the
households:
Parents, widows, female headed households, elderly with non-working dependants and benefiting from a pension, remittance, capital
inheritance, permanent employment or income from tourism.
Outcomes:
Most of the category 2’ rural groups can afford to secure food, school fees and basic health related costs. Consequently, well being is of a
higher standard compared to the rural groups of category 1. The positive trend in well being stems from involvement in off-farm activities.
Thus, similarly to the category 1’ rural groups, the farm-based household face more vulnerability to risks compared to off-farm activity based
communities. All of them face the HIV/AIDS pandemic.
13
Normal year is a year without major natural disaster (drought, pest on crops, flood, disease of livestock) and family difficulties (disease, death, accident, divorce).
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Text Box 1.3: Salient Features of the Rural-Based Socio-Economic Groups of CATEGORY 3
CATEGORY 3 RURAL GROUPS (NO.10-13)
SCORING MEDIUM ON DEPENDENCY RATIO AND LOW ON PRODUCTIVITY
Who they are:
10. Subsistence farmers with large household and without an external source of income or one small external source of income;
11. Small size cattle owners with farms;
12. Subsistence farmers with large households, involved in tourism (e.g. in conservancies);
13. Households involved in mixed activities such as agriculture, some cattle, small size off-farm activities.
Common
characteristics:
-
Medium labour force compared to number of people to feed and low labour productivity;
-
Food security obtained in a normal year but no/low capacity of saving and sometimes use of coping activities;
-
Strategy focus on maintaining basic physical assets and on increase of the level of income; obligation to use coping activities such as
sale of livestock and seasonal employment, especially in case of a natural disaster. Crops are seen as the main important source of
subsistence and income and are the pillar of the farming system;
-
Saving is the main common obstacle to development.
Composition of the
households:
Farmer or small size cattle owner, parents with small number (one or two) of non working dependants, widows or elderly alone, couples
without children, all involved in subsistence farming. They are mainly agriculturists.
Outcomes:
All category 3’ rural groups are able to secure food, access to education and basic heath services. The well being standard is average with
a stable or positive trend. Because they are all farm-based, they are vulnerable to an important number of nature-related risks. HIV/AIDS
affects all of them. For those communities involved in tourism oriented conservancies, a positive trend in the sustainable management of
natural resources can be observed. For the farm-based communities who are not involved in tourism this is often not the case. Tourism
shows vulnerability to the security risks spilling over from the armed conflict in Angola.
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Text Box 1.4: Salient Features of the Rural-Based Socio-Economic Groups of CATEGORY 4
CATEGORY 4 RURAL GROUPS (NO.14-17)
SCORING MEDIUM ON BOTH DEPENDENCY RATIO AND PRODUCTIVITY
Who they are:
14. Households with medium to large herds of cattle (more than 30), owning farms in communal areas;
15. Large cattle owners or owners of tourists farms in the commercial areas;
16. Rural entrepreneurs with medium to large business;
17. Rural households with cattle and employed family members with steady incomes.
Common
characteristics:
-
Medium – good labour force compared to number of people to feed and medium – good labour productivity;
-
Households are food secured and get sufficient incomes to improve their socio-economic conditions;
-
Strategy focus on maintaining and improving socio-economic situation, improving production system added value, increasing savings
and reserves, increasing social status;
-
Seasonal employees are hired during peak work periods;
-
No major constrains to improve well being.
Composition of the
households:
Most of them are large households. Farm couples with working dependants and some non-working dependants, widows or single farmers
with working dependants, young couples with no or few children, all with access to land, working capital and relatives with employment,
businesses, remittances or pensions.
Outcomes:
The owners of the commercial oriented farms, the entrepreneurs and the rural communities with several employees combine good income
and well being, low vulnerability to risks and no problem of food insecurity. Socio-economic trends are stabilised or positive. Most of the
owners of cattle in communal areas have good income and well being, but they are vulnerable to climatic and environmental risks as well as
theft. HIV/AIDS affect all categories, though to a lesser extent the farms owners in the commercial areas.
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In addition to the above tabulated main features, the difference between outcomes for farm-based
households in communal area and off-farm income-based households in communal area should be
highlighted. In communal areas, the income of the farm-based households is not enough to finance
the improvement of well being. For those, the well being is perceived as very poor to average standard
in the local context. In average, each farm-based group faces between 3 to 6 types of risk and
vulnerability14, compared to 2 to 3 for off-farm based households. Food security is not always ensured
for the three first categories. HIV/AIDS pandemic potentially affects all groups. In communal area,
access to water is an important issue, especially during dry seasons and drought period. Trends show
non-sustainable natural resources management, except for the farmer communities involved in
conservancies. For the poor farm-based households, female-headed households are more vulnerable
in terms of access to land. Their level of well being is relatively lower compared to male-headed
households. Overall, access to education and health services has improved over the last decade.
Access to information and extension services is limited in remote areas. The off-farm income based
households in the communal areas face fewer risks and are less affected by degradation of natural
resources compared to the farm-based households. In categories 2, 3 and 4, the level of income and
well being are stabilised or show positive trends. Food is secured most of the time.
I. 3. The rural population groups targeted by the RDPSF
The line of poverty stretches from the very poor or chronically poor (category 1) to the less poor and
some better off (category 4). Based on the different quantitative and qualitative data available, it is
estimated that about 35% of the rural households in Namibia belongs to category 1, about 50% to
category 2, 10% to category 3 and 5% percent to category 4 15.
The 17 socio-economic rural groups of the 4 categories are inter-related through territorial, social and
economic relationships. They live in the same area or are accessible to each other, and are
sometimes inter-dependant. Households may move between groups and categories as children grow
to working age and latter leave home, and as economic fortune changes. They may have developed
positive or negative relationships as part of the regular production systems and coping strategies, in
which there are winners and losers over access to assets. Strengthening of positive relationships and
reducing negative trends towards better equity and poverty reduction can not be achieved without the
involvement and active participation of all the groups concerned. Solutions may be found between
groups with share interests.
The outcomes for all 17 groups are assessed in terms of income, well-being, reduced vulnerability to
risks, food security and sustainable use of natural resources. This sensitivity analysis guided the
selection of 7 rural-based socio-economic groups that are to receive priority benefits from the rural
14
15
See Annex 21: "Main rural groups and their livelihoods: Assets and Strategy"
These figures are based on population density and rural development and poverty percentages.
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development programmes to be implemented under the RDPSF. The analysis is presented in Table
1.1 below.
Table 1.1: Main features of the target groups and their livelihoods: Outcomes
OUTCOMES
CATEGORIES/GROUPS
Income
Well-being
Vulnerability
Food security
to risk
CATEGORY 1
Group 1: Subsistence farmers
without
large
livestock,
permanent wage or pension
incomes;
Group 2: Laborers in rupture of
contract;
Group 3: Subsistence farmers
without
large
livestock,
permanent wage or pension
incomes and involved in newly
operating conservancies;
Group 4: Not employed or
partially employed people living
in or around urban areas.
CATEGORY 2
Group 5: Some subsistence
farmers with one or two
permanent external sources of
income;
Group 6: Subsistence farmers
with 3- 6 cattle;
Group 7: Some permanent
employee
members
and/or
access to pension, food aid,
project assistance;
Group 8: Some subsistence
farmers involved in running
conservancy tourism activities;
Group 9: Small size rural
business oriented households.
19
Sustainable
NRM
A; T; N
A; U, W, Z
A; E, G, I, J
A; D
B; E; F
A; M; N
A; N, Z
B; E
B; D
G
A; T; P
A; P, Z
A; E; F; G,
I, J
A or B; D
A; D
A; T, N
A; U
B; E
A; D
G
A or B; M;
U
B; U, Z
C; E, J
C
C
A or B; M,
N
B; M, U
B; N, W, Z
A; E, G, I, J
B or C;
C
A or B; U
C; E
B or C;
C or G
B, M, P
A or B; P, Z
B: E; F; G,
I, J
B or C
A; D
C; E
C
G
B; P
B; M; P
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CATEGORY 3
Group
10:
Some
large
household subsistence farmers
involved in conservancy tourism
activities;
Group 11: Subsistence farmers
without external source of
income or one small external
source of income;
Group 12: Small size cattle
owner with farms;
Group 13: Rural households
involved in mixed economy
agriculture – small private
business.
CATEGORY 4
Group 14: Medium and large
cattle owner with farms in
communal area;
Group
15:
Large
livestock/game stock owner
and/or tourism facilities in
commercial area
Group 16: Medium size and
large size rural entrepreneurs;
Group
17:
Some
rural
households with several wellpaid employees.
EURATA Consortium
B or C; M,
P
B; P, Z
A; E, F; G,
I, J
B or C;
A or C; D
B; T, N
B; U, Z
A; E, G, I, J
B or C; D
B or C; E; F
B; M, U
B; U, Z
A; E; F; G
B or C;
C; E; F
B; M, P
B or C; P, Z
C; E; F
C
C
B or C; T, U
B or C; P
D; E, F; G;
H
C
A; C or E; F
C; U
H
C
B; C or D
C; P
E
C
C
B or C; U
E
C
A or B or G
C; P or N
C; M, P
C; T, P
Legend
Income: food and basic need oriented only (A); finance also heath and education costs (B); finance
the improvement of well being (C); mostly earned by male (M); mostly earned by female (F); earned by
both Male and female (T); positive trend (P); Negative trend (N); unclear trend (U).
Well-being: perceived by the local communities as very poor/poor situation (A); perceived by the local
communities as average situation (B); perceived by the local communities as good situation (C);
positive trend in well-being (P); Negative trend in well-being (N); both tendencies (U); relatively, more
women-headed household are in poor well-being situation (W), Positive trends in access to education
and health services (Z).
Vulnerability at risk: drought, food, economy and well-being vulnerability (A); food, economy and wellbeing vulnerability (B); economy and well being vulnerability (C); well being vulnerability (D); HIV/AIDS
vulnerability (E); conflict/security vulnerability (F); Environment vulnerability (G); drought vulnerability
(H); no security on land (I); women more vulnerable than men over land and capital assets (J)
Food security: food not secured without permanent less preferred copping activities (A); Food not
secured without temporary preferred and less preferred copping activities (B); Food secured (C); High
food vulnerability (D).
Sustainable NRM: Sustainable NRM (A); Non sustainable NRM (B); Stabilised NRM trend (C); positive
trend (D); negative trend (E); Vulnerability to loss of natural resource (F); Not concerned (G)
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In terms of the asset base – access to natural, human, physical, social and financial resources – the
four categories show important differences. Graphically, the assets of four categories could be
depicted as per Figure 1.
Social
Assets
Financial
Assets
Category 4
Category 3
Physical Assets
Category 2
Category 1
Human
Assets
Natural
Assets
This pentagon shows clearly the high extent of marginalization of the rural groups in category 1 and
the differences in access to assets for each of the categories which improves for most of the asset
forms as one moves from category 1 to category 4.
The 7 rural based socio-economic groups identified using the sensitivity analysis are further detailed in
Table 1.2 below in terms of their size and geographic location. They are all in search for alternatives to
improve their livelihoods in an environment where actually few possibilities exist. Few in terms of
agricultural alternatives, difficulties to access land, low agricultural productivity of the land, limited
ability of the workforce in terms of health and education and few off-farm employment opportunities.
These groups face high vulnerability in the key factors used to assess the outcomes (incomes, well-
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being, vulnerability to risk, food security and sustainable natural resource management). Migration to
secondary cities appears a solution but there again they face other difficulties. The circle for most of
these groups is vicious and development programmes could break these circles. Without adequate
and well targeted external assistance, social and financial pressure will increase for the people making
up these groups with subsequent negative impacts, also on the environment. For most of these
groups, several government programmes already exist but they have so far not been able to reverse
the negative trend of poverty. Complementary programmes by donors agencies and NGOs to boost
employment creation, sustainable farm production, agricultural diversity, open up access to social and
economic support services may provide the necessary impetus to break the circle and turn around the
destination of these identified groups.
None of the groups in category 4 are included in the target groups for priority benefits from rural
development under the RDPSF for the fact that they have better access to the various assets, score
medium in terms of dependency ratio and labour productivity, and manage to use their assets to
achieve a reasonable level of outcomes in terms of income, well-being, vulnerability to risk, food
security and sustainable management of natural resources. The groups in category 4 are not caught
in the sharp downward poverty spiral that characterise the 7 out of 13 groups selected across
categories 1-3.
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Table 1.2: Estimated Size and Location of 7 Target Rural-Based Socio-Economic Groups
Target Groups for assistance
Estimated
under RPSF
of
%
Location
Priority location
Total
Population
CATEGORY 1
Group 1: Subsistence farmers
without
large
livestock,
permanent wage or pension
incomes
28%
North-central, Kunene,
Kavango, Caprivi
Cuvelai, around Katima
Mulilo and north west
Caprivi
Group 2: Laborers in rupture of
contract
2%
Commercial farms and
urban areas
Centre
Namibia,
and
South
coastal
of
area,
mining area
5%
Around
secondary
cities in rural areas
Tsumeb,
Oshakati,
Katima Mulilo, Tsumkwe
town,
Outjo,
Otavi,
Karibib,
Usakos,
Grootfontein,
Keetmanshoop, etc.
Group 5: Subsistence farmers
with 3- 6 cattle
5-8%
North-central, Kunene,
Kavango, Caprivi,
Caprivi, Kavango
Group 6: Households with
access to pension, food aid,
project assistance
6-10%
North-central, Kunene,
Kavango, Caprivi,
Tsumkwe
North-Central, Tsumkwe
Group 10: Subsistence farmers
without external source of
income or one small external
source of income
5%
North-central,
Kavango, Caprivi
North-central,
Caprivi
Group 11: Small size cattle
owners
with farms
3%
Kunene, Caprivi
Kunene, Caprivi
TOTAL FOR ALL GROUPS
54-61%
Group 3: Not employed or
partially employed people living
in or around urban areas
CATEGORY 2
CATEGORY 3
Vulnerability Map – canvas for RPSF interventions
23
Kavango,
North-central, Caprivi,
Kavango,
Kunene,
Tsumkwe, Oshakati, and
Katima Mulilo towns,
commercial farm areas,
coastal
areas
and
mining areas
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Chapter II: Institutional Environment of Rural Population Groups and its impact on the
Targeted Population Groups
II. 1. Introduction
The purpose of this second chapter is to give an overview of the institutional environment of rural
population groups and to assess its potential impacts on either the assets or the outcomes of the
strategies. The institutional environment has been analysed at the level of the following aspects
insofar as far as they impact on the target groups:

political and administrative structures, and main characteristics of laws,
regulations and social practices governing the distribution of assets; tax and other
fiscal burdens borne by the target population

social and cultural practices underlying gender discrimination or imbalance or
minority discriminatory practices

market practices and facilities (inputs and outputs related to the economic
activities carried out by the target groups) and assessment of market transparency
and competitiveness
II. 2. Political and administrative structures
Namibia is characterised by two distinct, but not necessarily incompatible systems of authority. On the
one hand there is the system of customary law and traditional government, which has been used and
modified by successive colonial regimes and further modified since Independence. On the other hand
there is the Constitution which provides for a unitary secular republic with an executive presidency, a
bicameral legislature, regular multi-party elections, an independent judiciary and regional and local
authorities.
Customary law and therefore traditional government are accommodated by the Constitution of
Namibia in Article 66. This article validates customary laws in force at the date of independence, to the
extent that it does not conflict with the Constitution or any statutory law. Without going in too much
detail it is clear that this article is creating a constitutional dilemma in cases where rulings made under
customary law are not expressly declared unconstitutional. Examples are corporal punishment,
inheritance, role of women, etc.
The Regional Councils Act and the Local Authority Act of 1992 progressively draws the legal
framework for the regions, municipalities, villages and settlements.
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The Traditional Authorities Act, 17 of 1995 sets out to meet the concerns about the dichotomy in
authority systems in a democratic society by naming the supreme leaders of the traditional
communities "chiefs" and at the same time allowing the use of traditional titles, which all mean king or
queen. However, the question is not so much of a title use, but whether the traditional leaders can
accommodate a democratic process, and pay allegiance and pledge loyalty to the Constitutional
Authorities. This respect and adherence to the Constitutional laws allows a republic to contain a
number of kingdoms.
This section deals with both institutional environments, as they are of great importance for the rural
population, and the target groups. In the day to day situation they mostly deal with the rules and
customs of the group to which they belong. The governmental structures are also important, but
mostly as provider (pensions, food aid, public services like health care and schools, jobs) following the
security provided for by family and ethnic group.
II. 2. 1. Decentralised authorities16
II. 2. 1. 1. Regional Councils
(i) Description
Regional councils were established only in 1992. Their main functions are related to planning and the
development of the regions. They may advice the central government and act as its agent, but are not
providing services for its inhabitants (except for the settlement areas), like Local Authorities. Each of
the thirteen regions has a governor, who holds his office for three years and is eligible to re-election.
He is the political head of the region and direct link between central government and region. The
governor is accountable to both the central government and the inhabitants of region. Although the
regional councils are tasked with the development of their respective regions, they were given very
limited capacities and resources to carry out this responsibility. They are also responsible for the
management of the settlement areas: 102 of which 39 are "declared" as settlements. In the Northern
towns, excluding Ongwediwa, the proportion of population living in informal settlements areas have
been estimated between 50% in Ondangwa up to 75% in Katima Mulilo and Rundu. These informal
settlements require special consideration and resources.
The general picture shows a continuing disparity both among and within the regions. The Khomas,
Karas, Erongo and Hardap regions have the lower levels of human poverty and highest human
development indices. Caprivi, Ohangwena, and Kavango are the regions with the lowest human
development indicators. Together with Omaheke they also register the highest levels of human
poverty. Omusati, Oshana, Oshikoto and Otjozondjupa are in an intermediate situation as measured
by the index of human development.
16
For further detail see Annex 17: "Decentralisation and Non-State Actors"
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NDP2 has recently reinforced the role of regions as poles for development and coherence of multisectoral activities and expressed as well the commitment to balance geographical distribution of
facilities and services.
(ii) Structural composition and human resources capacity
When established, the Regional Councils were staffed on a standard base (6 persons) irrespective of
the inter-regional differences: a regional officer, a chief control officer, an accountant, a secretary,
clerk, drivers, cleaners and laborers. Still on a uniform basis, 12 additional posts have been provided
for each regional council in 1998/1999. 17 The regional councils can employ their own staff. They can
appoint their regional officers after consultation with the minister.
With this limited staffing, the Regional Councils do not have the capacity to handle their co-ordination
and regional development functions. The current organisational structure is not adapted to the
functions of the regional councils (such as management of settlement areas, planning, budgeting) and
to the functions to be delegated from central agencies. Moreover when decentralisation takes full
effect the volume of work for regional officers is expected to significantly increase.
The recent assessment of capacities recommended a complete reorganization of the Regional
Councils' structures and an intensive training programme, including the setting up of advisory
committees for education, health and development, upgrading of the Regional Officer and the creation
of four directorates to comprise a planning directorate responsible for planning, development and rural
services.
The Regional Councils need adequate offices, equipment, transport and materials to enable them to
carry out their functions.
(iii) Financial capacity
The principal funding for Regional Councils' recurrent expenditure comes from central government. In
2000, the regional councils did not have their own allocation of funding for capital expenditure. The
national budget is prepared on the basis of submissions by each of the line ministries (including
MRLGH) prepared in accordance with guidelines produced by the NPC, the Ministry of Finance and
the Bank of Namibia and the priorities established in the national development plan. The regional
councils can submit their proposals for capital projects through MRLGH.
The other sources of income are coming from:
17

5% of the rate income of any local authority in its areas;

income from settlement areas;

fines imposed in respect of any contravention of the act;

money received from donations and interest on investments.
Regional officer, chief control officer, accountant, personnel officer, private secretary, three clerks, two record clerks, driver and cleaner.
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II. 2. 1. 2. Local Authorities
(i) Description
Currently the declared local authorities are:

3 part 1 municipalities;

14 part 2 municipalities;

12 towns;

15 villages.
As per Table 2.1, two-thirds18 of the urban population are living in municipalities (data excluding the
villages).
Table 2.1: Population Distribution by Local Authority, 1991 and 2000 (projected)
Population in 1991
2000 projection
Part 1 (3) Municipalities
195,189
290,070
Part II (11) Municipalities
111,063
165,049
Towns (12)
118,840
176,608
Two main features should be pointed out:

The sharp contrast between older and newly created local authorities (quality of services
delivered, socio-economic development, job opportunities, structure, administrative and
financial capacities);

The disparity in the provision of services between local authorities and settlements. In the
Northern Central regions, between half to three quarters of the inhabitants are living in the
marginalised zones of the towns without proper services and infrastructure.
The transfer of functions, more specifically to newly declared towns and villages, has not been
accompanied by a transfer of human, institutional, organisational and financial capacities. Different
surveys19 as well as NDPI Review of the progress achieved in terms of decentralisation performance
showed the daily constraints encountered by the local authorities in the fulfilment of their functions.
(ii) Structural composition and human resources capacity
The elected council acts as legislature and a number of technical and general services committees
and divisions form the executive. The municipal executive carries the important functions of preparing
18
projection 2000 based on the 1991 census and an assumed annual growth rate of 4.5 % of general report, NEPRU, working paper n°48
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councils decisions, appointing new staff, drafting the local budget and other legislation and keeping
the financial accounts. Many towns are currently carrying out a restructuring of their administration.
Half of the officers have diplomas in public administration or B degrees. Staffs are benefiting from
various training and capacity building activities. As a consequence of the Government support to the
preparatory phase of decentralisation in 1997, two-thirds of the councillors and officers also received
training. Exchanges of experience and provision of training or expertise are developing between
municipality and towns. For example, Okahandja has a technical assistance relationship with Walvis
Bay. The MRLGH is finalising a more detailed and comprehensive framework for training together with
the association for local authorities and the associations of regional council and in co-operation with
donors.
In some areas, especially in villages and towns, there is non-existent communication between officers
and councillors and where there is communication, "councillors are believed to interfere too much in
staff management or do to delegate responsibilities" 20. This insufficient clarity applies also to the
knowledge of the functions that are to be performed by the local authorities. The lack of means and
consequently the little progress in development of the locality may have developed some frustrations
towards local government.
Recent field surveys show that most local authorities are struggling with human resource
development. There are still enormous training needs, from English language, to technical and
financial skills. They vary according to the type of local authorities; for example the need for financial
management skills is particularly acute in villages, whereas in towns and municipalities there is a great
need for training in computer-related fields, strategic planning, communication and personnel
management.
The access to communication and offices facilities is unequal. The technical personnel of recent local
authorities are badly equipped for ensuring proper infrastructure maintenance, specifically mechanical,
water distribution and sewerage networks.
Younger local authorities are highly dependent on external support for their personnel (from MRLGH,
external donors.) like in Oshakati where the local council does not employ 60% of total staff
component. External personnel can be of inadequate quality or not accounting to the local authority.
When contracted on a short-term basis on projects, they can weaken the administration capacity of the
town when living or transferred.
(iii) Financial capacity
The current income of the local authorities is obtained from trading services (water and electricity
sales), fees for sewerage treatment and refuse removal, return on investment, assessment rates and
sales of development of urban land. Some Municipalities generate significant income but some towns
and villages are facing severe financial constraints and are dependent on central government to cover
19
For example: training Needs Assessment Strategy Programme for Local Authorities in Namibia (September 1997). Research report Local
authorities in Namibia : a comparative study (February 1998), capacity assessment of regional councils in Namibia (august 2000)
20
NEPRU working paper, n° 58, 1997
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salaries and maintenance costs. A 1997 survey showed an increase in debt services. This may affect
further development of the local authorities.
The transfer of functions is also a transfer of risks. Without enough support from central government
addressing the poorest and unemployed people's needs may hamper the financial well-being of fragile
local authorities. Moreover, informal sources are indicating than that even in the case of municipalities,
the locally generated income cannot be sufficient to cover both recurrent and capital expenditure once
basic social services (health and education etc.) are fully decentralised. Smaller local authorities are
currently more dependant on governmental financial transfers from the central government.
II. 2. 1. 3. Associations
Both the local and regional authorities have organised themselves in the Association for Local
Authorities (ALAN) and the Association for Regional Councils (ARC) respectively. ALAN’s vision is to
be a self sustaining organisation that plays an advocacy role on the behalf of local authorities in order
to address socio-economic problems facing its membership. ALAN and ARC are playing an active role
in the decentralisation process, even though their capacity is limited due to financial constraints.
II. 3. 2. Traditional authorities
Conflicts and tension can been observed in relation to the inter-dependency between the development
of political and administrative structures based on the Constitution and the traditional authorities with
customary law. However, the constitutional recognition and Traditional Authorities Act have freed the
customary law from a position of being marginal and inferior.
The political and administrative structures of traditional authorities differ per tribe. The chief, who is the
main trustee of the tribal area, divides land rights. He assigns the rights for lifelong utilisation to the
senior headmen, but not the personal ownership. Districts are divided into wards and homesteads,
which are sold or allocated to ward heads. The land never becomes private property and is always
returned to the ward head, the senior head or the chief in case of death of the "owner".
Justice is administered in courts at the ward, district and tribal level. Serious cases are referred to the
higher courts, as are appeals from the lower courts. The ward court is presided by the ward head,
assisted by a number of prominent village-heads, and often by ward-heads of neighbouring wards.
The district court is chaired by the senior district head, assisted by a panel of ward-heads from his
district. The tribal court is chaired by the chief and attended by senior heads and ward heads. In case
the chief is absent, a council of senior headmen exercises jurisdiction at this level. Since the courts do
not distinguish civil and criminal cases, the penalty is always to compensate the plaintiff and cover the
costs of the court, for example fines in livestock and an animal slaughtered to feed the court. Women
are entitled to participate in the hearings of the customary courts, although normally men dominate
court proceedings. Women do not need the assistance of a male relative when bringing cases to court,
and also have the right to ask questions during the enquiry. However, the rules can differ from one
customary court to the other, and in some places up to as late as 1993 women were not allowed to
speak in court.
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Historical evidence shows that women have not only been influential in the position of king's mother or
sister, but also have been a ruling chief. Women held positions as councillor, district- and ward head.
Currently, no barriers for appointing female traditional leaders are found, although some traditional
authorities claim that customary law does not permit women to hold office. A female chief, who
succeeded her grandmother, who reigned for more than 40 years, heads one Kavango community.
While there is no gender discrimination regarding traditional authorities, very few women hold
leadership positions.
II. 2. 4. Non-State Actors
Non-state actors play an important role in the support infrastructure in rural areas, especially where
local authorities are not represented or only weakly presented. Private sector, trade unions, ngo’s and
cbo’s may have a much greater impact on rural communities in certain locations than the formal
government structures. A brief overview of the key features of the main non-state actors in Namibia is
presented in Text Box 2.121.
Text Box 2.1 : Non-State Actors in Namibia
Private sector
The government is supportive to the private sector. In 1992, it has set out four objectives for its development: increase
manufactured value added, diversify and integrate the economy, generate productive employment opportunities and increase
income opportunities for Namibian, improve the geographical distribution of industry. The large majority of enterprises
concentrate their activities in trade and services. The government also favours partnerships between private, public and nongovernmental sectors.
Trade Unions
The right to freedom of association is entrenched in the Namibia Constitution while the Labour Act of 1992 provides an enabling
environment for the labour movement. Namibian trade Unions are organised in all sectors but the unionisation rates vary
greatly between the well organised public and mining sector (60-80% unionisation) and the difficult farmer and domestic
workers sectors (5-20%). Most of the almost 30 trade unions belong to one of the country's three trade unions’ federations:
-
National Union of Namibian workers (NUNW) - 70 000 members (affiliated to the ruling party)
-
Namibia Federation of trade Unions (NAFTU) - 45 000 members (formed by different unions)
-
Namibia People's Social Movement (NPSM) - 14 000 members (former Christian Social Union)
Co-operatives
The National Co-operative policy (1993) makes provision for all types of co-operatives: services co-operative (marketing and
supply co-operatives, agricultural and non agricultural, consumer co-operatives, housing co-operatives, multipurpose cooperatives, secondary and higher level co-operatives) and workers co-operative (for example crafts, fishing etc).
There are more than 70 co-operatives in the country. In Namibia, the development of credit unions and Saving and Credit Cooperatives has been more limited than in other countries and no significant growth has taken place, neither in terms of
membership, nor saving and credits. Constraints to development are mainly the lack of experience and expertise, the nonrepresentative nature of decision-making structures, the inequality amongst members, cases of non adherence to credit union
21
For further detail see Annex 17: "Decentralisation and Non-State Actors"
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principles, and the deficiency of incentive structures. The external constraints are the linked to the social attitude, sex
discrimination, lack of incentive linkages, competition of the banks and lack of viable investment options. 22
NGOs
According to NDP2, the NGOs are «mostly regarded as intermediary organisations between the grass roots communities and
other development agencies». They are thus considered more as national agencies, operating in more than one local
communities and fields of sector than local institutions. They have developed a whole set of activities ranging from services to
the communities (sometimes profitable see above) to purely policy advocacy at national level. Some of them are organised in
umbrella organisations (networks grouped by nature or thematic activities).
CBOs
CBOs are operating at grassroots level, locally based and small in membership. They are mainly formed for self-help projects
or for specific interest most of them are informal. In Namibia, CBOs are most active in the form of women and youth groups,
housing associations, farmer leagues, saving and credit associations, water point committees and conservancies, etc.
II. 2. 5. Impact on the targeted population
In the rural northern areas, where most of the targeted populations lives the Local Authorities and
Regional Council structures are not functioning optimally and not replacing the traditional structures for
land division, conflict resolution and social safety. Moreover, the relation between the Regional
Councils and Local Authorities is weak. Consequently the rural targeted population is in direct contact
with traditional authorities and only deals with local authorities when they are in the urban centres,
towns or municipalities or visited by them. This is the case for the rural groups of Categories 1, 2, and
3. The rural groups of Category 4 may have more contact with the local authorities, as they are using
more the services provided in urban locations and pay their fees. The people in the first three
categories never pay taxes, but for the traditional levies to their leaders.
The institutional environment of the targeted groups contains also their own organisations, like
Community Based Organisations, Indigenous Organisations and Farmers' Associations, Water Point
Committees, Fed groups, church, Saving groups, co-operatives. These organisations play an
important role, often supported by national and international NGOs and foundations in the service
provision to their members.
22
For further detail see Annex 16: " Developing sustainable Micro-finance Institutions "
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Chapter III: Problems hampering the enhancement of rural livelihoods
III. 1. Introduction
In this section, the main problems affecting the rural-based socio-economic groups as identified in the
8 rural profiles are presented. A prioritisation of these problems is sought by the following steps:

assessing the assets of the rural groups and the extent to which they are under pressure (III. 2.)

determining the relevance of the main problems to the 7 identified rural-based socio-economic
target groups (III. 3.)
From the analysis of the 8 rural profiles, a number of main problems that impact on the outcomes of
the rural households transpired. They show a high degree of inter-dependency. Two clusters can be
identified, directly related to the core causes of poverty and central to the livelihood approach, namely:

HIGH DEPENDENCY RATIO – HIV/AIDS pandemic – Health vulnerability – Limited strength
and/or skills to work;

LOW PRODUCTIVITY – Poor soil fertility and climate pattern – Natural disasters – Cultural
behaviour – Land tenure – Limited strength and/or skills to work – Food insecurity Environment degradation – Domestic water.
The main problems identified are listed below.
Text Box 3.1: Main Problem Identified for all 17 Rural Based Socio-Economic Groups
HIV/AIDS
Poor soil fertility and unpredictable and varying climate pattern
Natural disasters such as drought, floods and pests
Social behaviour and traditional customs
Regional economy context, and the terms of trade for farm products in particular
Health vulnerability
Access to safe domestic water
Access to information and extension services
Land tenure systems
Poor security situation
Theft
Food insecurity
Limited strength and/or skills to work
Degradation of the environment
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III. 2. Assets under pressure
The prioritisation process included an attempt to measure the seriousness of these problems in
relation to the asset base of the concerned rural communities. This measure is the pressure on the
human, natural, social, physical and financial assets experienced by the rural groups. Figure 1 in
Section 1 already depicts the extent to which the various groups in the four categories can mobilise
human, natural, social, physical and financial assets. The Text Boxes 3.2 – 3.6 below provide insight
into the relation between the key problem areas and the assets of the rural communities.
Text Box 3.2: Pressure on Human Assets
Human Assets
The total population in the rural areas will diminish due to labour migration and death due to HIV/AIDS 24. As the result of AIDS,
life expectancy has dropped significantly, from 55 years in 1995 to 48 in 2000 and this trend is likely to continue for the timebeing. AIDS has become a main cause of poverty as the pandemic reduces the labour force thereby increasing the
dependency ratio and household expenditures for health and funerals. The average size and composition of the household will
change. Households will be found with more members to care for and more elderly with grandchildren or orphans, women- and
orphans headed households and more households with sick, uneducated and unskilled members. More and more people will
become part of rural groups of Category 1. Health and educational services are already spread out over groups living still far
from each other, but will now reach an increasingly smaller number of people. To maintain or even improve these services will
be very costly, calculated in relation to the number of beneficiaries. Distances to the services will increase when these
investments are not made and more and more people will be unable to reach health services or schools due to the cost of
transport, fees to be paid for these services and the diminishing economic power of the family. Consequently, it is important that
the strategic orientations towards enhanced human assets integrate the problems of HIV/AIDS, health vulnerability, limited
strength and skills to work and dependency ratio.
Text Box 3.3: Pressure on Natural Assets
Natural Assets
The predictions about desertification in Namibia are not directly supported by evidence from quantitative research 25, although
the most common reported causes of environmental degradation are the growth of population, the number of domestic animals
in a certain area26 and the failure to manage the rangelands for livestock production appropriately. Depopulation of the rural
areas and lower agricultural productivity of the households, due to the lack of productive forces will improve those areas, which
are found to have deteriorating eco-systems. Especially, the areas in Cuvelai27, and along the river and boreholes in Kavango
Region28, which are densely populated, will benefit from a reduced population.
The growth of a number of locations due to migration will however increase the risks of soil deterioration, desertification,
pollution and accumulation of waste. In the meantime, these urban and semi-urban locations will also be confronted with lack of
proper water for their increased number of inhabitants. The livelihood process has revealed that the approach to environment
should integrate the problems of low labour productivity, poor soil fertility, climate pattern, natural disasters, social behaviour
and traditional customs, land tenure, limited strength and/or skills to work, food insecurity, and access to safe water.
24
See Annex 4: "Population density, migration and the impact of HIV/AIDS" and Annex 15: "HIV and Aids in Namibia"
See Annex 8: "Rural profile Kunene"
26
See Annex 23: "Background Paper 2 to the Workshop of 10/11 April 2001, Cross-Cutting Issues, Environment"
27
See Annex 5: "Rural Profile North-Central"
25
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Text Box 3.4: Pressure on Social Assets
Social Assets
As stated above, migration and HIV/AIDS have a severe impact on the size and composition of households. As women in the
rural areas are primarily the providers of food for these families, their burdens will become heavier with the increase of tasks in
production, preparation and cooking of food, looking after the children, caring for the sick and elderly, and seeking funds to pay
for school fees, clothing and medicines29. Consequently, the burden on the communities will increase and the support networks
will have to deal with more economically inactive persons. Whole families will disappear out of these communities, as parents
and the elderly die and orphans leave for family members somewhere else. The role of state and non-state actors in the
provision of supportive care services has to supplement the social assets in the communities. On the social side, the livelihood
process has revealed that HIV/AIDS pandemic should be tackled in relation with health vulnerability and access to information.
Text Box 3.5: Pressure on Physical Assets
Physical Assets
In the sparsely populated rural areas there are not many physical assets. People are living in huts, work their land, have no
proper roads, electricity or sanitation. They get their water from boreholes and have to travel sometimes far to reach health
services or educational facilities. Depopulation of the rural areas will make it ever more costly to maintain or improve these
assets while at the same time the increase of the population in the urban and semi-urban areas will make it necessary to
maintain, improve and even extend the services for the public in those locations, as these are now often dilapidated or non
existing. This will be important programme in the new emerging secondary towns. The migrating population seeking
employment is in need of skills training, vocational training and other educational services. Improvement of the physical assets
will be than necessary.
Text Box 3.6: Pressure on Financial Assets
Financial Assets
The pension payments, which are every month an important source of income for many families, will decrease as the elderly
die and many younger people will not reach the pension age. Remittances from employed family members will become lesser
due to the impact of HIV/AIDS on the economically active, the increased costs for medical care and loser family ties as direct
linkage will die out.
Capital in the form of livestock (cattle, goats, and sheep) will diminish for the seven most vulnerable groups, as it will be sold to
cover costs for medical treatment, food for the sick and costs of the funerals. These changes will create a shift in the number of
herd-owners and size of their herds. A smaller number of owners with bigger herds will take up more land for grazing, which
becomes available by a decreasing population.
It is clear that the assets for most of the 17 rural groups of the four categories are under pressure and
that they will have difficulties to maintain their livelihood level during the coming decades. However,
the seven poorest and vulnerable groups will be the most affected by negative trends if no preventive
and curative actions are taken. Helping them to maintain and improve their assets requires solving the
inter-related problems.
Developments in the coming decades will show that urban locations where the wealthier part of the
population is concentrated will continue to grow. Among the 7 poorest and most vulnerable rural
groups identified, members of 3 of these groups are already migrating in search of work. The 4 other
28
See Annex 7: Rural profile Kavango
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poorest groups are traditionally involved in full-time farming, but young without future and skills have
already started to migrate. Migration from the rural areas in search for employment, help and
medication will reduce the rural populations. Those staying behind will be in majority the very poor,
those returning to die of AIDS, orphans and elderly grandparents, women headed households, people
without education, unskilled and physically not able to be economically active. In this migration
process, positive trends are expected towards biodiversity and ecosystems. The natural resources left
by the migrants may be taken over by some better-off households investing parts of its saving in
extensive ranching. The continuation of farm practices will ensure the keeping of the indigenous
practices and tribal authority on land management.
Assisting all groups in coping with a situation caused by migration of the economically active and the
distress and mortality caused by HIV/AIDS could be the major orientation of the RPSF for Namibia.
The main beneficiaries of the assistance could be the 7 poorest and most vulnerable groups.
III. 3. Relevance of these problems for the 7 rural-based socio-economic target groups
Below, each of the problem areas are related to the target groups. Their impact or relevance is
subsequently summarised in Table 3.2.
The high dependency ratio is an intra-household difficulty that results from different factors. The
main factor is social, resulting from divorce, death, decease, migration, disability, elderly. Available
data shows general negative trends since the last decade, that affect mainly the outcomes of groups
1,2,3,5 and 6.
The low labour productivity is a problem linked to poor farming potential for the farm-based
households, and to the insufficient employment opportunities or inadequate skills for the off-farmbased households. Since the last decade, trends have been negative due to the relative decrease of
natural resources resulting from the demographic growth in rural area, the relative decrease in
employment opportunities, and difficult access to skills. The negative trends affect mostly the
outcomes of groups 1,2,3,10 and 11.
HIV/AIDS
The HIV/AIDS pandemic has become a core problem affecting the livelihoods outcomes of all 7 priority
groups targeted.
Poor soil fertility and unpredictable and varying climate pattern
Most of the soil is of sandy texture and low fertility in Namibia. With the increasing density of
population and domestic animals and related pressure on land, available data shows general
reduction of soil fertility in the populated communal areas. This problem affects mostly groups 1, 5 and
10. The semi-arid climate pattern is rather stable. Some data suggest that there are negative trends in
29
See Annex 14: "Gender issues" and Annex 23: "Background Paper 2, Cross-cutting Issues"
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rainfall since the last 20 years. However, good rainy seasons of 1999/2000 and 2000/2001 do not
confirm this tendency. Groups 1, 5 and 10 are the most affected by low and variable rainfall, except for
the flooded plains of Caprivi, in the Oshana water run-off area of the north central and for those using
irrigation near permanent rivers and lakes.
Natural disasters such as drought, floods and pests
The natural disasters such as drought, floods, pests affect the outcomes of the farm-based
households, with high important negative impacts on groups 1, 5 and 10. Disasters are highly variable
in terms of time and place, and there are no clear trends over the last 20 years.
Social behaviour and traditional customs
The consequences of some social behaviour and traditional customs tend to reduce the capital and
financial outcomes of the households. Slaughtering of cattle for funerals and the short-term and
remunerated access to cropland have the most negative impacts on those outcomes, and mostly
affect groups 1 and 5. Negative trends are reported in terms of number of cattle slaughtered due to the
increasing number of funerals related to HIV/AIDS. On the contrary, with the new legal framework on
Land and Married People, there is a positive trend on access to land.
Regional economy context, and the terms of trade for farm products in particular
The globally negative terms of trade for farm products have no major negative impact on the targeted
groups since they are not market-oriented. Impact is reported for group 11 that sells its products at a
competitive price and groups 2,3 and 5 that should buy their food. Positive trends are reported in line
with the new cattle marketing policy and the more decentralised extension services. The integration of
the Namibian economy in a regional partnership is a positive factor for investment and exchange of
goods. In order to solve the food security problem the need of a regional approach is noted. A regional
river basin management, regional competitiveness, improved transport facilities and communication
schemes and identification of niche markets are important aspects of improved regional co-operation
and co-ordination.
Health vulnerability
All the seven groups are affected by health problems. Group 1 is the most affected in terms of
outcomes, because households are not in the position to finance basic medicines and treatments. Due
to financial constraints, there is a not positive trend for this group. If HIV/AIDS is included in the health
problem, negative trends are recorded for all groups.
Access to safe domestic water
The domestic water distribution network has been improved since the last 10 years in the communal
areas. During the same period, the population has grown and has occupied new areas. The two main
difficulties are the distance between water points and some remote households, and the time
constraint to get water in densely populated areas.
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Access to information and extension services
Access to information is a factor that affects the remote farm-based households who have no contact
with towns and extension centres and who have no radio. The lack of information may negatively
impact on the HIV/AIDS problem and then on the different household outcomes. Similarly, the lack of
information on market, products and technologies will impact negatively on productive activity and
diversification. Since independence, there is a positive trend in the information distribution network and
access.
Land tenure systems
Key problems faced in the communal area concerning land tenure are that large areas are currently
under-utilised, there are problems with rangeland degradation due to the fact that wealthier groups are
using communal water points for their cattle, and illegal fencing off of communal land by rural elites is
reducing the available resources for the other communal farmers. These constraints impact mainly on
the outcomes of the farm-based households.
Poor security situation
The poor security situation since 1999 has impacted negatively only on some people of groups 1 and
5 who are located in the Kavango and Caprivi regions. Households involved in the tourism sector have
suffered from an overall decline in business. Many development projects have stopped or have been
postponed in the Kavango region since 1999.
Theft
Theft is on the increase and negative trends are reported all over the country. Animal theft is already
having an impact on groups 5 and 11 while organised robberies may soon start to also affect the other
groups, particularly those close to urban centres (groups 2 and 3) . There is no current insurance and
juridical provision to compensate for lost domestic animals and crops.
Food insecurity
Food insecurity may affect all the targeted groups. The groups in Category 1 (groups 1,2 and 3) are
chronically food insecure which impacts negatively on their outcomes. Negative trends are reported in
line with population growth over natural resources, HIV/AIDS evolution and relative decrease of
employment opportunities.
Limited strength and/or skills to work
The limited strength and/or skills to work may affect all the targeted groups. The outcomes of groups 1
and 2 are the most negatively affected by this problem. There is no positive trend for those groups
because they are severely affected by health and HIV/AIDS problem and do not qualify to most of the
current vocational training programmes.
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Degradation of the environment
The degradation of the environment affects all the farm-based household groups (1,5, 10 and 11).
This problem affects more negatively the outcomes of groups 1 and 5 who have no labour force to
better manage natural resources. Negative trends are reported in densely populated areas where
those groups live, with important degradation observed in the Cuvelai area.
Having taken into consideration the orientations given by the NDPII and the other Namibian official
documents, and on EC strategic documents on one side, and the field observations on the other side,
the mission clustered the identified problems into four main categories. For analysis purposes and in
order to operationalize the results, the categories have been defined following their acuteness
relevance to the targeted rural groups and to their potential impact at all political, social and economic
level as: (1) income generation; (2) land; (3) provision of rural services and infrastructures; and (4)
decentralised process and cross-cutting issues.
The impact of the main problems for each of the 7 target groups has been rated in Table 3.2.
Problems are either highly relevant (H), of medium (M) or low (L) relevance or not relevant (N). It is
estimated that the 7 target groups represent 54-61% of the Namibian population, with 41-44% farmbased households and 13-17% off-farm based households. The table shows that the farm-based
groups face much more severe problems than the off-farm based households.23 HIV/AIDS, a weak
labour force and low productivity are the 3 most common reported problems that hamper the
enhancement of rural livelihood outcomes. The next most common problems – poor soil fertility,
climate pattern, natural disasters, and food insecurity are all linked to poor natural assets. Social and
economic difficulties have less negative impacts on the livelihoods outcomes. Water is a real problem
in localised areas and in dry season, in term of access and in terms of time constraint.
23
An average of 6,5 problems and 3,7 problems respectively, as per the following calculation:
-
Off-farm based households are groups 2,3 and 5. Their high level problems are respectively (according to
the frame) 5 +4+2 = 11 /3 = 3,7 on average;
-
On-farm households are groups 1 ,4,6,7. Their high level problems are respectively 12+7+5+2 = 26 :4 = 6,5
on average.
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Table 3.1: Relevance of Main Problems for the 7 Target Groups
Groups
Category / Problems
CAT 1
1
2
3
CAT 2
5
6
CAT 3
10
11
Total
H
H
M
M
3H/3M
Income Generation
Food insecurity
H
M
N
Total weight: 15
Poor soil fertility and climate pattern
H
M
N
H
N
H
M
3H/2M
Total weight: 13
Environment degradation
H
N
N
H
N
M
M
2H/2M
Total weight: 10
Regional economy
N
M
M
N
M
M
H
1H/4M
Total weight: 11
Land
Land tenure
M
N
N
M
N
N
M
3M
Total weight: 6
Provision of rural services and rural infrastructures
Health vulnerability
H
M
M
M
M
M
M
1H/6M
Total weight: 15
Domestic water
H
N
N
M
N
M
M
1H/3M
Total weight: 9
Access to information
M
N
N
M
N
M
M
4M
Total weight: 8
Decentralised process and cross-cutting issues
HIV/AIDS pandemic
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
7H
Total weight: 21
Limited strength and/or skills to work
H
H
M
M
M
M
M
2H/5M
Total weight: 16
Natural disasters
H
M
M
H
N
H
M
3H/3M
Total weight: 15
Social behaviour and traditional customs
H
N
N
H
N
M
M
2H/2M
Total weight: 10
Poor security
L
N
N
L
N
N
N
2L
Total weight: 2
Theft
N
N
N
M
N
N
M
2M
Total weight: 4
Number of high level problems
12
5
4
7
2
5
2
25 H
Number of high medium problems
39 M
Number of low level problems
2L
Total
Total weight: 155
Estimated size of the group
(% of national population)
39
28
2
5
5-8
6-10
5
3
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Legend:
L
M
H
N
=
=
=
=
little relevance
medium relevance
high relevance
no relevance
(1)
(2)
(3)
(0)
Groups:
1
Subsistence farmers without cattle, permanent wage or pension incomes
2
Laborers dismissed from commercial farms, mines, fisheries and other companies
3
Unemployed/partially employed people in or around urban areas
5
Subsistence farmers with less than 6 cattle
6
Households with some members permanently employed and/or access to pension, food aid, project assistance
10
Subsistence farmers with large household and without external source of income or one small external source of
income
11
Small size cattle owners with farms
III. 4. Priority Problems to be addressed under the RDPSF
In prioritising the problems, it was argued that the localised nature of the poor security situation
experienced in the Kavango and Caprivi regions and the not too significant impact of theft on two of
the groups only did not warrant to include these two problem areas in the final selection.
The priority problems that will be addressed under the RPSF are presented in Text Box 3.7.
Text Box 3.7: Priority Problems to be addressed under the RDPSF

Income Generation

Land

Provision of rural services and infrastructures

Decentralised process and cross-cutting issues
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Table II. 4. 1. Problem prioritisation and clustering
Strategic Orientation
Identified problems
Weight
Strategic Orientation Strategic Orientation Strategic Orientation Over-arching
I (31,25%)
II (31,25%)
III (31,25%)
Issues (6,25%)
Normal
weight
Pondered Normal
weight
weight
Pondered Normal
weight
weight
Pondered Normal
weight
weight
21
Pondered
weight
3,3871
IV
HIV/AIDS pandemic
21
III
Health vulnerability
15
IV
Limited strength and/or skills to work
16
I
Food insecurity
15
15
15,306
I
Environment degradation
10
10
10,204
IV
Natural disasters
15
IV
Cultural behaviour
10
I
Regional economy
11
II
Land tenure
6
III
Domestic water
9
9
14,063
III
Access to information
8
8
12,5
I
Poor soil fertility and climate pattern
13
13
13,265
149
49
50
32
50
Total
weight
Weight
SO I
Coeff. SO Weight
I
SO II
Coeff. SO Weight
II
SO III
Coeff. SO Weight
IIII
SO IV
Coeff. SO
IV
160
50
1,02
8,333333
1,5625
0,16129
15
11
Legend
2,5806
15
2,4194
10
1,6129
6
62
10
50
31,25%
50
50
50
31,25%
10
6,25%
Weight
Strategic Orientation I
On- and Off- Farm Diversification
31,25%
Strategic Orientation II
Land Issues
31,25%
Strategic Orientation III
Rural Services and Rural Infrastructures
31,25%
Overarching Issues
Capacity
Building
&
Strengthening through a
process
41
16
11,224
6
31,25%
23,438
Institutional 6,25%
decentralised
(Considered as pre-condition to the implementation of several RPSF interventions / Of political,
social and economic high importance)
(Related activities and interventions are already included in all the 3 Strategic Orientations - not
to be considered as a specific strategic orientation but as a tool / principle for the realisation of
the 3 defined stratefic orientations)
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Chapter IV: Government and donor’s rural development policies and actions
IV. 1. Introduction
The RDPSF is not the first to identify the main problems faced by rural communities in Namibia.
Government, the donor comm unity and non-state actors have all to a more or lesser extent started
to make a contribution to the alleviation of these problems. This Section provides an overview of the
various policies and programmes already in place to address the priority problems for the 7 ruralbased socio-economic target groups as identified in Section 3 and Section 1 of the RDPSF
respectively. “Where are the gaps in the support to these groups?” is the question on which Section 4
is to guide the formulation of the Namibian RDPSF.
Much work has been carried out by the consultants’ team and detailed information on interventions by
donors related to the priority problem areas is documented in Annex 12. Another Annex (23) contains
a background paper on policy. To keep the RDPSF manageable and focused, in the main text we
merely present a bird’s eye view of the comprehensive policy framework and the numerous
interventions that are already undertaken or that are in the planning.
The strategic orientations of the RDPSF will take into consideration these policies and actions in order
to determine its own place within the efforts to address the problems in the rural areas.
IV. 2. Existing Policies/Programmes aimed at addressing the Priority Problem Areas
For each of the priority problem areas a table is compiled with information on the following four
components: (1) Government policy and programmes24; (2) EU programmes; (3) Programmes of other
donors, (4) Support from Non-State Actors and (5) Constraints.
24
derived mainly from the Second National Development Plan (NDP2).
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HIV/AIDS pandemic
Government
Programmes
Policies
&
The Government aims to reduce HIV transmission to below pandemic levels, and minimises its
impact on individuals, families, communities, regions and sectors. The mobilisation of all
Namibians to prevent further spread of HIV and ensure that they have access to services
combined with the strengthening of the programme management structures are the main
objectives. Strategies in pursuit of these objectives include providing information and education,
supplying condoms and providing care and support to the affected.
-
National AIDS Co-ordination Programme (NACOP) with central and regional management
and co-ordination structures was established in 1998;
-
National Aids Committee (NAC), supra-ministerial level, co-ordinates and manages the
national response towards HIV/AIDS;
-
A Multi-Sectoral Co-ordination Committee (NAMACOC) was established comprising of the
executive officers of all line ministries, regional councils, parastatals and NGOs. The
operational arm of this committee is the National Aids Executive Committee;
-
Thirteen Regional Aids Co-ordinating Committees (RACOC) are established, responsible
for activity planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation;
-
Various Information and Education materials have been developed and translated in the
different local languages;
-
On-going awareness raising activities include: campaigns via TV/radio, competitions,
national awareness weeks, commemoration days, safe sex weeks, condom days, cultural
rallies, sporting events;
-
Namibians are trained as HIV/AIDS educators, counsellors and home-based caregivers,
for which education and training modules, guidelines, curricula and policies were
developed and implemented;
-
Other activities include: provision of care and support for persons with HIV/AIDS, effective
surveillance procedures for monitoring the pandemic, control over HIV transmission
through blood and instruments, prevention of discrimination of HIV/AIDS infected people,
and strengthening of the management structures.
HIV/AIDS programme (7th EDF) focussing on: 1) training of health staff on the management of
EU Programmes
STD/AIDS; 2) development of guidelines for clinical treatment of AIDS; 3) promotion of health
awareness under infected persons; and 4) promotion of safer sexual behaviour.
Programmes
of
other Donors
Support
by
State Actors
Non-
-
Finance Aids information Programmes via NGOs, NORAD
-
Increase awareness of HIV/AIDAS among young Namibians, SIDA
-
Policy formulation and services co-ordination "youth health and development", UNICEF
-
Programme support "youth health and development", UNICEF
-
Strengthening Namibia's national response to HIV/AIDS, SPA/UNAIDS
-
Information and Communication, UNICEF
-
Reproductive Health and HIV Prevention, GFR/GTZ/KFW
-
HIV/AIDS Prevention services., UNAIDS, SIDA
-
P Sante, French Development Co-operation
-
Regional HIV/AIDS and STD Prevention (DFID)
-
Choose Life Booklet to all 12-16 year olds in BLNS (DFID)
Basic counselling services have been established in all hospitals and the increasing number of
communities that respond to the needs of families affected by HIV/AIDS, by assisting them
through Home Based Care initiatives. A spectrum of organisations is active at community level,
including churches, NGOs and the private sector.
Key Constraints
Support programmes should increase their efficiency in prevention systems in order to reduce
the transmission of the disease and to change the mentalities. Special support should be given
to women headed households. Adapted productive tools should be made available to decrease
the intensity of work for the HIV/AIDS affected households.
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Health vulnerability
Government Policies
& Programmes
The Government aims to attain a level of health and social well being by all Namibians which
will enable them to lead economically and socially productive lives. Immediate objectives to be
achieved during NDP2 are to reduce the burden of diseases related to tuberculosis and malaria,
to reduce the infant mortality rate by 10%, to reduce the fertility rate, and to reduce the under
nutrition rate for under-fives to 8%. Furthermore, the life expectancy should not drop under 42
years, the quality of life and environmental health should be improved on all levels and the
access of rural households to adequate sanitation should be increased while the coverage in
urban and peri-urban areas should be maintained. To achieve these objectives the following
strategies will be followed: promotion of Total Quality Management, decentralisation of health
services, development of primary health care, resource allocation, identifying additional
resources of financing, public-private partnership, meeting specified service norms, and
strengthening the maintenance of existing structures, technology and human resources.
-
National Public Health Programmes have been developed and are on-going. They include
immunisation, control of diarrhoea and acute respiratory infections, maternal and family
planning, malaria control programmes, tuberculosis control programmes, plague control,
national nutrition programmes and sanitation programmes;
-
At the institutional and curative health care level, access to health care services is being
improved by mobile outreach clinics to benefit more remote communities. Other actions
are improvement of medical and hospital services, nursing care, and pharmaceutical
services and essential drugs;
-
A health system management has been put in place to guide and realise health sector
reform, health law reforms, and the outsourcing of medical and related activities to the
private sector.
Namibia Integrated Health Programme (NIHP - 7th EDF) which covered the following
EU Programmes
components: 1) strengthening of regional health services; 2) construction of rural clinics; 3)
strengthening of administrative support services; 4) support to the essential drugs programme;
and 5) assistance with health financing reforms
Programmes
other Donors
Key Constraints
of
-
Programme support "Health, Nutrition and Environment", UNICEF
-
Social mobilisation and community based health care , UNICEF
-
Integrated child health services, UNICEF
-
Nutrition and alimentation of iodine deficiency disorders, UNICEF
-
Improvement of health facilities in former Ovambo land, GFR/GTZ
-
P Sante, French Development Co-operation
-
Strengthening of Health Management in the 4 North-Central Regional, DFID/VSO
-
The Social Marketing of Malaria Retreatable Bednetts in Eastern Caprivi, DFID
Efficiency of the services should increase to the decentralisation of health care in order to
provide better and more adequate services. Prevention and awareness should be more
promoted by the local authorities. Health services should be more accessible to the poor
people, in term of area coverage and free delivery services.
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Limited strength and/or skills to work
Government Policies
& Programmes
The Government aims to improve the Namibian people’s strength and/or skills to work through
a number of interventions, including employment creation, human resource development,
higher education and vocational training, subsistence and commercial farming, fishing and fish
processing, manufacturing, construction, and tourism. It will further aim to contribute to the
social and economic development of Namibians by designing and implementing a
developmental, community centred and participatory social welfare policy, which will promote
the social well being, mental and physical health, active participation and self-reliance of all
inhabitants, improve the equality of life through enhancing the dignity, well being and
empowerment of people with disabilities, and promote the functioning of families and
communities through empowerment, preventive and developmental community work, and by
measures that maintain and strengthen the coping capacities of individuals, families, especially
advocating for people who have special needs, and those who are poor, disadvantaged and
vulnerable.
A series of projects have been formulated and budgeted in the three-year rolling development
budget 2001/2-2003/4.
-
The Ministry of Labour has planned a manpower survey and is currently creating a Labour
Based Works Forum.
-
The Ministry of Higher education, Training and Employment Creation has 21 projects.
-
The MLRR will implement 2 programmes dealing with resettlement of needed peoples.
-
The Ministry of Transport will implement several construction programmes, among them
12 labour-based road construction projects.
-
MAWRD will assist the farmer community to improve their performance through extension
and research programmes.
-
The Ministry of Environment and Tourism will provide activities to peoples through their
forestry, conservation and conservancies programmes.
-
Indirectly, the programmes under the Ministry of Basic Education, Culture, Youth and Sport
-
and the Ministry of Health and Social Services will improve the ability of the adults to work,
and of their children in the future.
-
The MTI is the key catalyst and facilitator of the country economic diversification and
growth through the promotion of investment, industrialisation and expansion, with a view of
eradicating poverty. Specific projects of MTI include : (i) Private sector Feasibility Study
Programme, (ii) Sites and Premises Development Programme : phase 2, (iii) SME Vendor
development Programme, (iv) Nation Wide Common Facility Centres, (v) Katima Mulilo
Multipurpose EPZ Park, (vi) SME sourcing programme, (vii) Agro-processing Technology
Demonstration Centre, and a (viii) SME Legal Framework consultancy
EU Programmes
45
-
Under the 7th EDF the EC assisted the education sector, focussing on 1) in-service training
and support to maths and science teaching linked to the introduction of a new curriculum
and 2) the construction of classroom blocks
-
Trans-Caprivi Highway (7th EDF)
-
Support to crop Seed Production ans Reseach in noorthern Namibia (7th EDF)
-
Co-operative services Support Project (7th EDF)
-
Namibian Human Resources Development Programme (8th EDF)
-
Trade and Investment Development Programme (8th EDF)
-
Namibia Tourism Development programme ( 8th EDF)
-
Micro-Project programme (8th EDF)
-
Research extension Management Programme (8th EDF)
-
Support to the mining sector, provision of technical assistance, equipment, low interest
loans, support to training institutions, promotion of transformation (e.g. gem polishing)
activities, and support to services to small-scale mining;
-
Namibia Private Sector Global Loan Scheme, E.I.B.
Rural Profile and Strategic Framework
Programmes
other Donors
Key Constraints
of
EURATA Consortium
-
SME and capacity building for NGOs, SAUSA/BAD
-
Establishment of vocational training centres, SPA/AECI
-
Human resources development for Okavango, LUX/LD
-
Human resources development tertiary education VSR/MHER
-
Government of India scholarships and fellowships, INDIA/GOI
-
Institute for Management and Leadership Training, GFR/HSS
-
Industrial relations, GFR/FES
-
Improved training opportunities for historically disadvantaged Namibians, USA/USAID
-
Support for vocational training centres, GFR/GTZ/GDS
-
ATLAS: training for leadership and advanced skills, USA/USAID
-
Youth development and education programme, USA/US Peace Corps
-
Life skills education, UNICEF
-
Micro and small enterprises development, GFR/GTZ
-
NOREESP, French Development Co-operation
-
Human resources development in the environmental sector, SIDA/DRFN/MET
-
Scholarships for Engineering Students in the Transport Sector, SIDA
-
Crafts and Community Based Tourism (Enterprise Development) in the North Central
Regions, DFID
Vocational training should be delivered more extensively, particularly in secondary cities. There
should be an intensification of support to the SMEs and credit facilities should be delivered. Offfarm employment should be particularly promoted. A better coordination within line ministries is
also required.
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Food insecurity
Government Policies
& Programmes
The Government aims to improve the food security of Namibians though a two-pronged
approach, namely increased agricultural output and improved access to non-farm income.
During NDPII, Government will implement a more integrated approach towards agricultural
productivity, export markets, product diversification and potential value added within the
country. Strategic interventions planned during NDP2 centre around: focussing the agricultural
programme onto the small-scale farming, promoting projects that strengthen disaster
preparedness; supporting conservation, improvement and sustainable utilisation of plant and
animal genetic materials; establishing a participatory dialogue and analysis about the
Agriculture National Policy and Regulatory Framework; improving the productivity, processing
and marketing and developing the best analytical and decision-support tools based on
consolidated data. A series of projects have been formulated and budgeted in the three-year
rolling development budget 2001/2-2003/4.
EU Programmes
Programmes
by
The MAWRD will assist the farmer community to improve their productivity through
extension and research programmes.
-
The MAWRD has planned

a nation-wide food for work programme,

an empowerment of San community for HH food security project,

a second phase of food security and nutrition development programme,

a support project to the processing of indigenous fruits and Mahangu,

a community based management programme,

and a support to livestock marketing in communal areas.
-
The 12 labour-based road construction projects under the Ministry of Transport will provide
employment for unskilled labour that is affected by food insecurity.
-
The MLRR will implement 2 resettlement programmes in which food assistance will be
provided.
of
other Donors
Support
-
Non-
-
Resettlement project Queen Sofia rural development, Spanish Co-operation
-
Integrated rural development and food security programme, FAO
-
Northern Namibia livestock development project (NOLIDEP), IFAD/MAWRD
-
Sustainable Animal and Range Development Programme (SARDEP), GFR/GTZ
-
The American special self-help fund for income generating activities, USAID
-
Labour based road construction and maintenance, development of the White Paper on
Labour Based Works Policy and the creation of the Labour Based Works Forum, SIDA
-
FSRE Strategy Support Project to MAWRD, DFID
Commercial wild plants management, processing and marketing with smallholders, CRIAA SA-
State Actors
DC (with support from various European donors, local donor funds and Government support).
Key Constraints
Adapted agricultural technologies, integrated agriculture, agricultural diversification should be
promoted by the local authorities. Support should be guided by requests of the local
communities, based on their own priorities. The local authorities should be strengthened to
deliver adapted technical services to the population. Local development agencies should be
created within the frame of the local councils in order to better respond to the needs of the
populations and to promote adapted techniques and off-farm employment.
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Environment degradation
Government Policies
& Programmes
National development in the various spheres by the various actors should be achieved through
sustainable processes and actions at the livelihood, ecosystem, natural resources, and biodiversity levels. The Government will facilitate equitable and sustainable utilisation of renewable
natural resources for present and future generations and promote the protection of biodiversity,
the maintenance of essential ecological life-support systems, and the establishment of sound
environmental management systems. Strategies that support these objectives are establishing
an appropriate resource management framework, together with decentralisation and
democratisation mechanisms, improving the long-term land productivity, consolidating data
base for determining sustainable resource use, preventing environmental damage and
promoting public awareness, capacity building and integrated planning.
EU Programmes
-
A series of projects have been formulated and budgeted in the three-year rolling
development budget 2001/2-2003/4. MET is responsible for 10 government projects and
implement, co-ordinate or participate to several other sectoral national projects and
externally funded projects.
-
Integrated fire management
-
Support to the forestry sector
-
Namibian-Finland forestry programme
Rural Town Sewerage Reticulation Scheme – Otavi (7th and 8th EDF) and
Outjo & Karibib (7th EDF)
Programmes
other Donors
Key Constraints
of
-
The Northern Namibia Environmental Project (North-North West Natural Resources
Information System), DFID/MLRR
-
Namibia Programme to combat desertification, GFR/GTZ
-
Support to the protection of the bio-diversity, GFR/GTZ
-
Living in a Finite Environment (LIFE II), USA/USAID
-
Developing management tools for the conservation of Hornbills, CEC
-
Environmental management, NORAD
-
Gobabeb centre of the desert research foundation, NORAD
-
Gobabeb Training and Research Centre, GFR/SADC/GTZ
-
Bio-diversity
Conservation
and
Integrated
Ecosystem
WB/GEF/USAID/SIDA/DFID/EU/WWF/ Government of Namibia
-
Community Based Natural Resource Management and Enterprise Development, DFID
(Rossing Foundation, NACOBTA, etc.)
-
NOREESP, French Development Co-operation
-
Conservancy Development, NNF Environmental Fund, Community Based Tourism, Hoanib
Catchment Project, Natural Resource Accounting and Development of Environmental
Economics Unit in MET, SIDA
-
Wildlife Itensification for Livelihood Diversification (WILD), DFID/MET
Management,
Environmental awareness programs should be designed and implemented with the support of
the local authorities. It is only by making them responsible, and also beneficiary, of the
management of the local natural resource that the environmental degradation can be
countered. To this extent, local councils should be strengthened on the sustainable use of
natural resources.
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Natural Disasters
Government Policies
& Programmes
In 1998, the Government established an Emergency Management Unit (EMU) which mainly
deals with drought but could also become active in the event of other natural disasters. During a
drought period, fodder is distributed to the affected farmers. Food aid is also distributed to
particularly vulnerable groups such as pregnant and lactating women, children under five and
young unemployed adults. Drought fodder is distributed to small farmers to help them maintain
their stock, i.e. those with up to 10 cattle and 50 small stock. The eligibility for drought aid of
farmers with larger herds is individually assessed and based in part on their participation in the
government’s livestock marketing subsidy scheme. In the 1995/1996 Drought Aid Scheme,
support was available to farmers with up to 100 Large Stock Units and 500 Small Stock Units.
-
EU Programmes
Programmes
No specific projects have been provided for in NDPII.
of
Cash for Work Programme, French Development Co-operation
other Donors
More preventative measures should be introduced. Adapted agricultural technologies should be
Key Constraints
promoted to reduce erosion of soils by the wind and the water. Integrated agriculture could
better fertilise the. Integrated pest controls and inter-cropping systems should be encouraged.

Social behaviour and Traditional Customs
Government Policies
& Programmes
This subject deals with alcohol abuse and domestic violence. These social problems are not
dealt with in terms of overall Government policy but have to date been left to be addressed by
NGOs and CBOs. The Social Welfare Department of the MoHSS, as well Regional and Local
Councils should develop policies and strategies to deal with these problems. Some traditional
authorities are now taking more responsibility for the negative aspects of social behaviour, for
example by closing the Cuca shops during curtain hours.
Other disputable social behaviour is the impact of the use of livestock in a traditional way for
payment to traditional leaders in case of allocation of land, and the slaughter needed for special
occasions, like weddings and funerals. The Married People Equity Act changes the rules of
returning land to the traditional leaders after the male head of the family dies. Some traditional
authorities have started to implement the legislation.
EU Programmes
Programmes
other Donors
Key Constraints
of
-
Development microprojects, SPA/AECI
-
Cultural Fund, cultural indentify of Namibians, FINNIDA
While there appears to be a need for policy formulation at central Government level to address
these problems in a concerted effort, the implementation of any such legislation should be
decentralised. This would need to go hand in hand with a strengthening of local structures and
communities themselves to promote a change in negative social behaviour. Such anticipated
change will greatly enhance the impact of HIV/AIDS prevention programmes.
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Land Tenure
Government Policies
& Programmes
The land question remains one of the most pressing problems facing Namibia. The two main
axis of intervention are land reform and resettlement programmes. Some legal components
under the Constitution, the Married People Equity Act and other legal documents give provision
for more equity and gender balanced access to land. The concept of conservancies has
provided alternative community ownership over natural resources, with indirect long term rights
to land. The Communal Land Bill has not yet been passed, constraining land reform and
resettled in the communal areas. Access to land in these areas continue to be regulated by a
tribal chief or Traditional Authority.
During NDPII, the Government aims to implement the Land Reform policies and legislation and
to facilitate integrated land use planning and local resource control through relevant policies,
guidelines and directives. Specifically, the government intends to purchase 360,000 hectares of
commercial land for the resettlement programme, to establish and train the regional Land
Boards, to implement the Land Tax on Agricultural Land and to introduce a flexible urban land
tenure system.
Strategic interventions include: improving cost effectiveness in the provision of resettlement
assistance, upgrading economical and environmental sustainability of the resettlement
programme, assessing land capability and suitability for development, undertaking feasibility
studies for the development of communal areas, co-ordinating and integrating support services
to promote sustainable land use, and training of government staff and other stakeholders in
integrated land use planning.
-
A series of projects have been formulated and budgeted in the three-year rolling
development budget 2001/2-2003/4. The MLRR will implement 19 projects. Among them,
8 projects address the problem of land tenure in commercial and communal areas, through
the purchase of commercial land, resettlement programmes, integrated land use,
development of communal land, and capacity building. There are 5 projects involving
implementation with rural population. MET will continue to develop and to diversify the
conservancies, with evolving legislation on land rights and PTO’s.
In the process of formulating the RDPSF for the 9 th EDF, the European Commission has taken
EU Programmes
note of the land issue as one of the main cross-cutting issue.
Programmes
of
Resettlement Project Queen Sofia rural development, Spanish co-operation
other Donors
Key Constraints
Farming systems should be studied according to the long term sustainable potentialities of the
land. Proper services should be organised, including financial and extensions services, market
access and education and health facilities. Proper training should be delivered to the resettled
farmers and they should be empowered by providing access to the above listed services.
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Domestic water
Government Policies
& Programmes
The Government aims at providing safe water to the whole population guided by equity and
sustainable management principles. The Department of Water Affairs has a well functioning and
relatively decentralised programme to assist the rural population, and to empower them through
community-based operation and maintenance of the water supply systems.
Government objectives for NDP2 include: to provide domestic water for the whole population,
with priority to rural areas, to manage the water in an environmentally sustainable manner, to
manage and allocate water resources in an equitable and efficient manner, to promote
institutional efficiency and financial sustainability and to support gender balance, social and
economic development in the water development programme. These objectives will be
supported by the following strategies: facilitating an integrated management and co-ordinated
approach with all stakeholders involved, ensuring a proper legal environment with participatory
approach, using a de-centralisation policy to empower the people, regulating water sector to
ensure affordability to their clients, establishing a Development Fund to assist the Water Users
Associations with major repairs and implementing recruitment and capacity building strategy at
all levels.
-
EU Programmes
Programmes
of
other Donors
Support
by
A series of projects have been formulated and budgeted in the three-year rolling
development budget 2001/2-2003/4. The MAWRD will continue to implement a borehole
construction and rehabilitation programme in almost all regions, a construction of rural
secondary pipelines in Caprivi, Ohangwena and Oshikoto regions, a main water supply in
Hardap and different surveys about water resources.
Non-
-
Advisory Services to Department of Water Affairs, GFR/GTZ
-
Support to training activities, SIDA
-
Communal areas water supply, GFR/GTZ
-
Community Water Supply Management Programme, Phase II, FINNIDA
-
Water supply, hygiene and environment, UNICEF
-
Namibia Water Resource Management Review (NWRMR), GFR/GTZ
Several NGOs are involved in the water sector and are part of the Water and Sanitation Forum
State Actors
(WATSAN).
Key Constraints
There is still room for improvement of water resource management, especially at community
level. Improved use of available water resources, including hygiene conditions, should be
promoted. Training for those responsible for the decentralised water services should continue
and where necessary expanded.
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Access to information
Government Policies
& Programmes
The Government aims to distribute telephone and postal services equitable across regions and
people while contributing to economic growth. Related to rural development, the Government
intends to increase the penetration of telephone services in rural and sub-urban areas and to
provide efficient, customer-oriented postal services throughout Namibian and to introduce value
added services such as the post office savings bank. Strategies include: giving marginalised
communities access to telecommunications by establishing multipurpose centres in all 13
regions, introducing the Very Small Aperture Terminals (VSAT) making service delivery
possible to remote areas like Tsumkwe, Mowe Bay, Gam etc., focussing on the connection of
customers, especially in the remote areas. In addition to the objectives related to the actual
communication services, the Government aims to enhance the free flow of information and
meet the national demands for access to adequate information, to empower people to make
meaningful contributions to democratic processes and national development, to implement the
Telecommunications Policy and Regulatory Framework in order to fully liberalise the
telecommunications sector and to ensure that every Namibian gets accurate, clear and easy to
understand information on HIV and AIDS through an integrated multi-sectoral media campaign
to enable them to make informed decisions on sexual behaviour. A plurality in sources of
information, freedom of the media, the free flow of information and dissemination of information
country wide are guiding factors.
EU Programmes
Programmes
other Donors
Key Constraints
of
-
Programme support, "Communication", UNICEF
-
Telecom Namibia II project (South Link), EIB
-
Media Institute of Southern Africa, NOR/NORAD
-
Expansion of the NBC Transmission Network and Production of Educational Broadcasting,
CEC
-
Support to Media, French Development Co-operation
There is ample scope for improved access to communication services for the marginalised
rural-based population.
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IV. 2. Guidelines for RDPSF
The analysis of the government, EU and other donor interventions has provided some insight into the
key areas of constraint for further development under the RDPSF, namely:

The need for economic diversification, introducing new sources of income;

The need for improved co-ordination between line ministries active in rural areas;

Poverty reduction programmes;

Support to decentralisation, local government and non-state local organisations.
The RPSF should be defined and oriented towards the reduction of poverty in rural and peri-urban
areas. The main perspective should be to co-ordinate the rural activities of the line ministries, to
promote a more participatory approach of the beneficiaries in the decision and implementation
process, to define poverty reduction programmes related to the main identified problems and their
clustering effect.
Key guiding principles are that measures and interventions proposed are economically viable,
ecologically sound and sustainable, self-determined, socially and culturally acceptable and
institutionally feasible and replicable.
The defined strategic orientations cover the 2 focal sectors defined by the NIP 25 2001 – 2007, that is
(I) the rural development and (II) the human resource development.
The RPSF focused on the first focal sector, and the 4 related intervention objectives:
(i)
Diversification of income generating opportunities on- and off- farm
(ii)
Enhancing the policy framework and supporting the implementation of GRN measures
with regards the land issues including natural resource management
(iii)
Strengthening community social safety nets and mitigate the impact of HIV/AIDS. This
strategic orientation has been redefined and broadened by the RPSF which defines its
3rd objective as a general improvement of rural services and rural infrastructures, in
terms of accessibility and availability to target groups
25
Annex 24: Logical Framework for Rural Development and Human Resource Development (following the NIP and CSP 2001 – 2007)
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Fostering rural livelihoods by strengthening the decentralisation process in rural areas.
This strategic orientation comprises capacity building for development planning and
implementation at decentralised level, institutional capacity building support for the
non-state actors and covers all pro-poor governance measures and policies
supporting the alleviation of gender and minorities discrimination
The strategic orientations and intervention framework are presented in detail in part two of the current
report.
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Part two: Strategic Framework and Orientations
Introduction
Purpose of the strategic framework and orientations part
Based on the elements identified and highlighted in the previous sections of the RPSF report, the part
two will develop the strategic (focal) orientation and relevant interventions that the Namibian
Authorities have defined as priorities for the country and that the international donors could implement
or support.
The rural development interventions should have the following characteristics:

They aim at the enhancement of the livelihood outcomes of the rural population groups

For that purpose, they tackle the problems identified under the first part of the current
report as particularly acute and with a broad impact on the livelihood outcomes of the
target groups

They take into account the differences across rural areas and rural livelihoods

They take into account the lessons learned from previous interventions of international
donors, and experiences of other (neighbour) countries

They are consistent with the policies and priorities of the Namibian government

They forecast co-operation in terms of complementarity and avoid overlapping between
donors interventions
Obviously, those interventions need to be prioritised according to their impact on livelihood outcomes
of as many target groups as possible. The purpose of the RPSF mission and of this report is to define
the possible axes of development for further interventions. Preference will be given to those rural
development activities that continue interventions successfully implemented or supported by
international donors’ previous action programmes. For further analysis of the question of prioritisation
and strategic choices an independent complementary mission should be organised.
Regional Economic Context
Priority should also be given to interventions that either contribute to the strengthening of co-operation
between neighbouring countries at the regional level or that are likely to have a cross-border impact.
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Principles:
The RPSF will be coherent with the following best-practices and good-management principles:
1. Integrated approach
The retained strategies for all rural development interventions are understood to be multi-dimensional,
encompassing improved provision of services, enhanced opportunities for income generation and local
economic development, improved physical infrastructure, social cohesion and physical security within
rural communities. In order to alleviate poverty it is important that the strategies are integrated,
facilitating change in rural environments to enable poor people to earn (more), invest in themselves
and their communities and contribute toward maintenance of the infrastructure. A successful strategy
will make people less poor, rather than more comfortable in their poverty.
2. Market oriented
Direct interventions should be limited to public goods and to target-groups that cannot be serviced by
the market. Intervention should focus on facilitating actions, rather than substituting the market itself
and avoid creating disproportionately unfair competition or market distortion. Productive strategies
should also focus identifying comparative advantages on goods that are commonly being imported
and then encouraging the exploitation of those advantages.
3. Sustainable approach (economic, social and environmental)
This dimension implies that the interventions have to allow the rural communities to implement selfsustainable activities. Strategic choices and their expected outputs should be socially acceptable (not
provoking conflicts, not strengthening disparities over time, respecting cultural norms, …). All
decisions should take also direct and indirect effects on the natural capital in account and thus avoid
environmental destruction or des-equilibrium (natural capital conservation). To achieve this, local
institutional capacities will have to be strengthened.
4. Development oriented
The proposed actions should take into account development effectiveness criteria as defined by the
Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) : (i) strengthening the institutional
and managerial capacities; (ii) socio-economic impact; (iii) technical and financial feasibility; (iv)
efficiency of implementing procedures; (v) focus on equal opportunities for women, minorities, and
vulnerable groups (see infra, principle 9); (vi) respect and conservation of the natural resources and of
the environment (see supra, principle 3).
5. Innovative approach
Innovation is crucial in order to ease the access to financial and management support services for the
emerging entrepreneurs, to increase agricultural productivity, to diminish the costs of production and /
or management of on- and off-farm resources through economies of scale and applied technologies
and agricultural research. Using adequate, integrated new technologies will allow communities
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emerging from poverty status to position themselves on a market-competitive basis with the other
economic actors which whom they will come in contact.
6. Flexible approach
Potential implementation instruments, financial means and available skills should allow a flexible and
complementary answer to market demand. Flexibility in the definition of the means will also allow
coping with non-expected risks, changes and challenges facing the implementation of the rural
development strategies.
7. Complementarity and synergies oriented
Partnership with the private sector
Agriculture and related rural development currently leads growth in Namibia, and accelerates the
demand for non-agricultural goods and services. Moreover, on- and off-farm activities and related rural
enterprises are primarily private activities, and the private sector is widely considered as both stimulus
and multipliers of economic growth. The emerging private sector will have to be considered as a prime
partner and stakeholder of all interventions.
Participatory approach
In order to achieve a better appropriation of the activities and of the outcomes, the strategies and the
projects should be designed, implemented and monitored together with the local partners,
representing all the civil society (NGOs, CBOs, APOs, …)
Co-ordination with other donors
The different actors involved in the process should act in a complementary way and communicate on
their priorities and means in order to achieve better synergies. Synergies are thus to be created within
and throughout the development programming, insuring that the growth orientations taken for specific
target-groups and/or areas include consistent analysis and matching of complementarities in terms of
geographical, climatic, population, economic and social characteristics. Acting on different fronts in
order to alleviate poverty, will increase the opportunities to generate, in the end, productive
employment especially for disadvantaged groups (women, remote communities, minorities, …).
8. Gender- and minorities- equity oriented
A gender and minorities sensitive planning approach is necessary to overcome the inequities,
constraints and difficulties encountered by women and minorities, in accessing and controlling over
resources and benefits.
9. Decentralised development – principle of subsidiarity
Following the guidelines established by the EC for the decentralised co-operation aimed to induce a
pluralistic partnership, the poverty alleviation interventions will respect five main tenets: (i) active
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involvement of all the various groups of stakeholders by transferring responsibility to them (see supra);
(ii) seeking consultation and complementarity between stakeholders (see supra, principle 7); (iii)
decentralised management - principle of subsidiarity; (iv) introducing a “process” approach; (v) giving
priority to capacity building and institutional development.
10. Consistent with the priorities of the Namibian Authorities
In this report, all proposed interventions are based on the objectives set in official documents such as:

National Development Plan II (NDPII)

Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS)

National Poverty Reduction Action Programme (NPRAP)

Namibia – EC Country Strategy Paper (CPS), evaluation of the CPS 1996 – 2000 and main
document for 2001 – 2007

Vision 2030 Strategy
Moreover, prioritisation and strategic choices will have to be designed by the Namibian authorities,
with the support of donors, and to be implemented through a coherent approach where all donors will
inter-act consistently.
Finally, designing a RPSF is a recurrent process and the resulting strategy should be revised on a
five-year basis (with a mid-term review after 3 years). The monitoring and evaluation will done as far
as possible at the household level, with indicators being the livelihood outcomes of targeted rural
population groups.
The sustainable development is centred on four themes26 [(i) poverty reduction, (ii) HIV/AIDS
pandemic, (iii) environment, (iv) mainstreaming of gender] and all related interventions will have to
tackle will the following challenges:
1. Reduction of poverty / inequality and need to promote sustainable rural livelihoods
2. A governance agenda (including decentralisation), hard-budget constraints and goodgovernance principles, and land reform policy
3. Restructuring the economy
The RPSF is coherent with the priorities set by the Government of the Republic of Namibia (GRN)
after consultation with the international donors and covers the 1 st of the two focal sectors defined (I)
Rural Development, and (II) Human Resource Development. This twofold prioritisation explains why –
even if identified as relevant problems – the RPSF will not directly tackle with the question of HRD
(education). However, the missions stresses the importance of the education (in terms of development
of marketable skills and access to education and information) and health interventions, and proposes
that the question will be addressed as a cross-cutting problem and included in most of the
interventions.
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Based on the finding presented in the first part of the current report, the mission developed the
strategic approach and proposed the following specific strategic (interventions) components, detailed
in the coming chapters:
Sustainable enhancement
of rural population
livelihoods in Namibia
Diversified Income
Generating
Opportunities Onand Off Farm
Increased
on-farm
diversification
of income
gererating
opportunities
Increased
off-farm
diversification
of income
gererating
opportunities
Increased
linkage
between farms
and SMMEs
creating
development
synergies
Enhanced Land Policy
Framework and
Improved Land
Strategies (incl.
Housing & Natural
Resource Management
Enhanced legal
framework and
support to
implementation
measures
Enhanced
capacity for the
implementation
of landreform
measures
Enhanced
economically
viable
resettlement
schemes
Improved / more
appropriate
schemes for
land acquisition
and external aid
financial support
Improved Rural
Services and Rural
Infrastructures
in terms of accessibility
and availability to
target groups
Improved
communications
Improved
health services
Improved
small-farm
infrastructure
Improved
market
infrastructure
Improved
access to
water
Improved
housing policy
26
See the “Executive Summary” of the Namibia – EC Country Strategy Paper 2001 – 2007.
59
Improved Rural
Livelihoods through
strengthed
decentralisation process
in rural areas
Enhanced
capacity for
development
planning &
implementation
at decentralised
level
Strengthened
institutions
Rural Profile and Strategic Framework
EURATA Consortium
As a corollary to the strategic orientations detailed in the following chapters and sections, the mission
underlines the fact that the promotion of rural development is intensely hinged on its meaningful
linkage and interactions with urban socio-economic activities27. The overarching goal of the
current mission was the definition of a Rural Profile and Strategic Framework, and in the attempt to
present the findings and interventions proposals in a document of a manageable size, the mission
defined the strategic orientation in a "rural development approach". It is however understood and
highly considered that any interventions should not be viewed in isolation and as self-contained, but
integrated in a socio-economical broader context where complementarities and exchanges are taken
into account, at any level of interventions in spatial units (village, local, regional, rural, peri-urban and
urban). Moreover, all interventions are aimed to promote sustainable management of resources
and equitable involvement of vulnerable groups (extremely poor, women and minority groups)
through participatory approaches.
Chapter I: Strategies for Diversified Income Generating Opportunities On – and
Off Farm
I. 1. On- Farm Income Generating Opportunities Diversification
Increased on-farm
diversification of income
generating opportunities
Improved
productivity
Improved
provision of
inputs
Improved
output policies
& facilities
Improved
agricultural
support
services
I. 1. 1. Background
The national development objectives are set in the National Development Plan II (NDPII) as follows:

to revive and sustain economic growth

to create employment

to reduce inequalities in income distribution

to reduce poverty

to reduce regional development inequalities

to promote gender equality and equity

to promote economic development
27
The mission acknowledges the MTI's remarks on the RPSF draft-report, which have been taken into account while preparing the final
version of the current report.
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In order to realise the national objectives defined above, the NDPII national strategies will focus on

promoting and strengthening an enabling environment for economic growth

promoting environmental and ecological sustainability

promoting participatory development and equity

developing human resources

strengthening Namibia’s international role
In line with the priorities and objectives set by the NDPII, the RPSF identified for the On-Farm
Orientation, in a framework focusing on poverty alleviation and economic empowerment of the
vulnerable groups, the following objectives:

enhance agricultural production in a sustainable manner, with the aim to provide food
security and near-term income generation opportunities

raise the volume of tradable agricultural and agri-business goods for the exports and
reduce the imports where economically viable (substitution strategies)

promote complementarity between on- and –off- farm livelihood strategies
I. 1. 2. Major Constraints
While defining the specific strategies, the RPSF mission addressed key constraints and challenges
that inhibit the rural development:

Low productivity and inadequate on-farm management

Ineffective input and output strategies

Ineffective and/or insufficient agricultural support services
I. 1. 3. Strategy Proposal
To promote income generating opportunities in environmentally sustainable rural livelihoods attaining
a more equitable income distribution, the RPSF mission proposed the four strategic pillars:
(1) Productivity Strategy; (2) Input strategy; (3) Output Strategy; (4) Agricultural Support Services
Strategy.
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Increased on-farm
diversification of income
generating opportunities
Improved
productivity
Improved
provision of
inputs
Improved soil
productivity
Improved
animal
productivity
Improved plant
productivity
Improved farm
managment
and
agricultural
systems
Improved
supply of
seeds
Improved
supply of
fertilisers
Improved
supply of
agricultural
credits and
seasonal
finance
Improved
output policies
& facilities
Improved
agricultural
support
services
Improved
access to
markets
Improved
agricultural
R&D
Improved
incitating
environment
Improved
extension
services
Improved
standards and
quality
insurance
Increased
income
diversification
Improved
storage
facilities
Improved
farmers
organisation
Improved
CBO's
I. 1. 3. 1. Productivity strategy
The mission addressed, within the productivity strategy, four chapters: (i) soil productivity; (ii) animal
productivity; (iii) plant productivity; and (iv) farm management and agricultural system intensification. It
is understood that those orientations are not exhaustive, they are some of the issues that might be
addressed under further interventions. The strategic framework proposed by the mission is intended to
be the blueprint and the reflection basis for further and in-depth technical studies to be carried out with
the support of international donors.
The mission received and took into account detailed comments from the Namibian Authorities and
from the representatives of international donors active in several fields in Namibia. In general, these
comments have been integrated in the core text of this report. The specific technical comments are
centralised in Annex 2628, aimed to give more details on possible issues to be analysed by further
missions.
28
Annex 26 : On- and Off-Farm Diversification
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(i) soil productivity
By pursuing orientations aimed to improve the soil productivity, the RPSF strategies will take in
account the challenge of combating environmental degradation. For the foreseeable future,
increased farm production will rely heavily on the intensification of existing farming system. Therefore,
unless environmental-friendly production techniques are rapidly developed and successfully adopted,
serious environmental collapse must be predicted inter alia due to the continued (over)-exploitation of
poor and fragile soils.
Apart from infrastructure development and agricultural policy measures, innovative property rights
regimes should receive attention to promote sustainable land use and “security of expectations” in
land investment. Communal resources require innovative arrangements, co-operative arrangements,
clarifying the ownership of rights between wildlife and resource-conservation institutions and poor
communal landowners to establish and manage a sustainable and productive land use system.
To improve the soil productivity, the RPSF proposes to undertake actions targeting: (1) an increased
use of fertilisers: (2) anti-erosion measures; (3) containment of overgrazing; (4) containment of fires;
(5) measures against soil salinity; and (6) improved access to water.
(1) role of fertilisers
Namibian soils in themselves are generally rather sandy and thus not very fertile in their natural
condition. This would not be too much of a problem under traditional farming, but they have become
very poor in nutrients because of the current farming practises. Soil fertility is thus partly due to natural
conditions, but especially due to human action. Because of their sandy nature soil fertility improvement
has to go together with an increase of the organic matter content, requiring thus the application of
manure. What fertilisers are exactly needed depends on the soil type and on the farming history of the
past 5 years. This question can very easily be answered if analytical data on the soil composition
becomes available. There is no need to have sophisticated information, a simple pH, Organic Matter
content, and NPK analysis is sufficient.
The mission acknowledges the Spanish Embassy for the information provided on the agro-ecological
zoning29 in Namibia. Based on this information it appears that the priority of future studies would be
firstly to do the laboratory tests of the samples existing at the MAWRD, and study the water
resources30 available, according to the zonification made.
(2) anti-erosion measures
There have been few scientific studies on the topic, with the exception of “Combating
desertification” sponsored by international donors and by the Ministry of Environment. Also seminars
29
Agro-ecological zoning is a procedure for small scale land suitability assessment, developed by the FAO of the United Nations, with the
aim of assessing the potential agricultural use of the world’s resources. The joint Spanish-Namibian project referred above, was designed to
overcome the lack of information about soils and soil properties in Namibia and was officially handed over to the MAWRD in May 2001.
30
This cross-analysis would not be difficult to be realised, given that the German Institute for Geography and Remote Sensing together with
the Division of Geohydrology within the MAWRD are producing a hydrogeological map of Namibia.
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on the subject have been organised. Anti-erosion measures in the north should deal as well with
water erosion as with wind erosion.
(3) overgrazing containment
Relocating communal farmers on commercial land may meet equity objectives, but will not
necessarily result in reduced land degradation (reference made to the risk of exhausting the
groundwater resources, overgrazing and creation of additional erosion hazards, …). This can only be
done with a concerted effort to improve the situation in the communal areas through such actions such
as: improving market access, encouraging income generating activities, promoting value addition from
livestock products, encouraging new land tenure arrangements in communal areas, etc…
(4) fires containment
Using fires at the end of a dry season is an African tradition. One can only avoid the fires by
introducing alternative solutions for preparing the soil for cultivation and by raising awareness of the
appropriate use of fire. Integrated Fire Management has been a part of the Namibia-Finland Forestry
Programme and the components developed in Kaprivi and Kavango regions developed guidelines and
models for fire prevention. Wherever appropriate, this approach should be extended and integrated to
rural development interventions,.
(5) lime against salinity
The technical solution to avoid that too much sodium comes in the root zone and thus harms crop
growth, is to use lime. This technique against salinity is simple but expertise-demanding. Specific
operations are not costly but require to be repeated every 4-5 years.
(6) improved access to water
This is one of the most sensitive issues, is going beyond the extent of the on-farm strategies,
concerning matters of property (land and access) rights and provision and accessibility of and to linked
rural services.
Specific actions in this field should:

Avoid by over- exploiting the groundwater31 as after a few years the wells will have dried up.
Try to save surface water from rivers of which plenty is available in the north and especially to
31
It depends on what usage is wanted for the water (drinkable water or for irrigation) and the nature of this groundwater (fossil or annual).
Clear and fresh water is something the Namibia government wants to provide to all citizens, and it is difficult to obtain except through
exploiting ground water. Using such water for irrigation (which takes a lot) is a waste and jeopardises the availability of fresh water for the
next generations. Nevertheless, it is right to recommend developing water harvesting, but the return must be appropriate. Priority should be
given to providing drinking water for animals and small-scale irrigation. On the other hand, the easiest and cheapest irrigation
opportunities in Namibia are already utilised. Therefore, developing new schemes will be profitable only with certain conditions: the cost of
water (depending where are the fields compare to the source of water), the type of crop produced (need a profitable cash crops for which a
proper market must exist). The ministry regularly makes investigations. There are little, opportunities, and the crucial question is what to do
which can easily be sold on the market rather than producing more existing products which are often not profitable with irrigation in real
terms. Developing subsidised schemes will not lead to a sustainable economy and must be carefully though thought before. (Comments of the
Northern Research Extention Epidemiology Support Project NOREESP)
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avoid wasting water. However, the availability of the water is constrained by proximity to the river
itself – much of the Northern population lives too far from the rivers to benefit cost effectively.

Focus also on effectively treating water for drinking quality. The mission noted that it is
Namibian policy to make all water potable, but, also noted that for the farming / livestock needs,
the level of standards to be met for water quality, should be also analysed.

Analyse what are the customary rules about the usufruct of land and water. There has been a
Decree on the Land Rights (see the specific chapter dedicated to Land Issues) for the Commercial
Lands, and there is another one on it’s way for Customary Lands (idem).

Focus on water “harvesting”: technical assistance is needed in techniques and systems
allowing individuals and communities to capture the ephemeral waters during the rainy season. An
improved supply of water, in terms of both quantity and reduced variability, is essential to any
modernisation of agriculture. Farmers in rainfed systems face the particular constraint of crop
choices (favouring crops that even in erratic rainfall areas still produce a minimum yield).

Improve irrigation systems and implementations. The extent to which irrigation is capable of
functioning as an effective drought proofing investment is mitigate. In addition to the purely
technical constraints in expanding irrigated agriculture, farmers have little tradition in irrigated
agriculture and this necessitates the training of extension staff and the extensive transfer
of knowledge and technology. The focus should be on small and micro irrigation since the
management of large irrigation schemes on Namibia’s Northern river systems has so far not been
a success. Moreover, there is a need to base production from such irrigation schemes upon
identified an dependable demand for the output of the schemes. A number of existing schemes
have failed to find suitable markets for their produce. An integrated, market driven approach to
irrigation should be adopted. In-depth feasibility studies are necessary in order to evaluate
the possibilities to link new irrigation schemes.

Extended water recycling (currently existing only in important towns or agglomerations)
(ii) animal productivity
In order to achieve improved animal productivity and reproductivity, reflections and actions could focus
on:
(1) improved genetic material
(2) improved animal health
(3) improved animal nutrition
Those reflection and possible intervention axes for further support to animal productivity are not
exhaustive, and should be co-ordinated with actions taken aimed to improve the farm management
and the output strategies. Thus, actions could also focus on adding value to existing animals and
animal marketing. Following the specific situations, choices should be made between strengthening
the existing market for the animals and developing new markets, and between better use of existing
animals (i.e. by exploiting the lether) and increasing the yield.
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(iii) plant productivity
Under this umbrella reflections and actions could focus on:
(1) access to and use of improved varieties of seeds
(2) effective crop management (including introduction of cash crops)
(3) improved use of fertilisers and other agricultural chemicals
(4) post harvest management32
(iv) farm management & agricultural system intensification
Under the optimised productivity strategy, farmers should access information and skills in order to
ultimately optimise the farm productivity by sound management in terms of intensification decisions,
diversification and cash crops management.
Farmers should be encouraged and supported in their efforts towards agricultural systems
intensification, meaning increased farm productivity based on the development and application of new
and improved technologies.
I. 1. 3. 2. Input strategy
Government of Namibia recently took several decisions and actions in order to define the policy of
privatisation of agricultural input supply but the state of input supply remains highly unsatisfactory and
uncompetitive. Supporting the Namibian policy in this sense would require, among others, reviewing
existing formal and informal barriers to entry for privatised agricultural input supply providers. On the
other hand, the actions should also focus on the access of the farmers to the agricultural input:
currently, inputs are unavailable to the majority farmers and unaffordable Although high transaction
costs and risks are not the only problems farmer’s access to seasonal inputs and finance in food crop
production, their reduction is necessary, if not sufficient, for access to be eased. Problems with input
supply and demand, and access to seasonal finance have been considered separately.
In the past, input supply was managed by government. Inputs were often subsidised and sometimes
free, but allocation of supplies was sub-optimal. Very few co-operatives have yet managed to enter the
input supply market. Such traders are often severely constrained by problems in accessing credit for
working capital costs and face high credit and distribution expenses (with poor transport systems and
low volumes) with uncertain returns (due to variable demand and difficulties in communication with
poor, dispersed farmers). Links between inputs supply and delivery extension services are uncoordinated.
Post harvest management – meaning reduced post harvest losses, improved marketing and increased income from post harvest processing
of raw materials
32
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Low and uncertain demand is itself partly caused by the poor supply system : farmers cannot rely and
wait for uncertain deliveries, and with few (or no) alternative suppliers, may be in a weak position to
negotiate prices if alternative supplies are not available locally. Moreover, the market is characterised
by a very formal (no bargaining power) process. In addition, uncertain output prices and output
marketing opportunities, and relatively higher input prices undermine the underlying profitability of
fertiliser application. A widely reported and equally fundamental constraint, however, is farmer’s lack of
liquidity to finance input purchases. An other problem is that the subsidisation has let to something of a
"hand-out" mentality among farmers: the principal of full payment needs to be relearned in some
areas.
Seasonal finance: Demand and supply problems for capital for agricultural and non-agricultural farm
enterprise activities are widely recognised. This concern is also emphasised in the specific report on
“Developing Sustainable Micro-Finances Institutions33” produced by the mission.
In order to improve the input supply reflections and actions could focus on:
(i) seeds
(ii) fertilisers and other agricultural chemicals
(iii) engineering services (ploughing, …)
(iv) input of post-harvest technology (storage, …)
(v) agricultural credits and savings and seasonal finance
I. 1. 3. 3. Output strategy
(i) access to market
Given the dissimilarities in factor endowments including natural infrastructure and existing patterns of
production, trade and consumption, there exists a substantial agricultural trade potential between the
north and the south of Namibia34. This potential trade could include meat, fish, vegetables, sugar,
textile fibres, crude animal and vegetable products, essential oils and leather. grains and flour, oil
seeds and cakes, animal feeds, herbs and spices, medicinal plants, nuts, non-timber forestry products,
small stock products, flowers, decorative plants, colorants and flavours, ‘organic’ or ‘natural’ produce,
‘fairly traded’ produce, roots and tubers, wild gathered animals and plants etc.
The importance of future trade must however also be viewed in a wider context. This will for example
allow the people in the North to purchase food when they need instead following a food security
strategy which involves storing 4 years worth of food grain on-farm. The sensitive question of the
33
See Annex 16
However, the assumptions concerning the trade opportunities between North and South in Namibia should also take into account all the
competition coming from most favoured surrounding countries in agriculture. If one wants to see the products of the north being consumed
by the population of the south, they have to be very competitive compared to the products of South Africa or Zimbabwe, or protected
(Comments of the Northern Research Extension Epidemiology Support Project NOREESP)
34
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transition from traditional on-farm food security to a more advanced method of ensuring household
food security should also be taken into account by any further interventions.
The access to market will also induce, by promotion of food production, the activation of trade from
high agricultural potential areas in the north to the lower agricultural potential areas in the south,
enabling thus northern part to purchase processed and industrial goods.
Productivity is still low, even in those areas where the natural resource endowment is good. The high
potential areas will require a long-term investment programme in human resources, infrastructure,
technology, natural resources management, disease control, extension etc. to transform the subregion to a producer of competitive tradable agriculture commodities and food. Increased growth in
trade within this region will also promote the sustainable development of these high potential
agriculture regions as growth in domestic production will also depend on increase in demand
/consumption. In short, promotion of regional trade will stimulate the production of agriculture tradable
goods.
The integration of the Namibian economy in a regional partnership is a positive factor for investment
and exchange of goods. In order to solve the food security problem, the need for a regional approach
is emphasised. A regional river basin management, regional competitiveness, improved
transport facilities and communication schemes and identification of niche markets are
important aspects of improved regional co-operation and co-ordination and constitute
potential areas for further studies and support.
(ii) improved incentive environment
This question is detailed in the Section IV of the Strategic Orientations: “Capacity Building and
Institutional Strengthening in a Decentralised Process”.
(iii) standardisation and quality assurance
As a consequence of the economic integration and as a pre-condition to the free access to markets
the RPSF considers that all actions aimed to enhance Namibia’s capacity to comply with regional and
international standards will need particular attention. Specifically, this could include support for studies
leading to policy design and implementation in the area of the WTO requirements (legislation for
standards, licensing and SPS facilities, intellectual property rights …). The mission has noted that
Namibia has not it’s own Standards (or more precisely, does not have specific regulations
implementing the standards for international trade) and might need institutional and technical support
in order to design and operationalise a specific Standards Commission.
(iv) storage facilities at decentralised levels
Viewed as a complementary safety net, building small-scale storage facilities managed at the
household and/or village level, is an important strategy aimed to increase food security. However,
issues of building, stock, facilitation process and training costs should be taken into account while
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designing and implementing actions aimed to improve the storage at decentralised levels. The mission
highlighted both the need of support for building and maintaining those facilities, and the challenge of
managing co-operative storage facilities in absence of generally adopted quality and production
standards.
I. 1. 3. 4. Agricultural support services strategies
(i) agricultural research and development
The National Poverty Reduction Action Plan (NPRAP) emphasises the importance of appropriate
agricultural research and sets as an objective the access of poor farmers and other vulnerable groups
to “well- researched, feasible farming options that can broaden their base of production”. Supporting
the national poverty reduction objectives, the RPSF mission emphasised the importance of research in
the commercial and communal farming.
Moreover the RPSF mission findings highlighted the area of “creating and optimising opportunities
for commercialised, demonstration and adaptive research programmes and activities” identified
in the NPRAP as a privileged sector. Thus external donors interventions focused on availability and
use of appropriate technologies could give immediate and important positive effects on the on-farm
income generating activities.
(ii) extension services
The Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS) clearly defines the agricultural extension services as a priority
target. This implies the having better trained and better motivated agricultural extension technicians
and officers and defining (new) effective ways in providing extension strategies. More external support
will be needed in this area35.
The implementation of extension services relies on participatory approaches, involving CBO’s,
co-operatives and farmers organisations. In order to reach the major target population, the
MAWARD intends to develop farming systems research and extension approaches – an area in which
external support could be valuable.
(iii) income diversification
The indirect stimulus effect of agricultural production on non-farm and rural incomes and employment
is strong. Improved agricultural activity is likely to induce and stimulate substantial linkages between
35







Donor Co-ordination in Agricultural Research and Extension
The EC: Rural Development Support Programme (RDSP) and the Research and Extension Management Project (REMP)
DanChurchAid: development of extension capacity in communal areas through the construction of Agricultural Research and
Development Centres and the provision of training
DFID: conducting farming systems research and related institution buildings in Kavango
France: supporting farming systems research in North-Central Region, particularly concerned with traction technologies
IFAD/BE/Lux/France: livestock project in the northern Communal Areas (small-stock production by poorer farmers)
IFAD: project (to be launched) promoting community mobilisation and investment in livestock production, marketing and social
infrastructure in the south.
German: promoting community mobilisation and resource management under livestock and range management project in the southern
areas
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agriculture and the rest of the economy. Increased agriculture production is therefore likely to stimulate
these multiplier effects, expand the economic base and promote income diversification in the regional
economy. To reduce the vulnerability of rural households depending on farming, measures (such as
the linking of early warning systems to farm production and marketing decisions, support to rural
diversified rural activities, etc) should be considered 36.
The diversification of agricultural products requires the participation of the poor farmers and vulnerable
groups in the identification and implementation of new incentives. The target groups have to be ready
to change traditional methods of cultivation and traditional crops against the diversified options, and
have to be trained and supported towards the realisation of the projects. Pilot projects could be
implemented with the support of Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and Community-Based
Organisations (CBOs) and become the basis for further training, extension and commercialisation
supports of new products.
Based on the field-observations of the short-term experts of this mission and from the indications given
in the Namibian official documents (NDPll, CSP, NPRAP,….), the mission identified other major
agricultural-based opportunities, for new and diversified agricultural products and techniques.
(1) introducing new (cash)-crops and new ways of using water
The RPSF mission emphasised the importance of supporting Namibian initiatives of income
diversification37 and extending their leanings and expertise to other regions and/or other cash-crops by
introducing:
(a) irrigation and rain-fed production of cash-crop
(b) peri-urban horticulture with supplementary irrigation
(2) utilising the oshana (ephemeral waters) for tree crops and aquaculture
The tree crops (sources of food, animal fodder and shelter, fuel and construction materials) have also
been identified as a possible diversification orientation. Rice cultivation could also be an option for
maximising the utilisation of the oshana water sources. Further studies could identify and program the
exact content of the support activities.
(3) other on-farm based diversified activities
The NPRAP identifies other relevant sectors where the diversification could be effective: dates,
grapes, wild silk production, medicinal plants and charcoal production, to name just a few.
(4) farm forestry as a farm diversification option
Sound management rules are essential factors in the definition of ecologically sustainable
development activities for the farm forestry strategies. Non-wood forest products can be the target of
diversification strategies, where farm forestry could focus on production of fruits and nuts having
36
Rural Livelihood Approach: as described in chapter I. 2 (The main rural population groups and their livelihoods),takes in account all the
assets which the target groups can mobilise (human, natural, social, phisical and financial assets) in order to achieve some targeted
outcomes (in terms of income, well-being, reduced vulnerability to risk, food security and sustainable use of natural resources).
37
i.e., rain-fed cotton production in the Caprivi and Okavango regions, and peri-urban horticulture experiences of Oshakati/Ondangwa and
Kunene regions
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an important economic value. Involving poor communities in tree planting and farm forestry can thus
become a diversification strategy.
(iv) farmers organisations
Dialogue and co-operation between the public and the private sector are pre-conditions to the success
of all strategies targeting the economic sector development. One of the main responsibilities of
professional associations is representing the (emerging and established) entrepreneurs and defending
their interests. By strengthening the representation of their interests, the professional associations are
empowered and their chances to mobilise the public sector initiatives to create an incentive
environment (supportive to the private sector development and less dependent on the political
decisions) are increased.
Collective action is, in many respects, the logical route to empowerment for farmers. By working
together farmers can, in principle, identify members’ needs and consolidate demand; aggregate
members’ economic power; and address market failures. These capacities would seem to make
farmers’ organisations the ideal lobby groups in the areas of agricultural and rural infrastructure,
schools, health services and also farmer support programmes and services.
Much hope has also been pinned on formal farmers’ organisations to provide a mechanism through
which farmers’ viewpoints and knowledge could be systematically incorporated into political decisionmaking with regard to issues affecting them directly.
In practice the mobilisation of an effective smallholder lobby proves to be complex. Research into the
potential of collective action in small-scale farming makes it clear that the key to effective change is
the technology development and supply system and thus to much needed productivity increases
amongst small farmers, is held by the technology system itself. Small farmers’ organisations are
seldom sufficiently united, powerful or technologically aware to impact on support systems on their
own incentive. One of the major lessons that must be drawn from the research on this topic is that
support to farmers’ organisations to build capacity and particularly to develop internal communication
mechanisms is likely to have to precede support for particular incentives.
(v) community-based organisations and women-organisations
One of the major cross-cutting, over-arching issues for the on-farm development strategies, is the
more equitable access of women, vulnerable groups and minorities to natural and related social and
economic resources, enabling them to become active actors in the poverty alleviation and rural
development activities. This will ask for further involvement of self-managed, community-based
groups.
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I. 2. Off- Farm Income Generating Opportunities Diversification
Increased off-farm
diversification of income
generating opportunities
Increased
SMMEs
activities
Increased
tourism activity
Increased support
to fisheries and
acquaculture sector
I. 2. 1. Small and Medium Micro Enterprises (SMMEs)
I. 2. 1. 1. Background
The off- farm diversification strategies – if well implemented and managed – are likely to have a
positive impact on economic growth, employment, poverty alleviation and sustainable development.
The creation of diversified regional economies in which there is access to both agricultural and nonagricultural opportunities, will strengthen the likelihood of all form of economic development.
Agricultural can survive and expand more easily when households gain access to non-agricultural
incomes that they are ready to spend in the farming sector. Rural industries can benefit from the
creation of agricultural development initiatives if these lead people to organise themselves around
economic interests and to earn more stable non-agricultural wages. Small medium and micro
enterprises (SMMEs) can benefit from the development of agriculture, either by creating new income
generating opportunities in the rural areas, or by forging business relations with established urban
enterprises. SMMEs could be created and/or developed to process agricultural products, to meet the
need for agricultural inputs and to satisfy the expanding demand for non-agricultural goods. SMMEs
may find market niches38 or exploit local knowledge in order to take advantage of opportunities created
by agricultural households in areas where rural industrialisation is likely to occur. Lastly, the creation of
diversified local economics in which farm and non-farm activities are tightly integrated will overcome
the disadvantages of long-distance migration. Instead of drawing valuable human resources out of the
rural economy, diversified regions will provide people with non-agricultural goods. Such people or
households will have greater capacity, more opportunities and, most important greater security, than
people who are exclusively involved in either an agricultural activity or a non-agricultural activity.
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The main policy conclusion is that there is need to a move away from promoting either industry or
agriculture, either SMMEs or small –scale farming, either tourism or land reform. All of these should be
promoted within suitable time. A holistic approach to agricultural and rural development 39 is essential:

to have a balanced strategy40 for rural entrepreneurial growth in Namibia and to move
away from policies that are polarised towards either farm or non-farm, either urban or rural

to explore the mechanisms which foster linkages between farms and SMMEs and to
encourage institutions that work to promote these linkages
This is the only way to create sustainability in all these areas of rural and agricultural development.
Definitions
Small and medium enterprises are a very heterogeneous group. This includes a wide variety of farms, villages handcraft
makers, small machine shops, restaurants, etc that possess a wide range of sophistication and skills, and operate in very
different market and social environment. Their owners may or may not be poor. Some are dynamic, innovative, and growth
orientated others are traditional ‘lifestyle ‘ entrepreneurs that are satisfied to remain small.
Micro enterprises are normally family businesses or self-employed persons operating in the semi formal and informal sections,
most have little chance of growing into larger scale firms, accessing bank finance, or becoming internationally competitive.
Serving them requires institutions and instruments such as the group-based lending methodology used by some micro finance
institutions.
The Government of Namibia is supportive of the private sector. The private sector is dominant in most
sectors of the economy and accounts for 62% of GDP. The large majority of enterprises concentrate in
trade and services. Defined as companies employing less than 10 people, the SMMEs sector
represents 65% of the total number of enterprises but accounts for less than 2% of manufacturing
turnover. Access to finance and transaction costs, lack of technical and managerial training, access to
information and appropriate technology are the main constraints faced by SMMEs.
The National Planning Commission in its National Poverty Reduction Action Programme (NPRAP)
ranks SMMEs development high on the development agenda of Namibia because of its potential for
sustainable job creation.
Government, through the Ministry of Trade and Industry has adopted an ambitious programme to
promote and support SME’s. The ministry has a small scale and Informal Industries Division (SSHD) in
the directorate for Industrial Development with the function of articulating and implementing a
development programme that will contribute to the improvement of productivity at small and industrial
levels.
i.e. Trade and capital provision niches – overlooked as suitable SMME's and almost non-existent in Namibia
Agricultural and Rural Development – see concepts and priciples defined in the first part of this report ("Rural Profile")
40
i.e. to see the farm household as an enterprise
38
39
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To implement its programmes, the Ministry closely co-operates with the Namibia Development
Corporation (NDC) and the Development Fund of Namibia (DFN). The NDC, established through an
Act of Parliament, Act no. 18 of 1993, provides a number of financial and non-financial services, as
well as other programmes. These services are aimed at general business development, service
provision, creation of a culture of entrepreneurship, job creation as well as skills and technology
transfer.
Whilst implementing the policy and the various promotion and support programmes that flow from it,
the PRS recommends that Namibia recognises the lessons learnt from elsewhere. Successful SME
development reaps fruits in the medium to long term and SMEs success is a process of learning by
doing before they can successfully compete with larger, well-established companies. The challenge is
to build a critical mass of successful SME’s with ready access to markets. This required well defined
starting points for potential business undertakings that demonstrate a high potential for grow and to
find ways to meet their financial requirements. Financing SME development must address collateral
and promote private -–to – private learning in which public funding takes the form of matching grants
that are co-financed by the private beneficiary, instead of programmes been delivered directly.
I. 2. 1. 2. Major Constraints
The SMMEs in Namibia are facing the following constraints:
1. Reduced access to the financial services due to a lack of collateral high transactions and lack of
information
It has been established that people in the rural communities in the communal areas have a very
limited access to financial services. Access to financial services is limited by physical constraints
(distance between rural communities and urban-based institutions), by conditions regarding
collateral and more generally by economic and sociological factors.
2. Lack of knowledge in financial management and marketing. The technical and business
management knowledge is often also a problem.
3. Traditional sectors are facing low profit margins as a result of market saturation. The access to the
international market is also limited due to the lack of information and because the products do not
always meet the international standards.
4. Lack of information on legal regulations
The Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS) for Namibia stresses that the SME strategy is a “long and
painstaking process of learning-by-doing before SMEs can successfully compete with established
international competitive manufacturers. Successful SMEs are build on steady, cumulative process of
learning.”
In Namibia in general and especially northern Namibia, with limited experience of non-subsistence
production and very weak local supplies of requisite complementary goods and services, the challenge
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of building a critical mass of competitive SME’s is a major one. Effective demand is the key. Price
quality requirements are very different for different types of products. SME’s will thrive if they have
ready access to buyers eager to buy goods at a price and quality SMEs are capable of supplying. The
recent surge of SMEs in northern Namibia in trade, transport and construction activities illustrates the
potential.
I. 2. 1. 3. Strategy Proposal
In order to improve the development of the on- and off farm rural enterprises following specific
objectives are important: (1) Building effective and accessible rural financial institutions; (2) Creating a
proper enterprise economic environment including the support of the diversification process (see onfarm strategy); (3) Capacity building - exposure and training in best practises and achieving standards
of performance that enterprises must have in order to expand and develop sustainable operations; (4)
Improving access to information and communication technologies.
Increased
SMMEs
activities
More effective and
better accessible
rural finance
institutions
Improved
financial
institutions
Improved
environment of
financial institutions
Proper (incentive)
enterprise
environment
More effective
systems of secured
transactions
Capacity building
and better access
to information and
communication
Sustainable
micro-finance
institutions
The National Poverty Reduction Action Programme (NPRAP) recommends 3 strategies to address the
identified challenges.
Firstly to focus initial promotional efforts on the “localisation” of selected items, where cost
competitive production of goods that are currently being imported provides new learning opportunities
for SME owners and managers.
Secondly, to adopt programmes that fosters the flow of finance to SMME's, which aim to enhance,
rather than override the market-based decisions of banks.
Thirdly, it is important to identify and eliminate the constraints that presently inhibit people with de
facto rights to urban land to obtain title, and hence to bank credit.
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I. 2. 1. 3. 1. Building effective & accessible rural finance institutions
The major focus of this strategy is to bring the commercial institutions closer to rural clients, and to
make clients more attractive to providers of service.
A sustained process of income generation will require access to rural financial services, including
savings, credit, insurance, collateralization. The agenda for rural finance is multifaceted because the
array of providers and clients and their needs are diverse. The question is which strategy to adapt so
that rural finance projects can be orientated toward providing access to a wide array of financial
services.
In order to improve the access to the financial services the following initiatives are important:
(i) improve the financial institutions
Effective and accessible formal rural financial institutions are still rare – largely because of the lack of
complementary institutions. Accessing finance is particularly difficult for poor people.
The commercial banks have very few experiences in the framework of credit grants to small
entrepreneurs. They do not have the capacity to control solvency of the SE; and the transaction
expenses applicable for service allowances are very high. Moreover, the financial institutions often
cope with a lack of technical and managerial capacity, and with financial and organisational problems.
By intensifying their capacities their services become available for a greater part of the population, the
range of services they offer is extended, they become able to supply high quality products, the
transaction expenses decrease and more means are mobilised.
In order to improve the access to financial services, it will be necessary to realise a transfer of new
financial technologies because it reduces the risks and the expenses of transactions. Even financial
institutions are recalcitrant as to invest in new technologies because on the one hand they do not see
their interest and the other hand it is very difficult for them to evaluate the comparative advantages of
these investments.
In any case the attention will be focused in the first place on the existing institutions. Another very
important aspect consists in strengthening those institutions which offer financial services such as: risk
capital, leasing and factoring.
The NPRAC strategy stresses that it is important to adopt programmes which foster the flow of finance
to SMMEs – which aim to enhance not override the market based decisions of banks.
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(ii) improve the environment of financial institutions
The access to the financial services is also impeded by the limiting environment of financial
institutions. For example: limited rate of interest; public programs offering subsidised credit; strict
requirements as to capital; unadapted regulations and legal framework and inadequate competitive
environment.
(iii) Build effective systems of secured transactions
The absence of guarantees constitutes a major constraint to credit-access. The entrepreneurs having
viable projects but no guarantees, can satisfy to the requirements of the financial institutions through
several guarantee sources or risk-sharing tools of such as guarantee fund41, mutual assistance
systems or savings.
(iv) develop sustainable micro-finance institutions42
Rural financial services are powerful stimulants of rural development and in many rural areas in
Namibia, households do not have access to a financial institution. Savings are often made in livestock
and there is no access to small credit for diversification of activities. As the commercial banks are not
able to provide such services in a foreseeable future, the RPSF study analysed the rural financial
sector and identified the main elements of an overall strategy to support the establishment of
viable rural institutions.
The EC should support the GRN’s efforts to elaborate a strategy by funding a workshop with the main
stakeholders in the MF industry. This strategy would need to be supported by a plan of actions
supported by Namibia and the donors’ community. One can think of a number of possible actions for
the EC and other donor’s assistance. This document just envisages possible actions that are not
mutually exclusive.
Broadly speaking actions for the structuring of micro-finance industry can be characterised by the level
of intervention:

macro – level: policy framework, legislation, national guarantee schemes, credit reference
bureau

meso – level: reinforcement of support structure like NAFEMI, Apex Co-operatives, NGOs
providing non-financial services
41
A guarantee fund is a risk-sharing tool offered as counterpart to the financial institutions, in order to facilitate the access to financial
services of the SMMEs.
42
First conclusions of this chapter are based on the report of Pierre COPPOLA, May 2001 (Annex 16)
While finalising the RPSF report (February – March 2002), the team of experts consulted several documents not available during the first or
the second mission on the field. Thus, in the light of the National Agricultural Services Support Programme (NASSP) to be launched during
the second half of 2002, it is mentioned the role of a rural enterprise and micro-finance TA. This expertise if fully coherent with the
directions of interventions identified in the RPSF report. In the NASSP, the rural enterprise development and finance component's overall
purpose is to promote the productive activities of rural intermediaries by further development of savings and credit cooperatives (SACCOs),
generation of bankable projects and capacity building The rural enterprise development and finance component is thus intended to
stimulate the activities of rural intermediaries (agricultural enterprises, cooperatives, farmer groups individual entrepreneurs) and to
mobilise savings and credit for productive purposes.
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micro – level: typically pilot projects implemented by project or NGOs, or in case of
Namibia support to banking institutions that want to diversify into MF
Some programmes combine actions at macro and meso levels, or meso and micro levels. It is clear
that no matter the type of interventions, actions at macro/policy levels are of tremendous importance
because they finally allow for a better utilisation of scarce resources. They promote discipline, good
practices and prevent spending of money in non-sustainable or counterproductive interventions.
The options are briefly described below:
(1) restructuring AGRIBANK
Restructuring Agribank would be aimed to allow the bank to better serve the poor and the
MSEs in the framework of the NCAP.
Several evaluations indicate the necessity to rethink the design of the National Agricultural Credit
Programme. The main challenge would be to shift from a policy of credit delivery for the rural to the
building of a diversified MF industry able to provide the poor with sustainable saving and credit
services, in agricultural and non-agricultural, in cities as well as in rural areas. The latest information 43
shows that AGRIBANK is currently fully capitalised, but under lend because of strict lending criteria.
(2) supporting the extension and diversification of NAMPOST
The extension and diversification of NAMPPOST would be aimed to allow the institution to
expand saving services and to serve small loans. NAMPOST activities should however not be
developed to the detriment of the solvency and savings capacity of potential members of
village or group-based saving organisations44.
Nampost Saving Bank presently offers savings and investment, but not lending. Nampost is presently
preparing a plan to offer loans (as low as 1.000N$) and to develop mobile bank services to expand
outreach in the rural areas.
(3) promotion of SACCOs and SCAs
The promotion of the SACCOs (village or group-based organisations) is not the only alternative to
create rural MFI, but it is certainly the most feasible in the remote rural areas of Namibia. All feasibility
studies in the NCA (done with the assistance of French Co-operation, the GTZ and the NNFU) for the
creation of rural financial saving and credit schemes, rely mainly on the creation of Villages Saving
and Credit Co-operatives. (Village or group based according to the sociology of the area targeted)
commonly referred as Saving and Credit Associations (SCAs)
Sources: conclusions of the 2nd mission RPSF (October – November 2001) and comments of the MAWARD (February 2002)
MAWARD comments (February 2002): The Nampost arrangements are impressive, but the danger of using Nampost is that it sucks all the
savings out of an area leaving not capital for re-investment. The success of SACCO’s depends upon some members begin solvent. If
Nampost is in an area, then all the solvent and mobile will use Nampost, concentrating the SACCO’s on only the poor and insolvent.
43
44
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The policy and legal framework for the establishment of co-operatives has been updated with the
assistance of ILO and is very well adapted to a privatised and liberalised environment. Unlike NGOs
and other kinds of association, SACCOs are the only non-banking institutions that are allowed to take
deposit from their members. Nevertheless, registration is a long and difficult process for CBOs.
Although provisional registration can be obtained, it is very likely that SACCOSs will operate informally
until registration can be obtained
Some support for the co-operatives have been provided under the Co-operative Service Support
Project (EU) but SACCOs were not specifically targeted. NACCUL, the Apex support structure, is
presently operating at a very slow pace with limited assistance of South African Saving and Credit cooperatives.
(4) national support programme for the micro-finance industry
The proposed national support programme for the MF industry would be implemented under the
supervision of the Banking authorities.
In order to organise a conducive environment for MF (both rural and urban, for agricultural and nonagricultural activities), the policy for the development of the Namibian MF industry should follow 5
axes:

Capitalisation of MF experiences through regular monitoring/database production/studies
and workshops on specific topics in order to orient policy

Direct/Indirect Support to the professionalisation of MFI and MFI Associations

Development of sound practices (policy), accounting systems, prudential rules and
regulations)

Linkage between the Formal banking Systems and the MF sector

Capacity building for the regulation of MFIs activities by banking authorities.
All those axes for potential interventions are detailed in the specific report on “Development of
Sustainable Micro-Finance Institutions” (Annex 16)produced by the RPSF mission.
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I. 2. 1. 3. 2. Create a proper enterprise environment including support of the diversification efforts
This matter is discussed in detail in the Section IV of the Strategic Orientations part (Capacity Building
and Institutional Strengthening through a Decentralised Process).
I. 2. 1. 3. 3. Capacity building and access to information and communication
Capacity building at the level of emerging entrepreneurs and comunity-based groups
Exposure and training in best practices should help the target groups (emerging entrepreneurs)
achieving standards of performance that their enterprises must have in order to expand and develop
sustainable operations.
Internal financial management and record keeping is often the weak link and most vulnerable
component in otherwise successful groups. This may represent the biggest threat to the long-run
viability of the SMMEs. Management and accounting skills need to be provided and updated in
response to the changing needs and activities of producer groups. In other words the acquisition of
accounting and financial management skills requires continuous efforts and attention.
Community-based groups can play a decisive role in training the emerging entrepreneurs,
disseminating the information and promoting the savings and credit tools at the community level.
Producers need to know the alternatives as well as the implications of governmental regulations
related to economic or policy related activity as well as banking and credit. Leaders and members who
are retired schoolteachers or civil servants are often helpful in learning about such regulations. Many
groups as well may seek to rely on advice and assistance from national; or international NGO. In many
cases, deliberate efforts may need to be made to simplify the registration formalities (especially for
small farmer groups). These groups as well may need special assistance in order to bring up their skill
level so that they can interact effectively with private business. Moreover government regulations may
need to be revised in order to provide different groups the opportunity “try out” or switch organisational
structures as they evolve and gain experience.
One of the programmes previously conducted by the DCD was the promotion of Income Generating
Activities (IGAs) through the grant programme. The Grants Programme aims to ensure that Namibian
women entrepreneurs play a meaningful and equal role in the national economy. This is achieved by
exposing women to local-, national- and international- markets as well as through providing grants and
access to training in business management. Recently the Women In Business, SADC Trade Fair, held
in Ongwediva, provided a unique opportunity for women in Namibia to exchange experiences and
products with their regional neighbours. The primary objective of the programme is to promote the
access women have to economic resources, markets and technologies through training. Women, men
and young people are eligible to apply for the grants. Project proposals are received through the
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MWACW regional offices. A Project Committee undertakes proposal assessment in Windhoek. The
Grants Programme is seen as an important component to the Government’s poverty reduction efforts
because it empowers women and men to begin small-scale enterprises, thereby uplifting themselves,
their families and their communities. Such efforts contribute to the improvement of living standards and
the broadening of the economic base of many poor communities. In the light of the principles exposed
in the introduction to the Strategic Framework and Orientations (part two of this report), synergies
should be developed within the on-going actions, and the grant programme constitutes a experiencesource for further interventions to be implemented through the Micro Project Programme.
Access to information and communication
Information and Communication Techniques (ICTs) ease and provide access to information that can
create earning opportunities, improve access to basic services, or improve the impact of education
and health interventions. ICTs also strengthens the position of the poor, by giving them voice to
demand government support reform.
Facilitating flows of information within and among community groups is defined as a priority
component of the capacity-building activities. Information actions should cover: (I) program(s) and
project(s) contents and rules; (ii) facilitation of transactions between CBOs and both government and
market organisations; (iii) learn-by-doing and community-to-community exchanges providing
information on good practices and innovations of other CBOs; and (iv) technical information an support
including managerial and accounting skills.
Information dissemination and communication should be done through selected, adapted media
channels such as: (i) Radio: need to support the equipment and infrastructures (mainly in remote
villages) and provision for the production of programmes in the national dialects; (ii) Local newspapers
and pamphlets: support production of information in national dialects as an important percentage of
the population are English illiterate but can read in national dialects; (iii) Churches: an effective
information dissemination and networking place.
Recommended donor agencies contribution in terms of income generation activities:

radio backed forums for farmers (such successful projects have already been implemented in
Zambia under UNDP supervision) – supporting farmers organisations and know-how and good
practices sharing

providing local radio equipment and training to a number of remote villages (develop local
initiatives and responsibilities in project development, amplify vulnerable groups’ voice

create “income generation networks” – provide opportunities for firms, farms and entrepreneurs to
reduce costs, increase market coverage and achieve economies of scale; those networks could
be developed through regional Agricultural Development Centres designed as information and
communication hubs
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create on-line marketing and distribution networks opportunities for small manufacturers of
traditional handicrafts (see the Naushad Trading Company implemented in Kenya
–
http//www.ntclimited.com)

create telephone/communication centres – economies scale in providing adapted technologies
(such as access to phone and fax lines, computers and e-mail connection, …) to small and micro
entrepreneurs

create information trade centres – improving access of poorest groups to information and trade
markets
Recommended donor agencies contribution in terms of government activities:

improve public financial management (PFM) by developing and implementing computerised
information systems meant to assist civil servants at decentralised levels for fiscal planning,
budget preparation, monitoring and control, revenues administration, human resources
management, accounting and auditing

disseminate information from the government level (increase awareness to laws, statistics)
I. 2. 2. Tourism
I. 2. 2. 1. Background
Whilst the tourism sector is growing rapidly in Namibia, the Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS)
recognises that specific measures must be taken to ensure that poor communities, particularly those in
rural areas, are able to broaden their income base through their participation in this sector. Not only
will this create new jobs and income, it will broaden the economic base of many of communities, which
by and large, remain dominated by agriculture. Thus by diversifying into tourism, local economies will
become more resilient and productive.
Tourism generally generates three types of cash income for rural households. Community tourism can
generate a fourth additional type of income for the community. Each of these income types need to be
considered separately as they are earned by different people, in very different amounts, so have
different implications for livelihoods:

Regular wages for those with jobs. A tourism venture rarely generates permanent jobs for
more that a small proportion (one to five percent in prime areas) of households in a
community.
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Casual earning opportunities for selling grass, food, wood, crafts, etc. Grass-sellers, craftmakers, fisher-folk, casual labourers and others sell their products or labour to tourists and
tourism enterprises (and to neighbours earning wages from tourism jobs)

Profits from ownership of a tourism enterprise. Locally owned enterprises are likely to be
small-scale (e.g. a craft outlet), so in practice most are similar to the community (such as joint
venture lodges) fall into the following category of collective income.

Collective income earned by the community. Collective income is earned by a conservancy or
community trust when it leases tourism or hunting rights, or earns profits or a bed-levy from a
tourism enterprise in the area. The value of this income for a local household
The Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET) is the Government ministry with primary responsibility
in this sector. Within this ministry, a broad Community Based Natural Resource Management
Programme is managed. The most relevant component of this programme , as it relates to the PRS,
concerns the sub-programme known as Community Based Tourism Enterprise (CBTE)
Development Programme.
The CBTE Development Programme has been founded on the Nature Conservation Ordinance (1995)
and the Promotion of Community Based Tourism Policy (1995).
These policies allow rural communities to establish conservancies. Conservancies provide
communities with a legal status concerning their management rights over specified land. These rights
allow the designated communities to establish a wide range of tourist-related enterprises. Thus, the
income base for rural communities can be expanded beyond that of their predominately agricultural
base.
The second type of outcome created by the CBTE Development Programme is the formation of joint
venture agreements. These are agreements between communities, which mange a conservancy and
private sector investors or tourism operators.
I. 2. 2. 2. Major Constraints
The tourism sector is still characterised by low accommodation-occupancies, inadequately trained
workforces, limited marketing and promotion, infrastructure in need of improvement and extension.
Tourists visit only a small range of key attractions causing pressure on carrying capacities in Etosha
and Sossusvlei. Perceptions suggest that very few of Namibia’s formerly disadvantaged peoples have
become entrepreneurs, owners or even managers of accommodation of tour operations businesses
(nor even tour guides) in the tourism private sector.
The strategies proposed for NDPII are designed to overcome these problems, so that tourism can
realise its potential as a major economic driver, bringing benefits to all Namibians.
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Based on the experience of other countries, successful tourism development is highly dependent on
the following:

Recognition of tourism as an important economic activity and development opportunity in
national government policy

Effective protection of the natural resource base for tourism

Establishment and maintenance of appropriate infrastructure

Provision of quality tourism services at accepted regional/international standards

Effective and competitive marketing

Equitable local participation through local management and ownership established
through structured foreign investment and partnership

Adequate investment and development capital

Recognition of tourism as an appropriate, ecologically sensitive and highly competitive
land use option

Co-operation between different components of government and between government and
the private sector

Correct organisation of Government and Tourism Institutions, so that Government will
provide an efficient and responsive service, focus on policy interventions and be clear of
crisis management

Understanding by all arms of government of their role in tourism development

Extension of infrastructure and incentives to open hitherto inaccessible rural areas for
tourism development

Adequate funding and resources

Adequate tourism training and vocational education

Adequate tourism awareness throughout the country and amongst all people
I. 2. 2. 3. Strategy Proposal
The NDPII proposes for the Tourism Development in Namibia in 10 groupings. These are:

development of umbrella policy and legal framework for the sector through stakeholder
consultations

Information based planning, management and development of the sector

Awareness creation on the importance of tourism to Namibia

The establishment of the Namibia Tourism Board

Building capacity in the Ministry for tourism policy development and co-ordination

Training and human Resource Development in the Tourism sector

Community involvement in Tourism

Creation of opportunities for historically disadvantaged Namibians in the formal tourism sector
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
The success of Namibia Wildlife Resorts Ltd (NWR)

Responsible utilisation of Namibia’s natural resources, and their conservation
Since August 2000, the EC is assisting Namibia in its efforts towards diversification and natural
resources management through tourism projects. The different areas of interventions are:
Increased
tourism activity
Human
resource
development
Development
of community
based tourism
Development
of Namibia
wildlife resorts
Better
resource
management
and
environmental
conservation
Namibian
destination &
image building
and marketing
I. 2. 2. 3. 1. Human Resource Development
I. 2. 2. 3. 2. Community-based Tourism Development
I. 2. 2. 3. 3. Namibia Wildlife Resorts
I. 2. 2. 3. 4. Resource Management and Environmental Conservation
I. 2. 2. 3. 5. Marketing and Promotions
As the EC programme recently started, it is difficult to evaluate the outcomes and the most promising
areas of intervention. However, as a development partner, the EC could increase the positive impacts
of tourism on the poor, by measures:

co-ordinating its efforts with all the NGOs partners and research centres involved in
environmental protection and natural resources management

encouraging mainstream tourism business to link up with small enterprises supplying
goods or services

providing training to the poor to improve their employment opportunities in business that
serve the tourism sector

helping rural communities start and operate small-scale tourism business built around
community assets

engaging rural communities in developing a policy and planning framework and decisions
on tourism that affect them

involving local communities in managing public lands (such as conservancies, national
parks, …)

providing a regulatory environment that protects natural resources from over-use and
degradation
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I. 2. 3. Fisheries and aquaculture sector
During the preparation of the final version of the current report, the team of experts has been provided
with the comments of the Spanish Embassy in Windhoek on the proposed strategic orientations,
concerning specifically the sector of fisheries and aquaculture.
The Fisheries sector45 (including the aquaculture) is one of the engines of rural development. This has
been stressed by the resolution of the Development council of the European Union (8.11.2001), which
in its session N° 2383 passed the resolution “Fisheries and combating poverty”. In this resolution the
importance of fisheries and aquaculture is recognised as an engine for the sustainable development in
developing countries, especially in countries that obtain a significant part of their income from the
sector which is without doubt the Namibian situation, as it is the second export income generator after
diamond mining.
In the same way, in the orientations given by the resolution to be taken into consideration the fisheries
sector in the European policy of co-operation to development, establishes an “anticipatory framework”
in two phases, at short and long term.
At short term, which would be the case of the current CPS of the European Commission for Namibia
and the design of the RPSF, for the most vulnerable communities that rely on bio-aquatic resources
(which would be the case in Namibia of the coastal communities and marginal areas of Luderitz,
Walvisbay, Swakopmund, Hentiesbay and rural areas in the north of the country, in terms of food
security and aquaculture), the European Commission has to pay greater attention to the improvement
of the living conditions of these communities due to the “different fields of priority intervention”, so to
say, the prioritised sectors of the CSP, being rural development, education and commercial and
industrial development.
In the same way, it mentions that, with horizontal character in these fields of “priority intervention”, the
coastal communities, fishermen, small scale fishermen, economic and professional organisations,
local authorities have to be favored and special attention has to be paid to the role of women,
frequently tasked with the transformation and selling of fish.
Acknowledging the shortage of time for going deeper in this matter, the mission considered the
fisheries and aquaculture sector as an off-farm diversification development strategy and included
those comments in the core text of the report while recommending further expertise for going deeper
in the analysis of the needs and challenges of the sector.
Note on the 8 ACP NAM 20 “RPSF”, 0-draft document on “Strategic Orientations”, from the Spanish Embassy in Windhoek, signed by
H.E. Javier Pérez-Griffo, Ambassador of Spain (note dated 11 January 2002)
45
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I. 3. Linkages between farms and SMMEs
Linkages between farms and SMMEs in order to take advantage of the positive multiplier (leverage)
relationships between agricultural and non-agricultural section.
I. 3. 1. Background
A vibrant and robust agricultural sector is important as it increases rural wages and income and makes
it possible for rural people to purchase goods and services from the non-farm sector. Within a
development strategy such a situation will eventually lead to equitable and geographically dispersed
growth due to its labour intensive nature.
Investment in income generating ventures in rural areas carries stronger growth stimulus for wider
economic growth than urban-based injections. Most growth was derived from spending in non-farm
non-tradable items especially services such as health, education and transport. From the results those
studies, one conclude that there is a need for demand-led growth policies in the rural areas; that there
is extra growth potential through boosting rural incomes, which in turn would stimulate demand for
non-tradable goods and services. Under-employed resources would then be brought into production.
I. 3. 2. Major Constraints
Based on field observations focused on the pro-poor growth and linkages in the rural economy, the
mission came to the conclusion that:

First there can be strong linkages between different activities and these linkages may work in a
number of different ways, and effect different activities and categories of the poor in different
ways.

Second the nature and strength of these linkages will depend not so much upon general
characteristics of farm and non-farm activities but upon the specific characteristics of the farm and
non-farm activities in a particular area, characteristics which depend upon the context and
structure of the particular rural economy, and upon the structure of demand and production and
the livelihoods of the poor within it. Thus the role that farm and non-farm activities play in the local
economy, the extent to which the different goods and services they produce are tradable and the
importance of different linkages will vary between different areas with different resources, with
different communications and outside links
I. 3. 3. Strategy Proposal
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Improved linkages between
farms and SMMEs
More conducive,
supportive / incentive
environment
Increased information
dissemination
Enhanced synergies
with other sectors
I. 3. 3. 1. Conducive / supportive environment – creating synergies
The following points are important:

Encourage institutions that work to promote the linkages between farms and SMMEs

Re-visit small rural towns and explore the ways and means which link small rural towns with
agricultural enterprises and rural SMMEs

Linkages between large scale and SMMEs have to be exploited to increase new economic
opportunities in rural areas
I. 3. 3. 2. Increased information dissemination

improved communication among the inhabitants of the region

improved communication with neighbouring regions
This priority is also detailed in a specific chapter in Section III (Rural Services & Rural Infrastructures –
Improved Communications).
I. 3. 3. 3. Links with other sectors and development strategies
Synergies are possible between SMME development and other sectors of international co-operation.
SMMEs development can also support the efforts in attaining other objectives of development projects
(such as regional development and integration, empowerment of women and vulnerable minorities,…).
While considering interventions to other related sectors, it is possible (and advisable) to call the SMEs
to participate in providing goods and/or services such as social services, solid waste management and
infrastructure management. In order to be competitive while delivering the requested services or
provide the requested goods, the SMME's should be supported by training and advisory projects.
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Chapter II: Improved Land Policy Framework and Land Strategies (including
Housing and Natural Resources Management)
II. 1. Background
I. 1. 1. Dualistic structure of the Land Tenure System
The Namibian rural economy is dualistic. The overwhelming majority of the rural population is still
eking out a living in subsistence farming in the communal areas. With unchanged technology, the
carrying capacity of the communal areas has been reached. The enormous pressure on available
land, particularly in the communal areas is, moreover, not helped by the rapid growth of privately
fenced pastures. The commercial sector is generating most of the added value, but employs only a
minority of the rural labour force. Two possible options are presently being explored: to intensify land
use in existing communal areas (through technology changes and modification of existing tenure
systems etc), and to expand the acreage available to the communal farming communities.
The EC-community strategy (1996-2000) evaluation presents the mounting pressure for land reform in
Namibia. Agriculturally usable land in Namibia is divided 46 into commercial farming areas on freehold
land (36.2 m ha) and communal Areas on state land (33.5m ha). The land reform debate focuses on
the two main forms of the land tenure in Namibia, the Commercial Farms and the Communal Areas,
with the linked aspects:
(I)
the redistribution of commercial farms which are mostly owned by Namibian's who arrived
during the colonial period; and
(II)
the allocation of individual land rights in state owned land areas, and the establishment of an
effective land administration in the Communal Areas (mainly concerned with the enclosure of
Communal Areas).
Despite a promising start, relatively little progress has been made with land reform and there is a
widespread feeling that the existing programme is proceeding too slowly. In the commercial areas land
redistribution has been based on the “willing -buyer” “willing -seller” principle.
The events in Zimbabwe during the first half of 2000 have resulted in a huge increase in interest in
land reform in Namibia.
46
See Annex 27: Land Reform Namibia – Final Report (Richard Bullard, March 2002)
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II. 1. 2. Actors involved in the on-going land reform process and their responsibilities
II. 1. 2. 1. Ministry of Lands, Resettlement and Rehabilitation (MLRR)
The ministry was established in 1990 with the task of eradicating the discrepancies of land distribution
and to rehabilitate and reintegrate citizens.
The collection of taxes would be the responsibility, if introduced, of MLRR together with support from
Ministry of Finance; Regional Councils would then use the funds. The MLRR programme is also
responsible for resettling those formerly disadvantaged.
II. 1. 2. 2. Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Rural Development
The MAWRD has a number of activities that are of importance to the land reform activity; the most
relevant is its commitment “to assist and advise on the land reform process; and to improve
agricultural income.” It also has a responsibility to “ensure progressive improvement in households
food security and nutrition.” Communities should “manage their agricultural resources in a sustainable
way.”
With its responsibility for water resources MAWRD is in a position to both advise and monitor the
placing of and extraction rates of water from boreholes – important issue in designing the resettlement
schemes.
In general, since most resettled families will have to seek a livelihood from the land, the provision of
agricultural services will an essential exercise in the resettlement process.
II. 1. 2. 3. Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET)
Namibia is the first country in the world to include protection of the environment and sustainable
utilization of wildlife in its constitution47. About 15,5% of the country has been set aside as National
Parks. On the other hand, accommodation establishments (including hotels, rest camps, caravan
parks, guest farms, and safari companies) are required to offer services that comply with expected
standards.
The present chapter considers "Land Issues" in a global context, where the Natural Resources
Management is an important component in designing land strategies and related intervention actions.
Thus, environmental concerns and tourism industry development are taken into account and the
Ministries involved at different levels in those areas are considered as stakeholders and actors in all
integrated rural development strategic interventions. The MET responsibilities at this level will
encompass, among others, the design and respect of land use policies (including constraints for
natural resources management), the management of natural conservancies (where community based
47
see the web-site of the Government of Namibia – Ministry of Environment and Tourism http://www.met.gov.na/
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groups can play important roles through micro projects), and several other interventions concerning
the land allocation of land rights.
II. 1. 2. 4. Ministry of Regional, Local Government and Housing (MRLGH)
"Land Issues" are considered in a global context, and the regional development – including the
definition of roles and empowerment of regional and local governments – and the housing policy are
another important component in designing land strategies and related intervention actions. The
MRLGH will have a relevant role to play in implementing the strategic interventions defined in the
framework of the rural development strategic orientations at different levels such as decentralised
project and programme implementation, housing policies and related land use and land rights
allocation decisions, capacity building for the decentralised authorities, support to the community- and
group based organisations, …
II. 1. 2. 5. Agribank
The bank is the major financial institution to support the Government’s Agricultural Policy in its
objective of improving the economic and social development of its citizens who require financial
assistance to purchase land. However, the results observed until today in implementing this policy
have been quite mitigate.
II. 1. 2. 6. Local Authorities and Regional Councils
The complexity of the interrelations between the Local Authorities and the Regional Councils and the
unequal distribution of capacity between them is in-depth analysed in Annex 1748
Historically, local authorities have their roots in the colonial history and had de facto political and social
acceptation. Two main features can be pointed out with regards to the Local Authorities:

the sharp contrast between older and newly created local authorities (quality of services
delivered, socio-economic development,, job opportunities, structure, administrative and
financial capacities)

the disparity in the provision of services between local authorities and settlements (in the
Northern Central regions, between half and three quarter of the inhabitants are living in
the marginalised zones of the towns without proper services and infrastructures)
The transfer of functions, more specifically to newly declared towns and villages has not been
accompanies accordingly by the human, institutional, organisational and financial capacities.
Regional councils were established recently (1992) comparatively to the local authorities, and seem to
be not fully recognised yet. The general picture shows a continuing disparity among and within the
regions. Although the regional councils are responsible for the development of the regions, they were
given very limited capacities for carrying out their own responsibilities, that is the management of
settlement areas (102 settlement areas of which 39 are "declared" as settlements).
48
Annex 17 - Report on Decentralisation and Non State Actors (Anne Simon, May 2001)
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It is difficult to determine the exact nature of the relations between the local authorities and the
regional councils, and the question of responsibilities and of transfer of financial and human resources
remains thus quite ambiguous. Regional Councils, as decentralised authorities, have however a
crucial role to play in supporting a successful land reform strategy in the future. They are particularly
important in the communal areas to support the farming communities and to co-operate with ministries
that must in the future provide more regional offices.
II. 1. 2. 7. Non-state actors
The report on decentralisation and non-state actors (Annex 17) gives an in-depth definition of nonstate actors involved in rural development in Namibia. While defining the actors involved in the land
reform process we will refer to non-states as including the private sector, the economic and social
partners (including trade union organisations) and the civil society in all its forms (in Namibia: NGOs,
CBOs and CSOs).
NDPII dedicates a specific chapter to "Development partnership with Civil Societies Organisations,
Community Based Organisations And Non-Governmental Organisations" and sets the important role
of partnership between all sectors of society. The proposed partnership with the Non State Actors
aims at improving the quality and sustainability of development actions by their added value in terms
of intermediation with the local levels «especially grassroots level through regional councils», their
capacity of «access and link with people at the grassroots» and «community mobilisation».
Their flexible structure, their capacity to reach through focused actions remote areas and collaborate
with community- or group- based organisations give them the opportunity to be a preferential link
between the national, regional and local authorities on one side, and the concerned communities on
the other side and be a major player in land reform process in Namibia.
The description of non-state actors by rural development sectors shows the extreme range of
intervention of the local organisations, sometimes active in different complementary areas. Various
organisations are providing project implementation services with participatory community development
approaches and might play major roles in the definition or implementation of the land reform policy.
Some examples of such NGOs CBOs and CSOs involved in:

agriculture (NDT49, RISE50, IRDNC51, NRDP52, NAU53, NNFU54)

tourism and natural resources management (NACOBTA55, Rössing Foundation, DRFN56)

housing and community governance (UDT 57, …)

research (NEPRU58, LAC59, NID60, …)
49
Namibia Development Trust
Rural People’s Institute for Social Empowerment
51
Integrated Rural Development and Nature Conservation
52
Namibia Rural Development Project
53
Namibian Agricultural Union
54
Namibian Nationan Farmers Union
55
Namibia Community Based Tourism Association
56
Desert Research Foundation Namibia
57
Urban Development Trust
58
Namibian Economic Policy Research Unit
50
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II. 1. 3. Review of the current national policy and legislation relevant to land reform
The policy and legislation review - deeply detailed in Annex 2761 - contains those items which are
considered most directly related to the land reform:
II. 1. 3. 1. Land survey Act 1993
The Act and the regulations provide the standard methods of surveying and recording land rights. The
Act does not specifically address the need to use inexpensive methods for surveying low value land.
The 1993 Act continues to maintain the need of previous acts for the precise determination of
boundaries and the methods of land registration both of which are costly and have no direct
relationship to the value of land.
Further developments to this Act propose two new flexible forms of tenure:

Starter Title – provisional right within a registered block containing approximately 100 family units

Land-hold Title – provides a freehold title (with less expensive surveying and method)
Those proposals should be taken into account for any new land initiatives, as a major cost of the
process of land distribution and resettlement is the legal and survey process of recording the rights of
the land.
II. 1. 3. 2. Agricultural (Commercial) Land Reform Act 1995
The responsibility for this Act is clearly that of MLRR with support from MAWRD. It is also of interest to
note that under the definition of “agriculture” the act also includes “game farming”".
The Act addresses issues such as:

equal access to all forms of land rights (ownership) for all Namibians (see also White Paper)

definition of “pre – qualification requirements for persons requesting to be allocated farming units.
The question of educational and practical training to empower the future farmers is raised

setting the right to impose a tax on the commercial lands. No indication is made for the communal
areas
II. 1. 3. 3. National Land Policy – White Paper 1998
The White Paper was produced by the Ministry of Lands, Resettlement and rehabilitation in April 1998.
The policy covers both urban and rural areas and addresses issues of general concern such as:

historical aspects of land distribution and traditions explaining the exclusion of women from
land sites.

59
future targets of land rights, over both communal and commercial areas.
Legal Assistance Center
Namibian Institute for Democracy
61
Annex 26 – Land Reform Namibia (Richard Bullard, March 2002)
60
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future targets of sustainable land utilisation as natural resource.
II. 1. 3. 4. National Resettlement Policy – Draft62 White Paper June 2000
The executive summary of the White Paper clearly spells out the need “to facilitate the upliftment of,
especially the Namibian citizens at the bottom of the social strata so that they can attain an acceptable
level of social and economic development in order to support themselves”. They should be allowed
“access to the scarce resources of the country (including land, capital and skills)”. There is specific
mention of the San community, former-fighting forces, Namibians from exile and people with
disabilities.
The Agribank should provide funds at reasonable rates of interest and repayment period and assist in
the valuation process.
II. 1. 3. 5. Communal Land Reform (Act) Bill
The proposed bill (1999) was approved by the National Assembly in February 2000, but it was rejected
by the national Council, and has therefore not become law. There is the intention under the act to
provide legislation that would permit government to prevent excessive amounts of land being illegally
fenced by restricting the maximum amount of land to be determined by the minister. Those in the
ministry have suggested a figure of ten hectares per household. The allocation would only be for those
currently undertaking private farming in communal areas. The maximum size should depend on the
area where the land allocation is made together with a consideration of land use.
This proposed bill is crucial to the land reform process (and specially with regards to the issue of illegal
fencing), and might be considered as a pre-condition to further developments on communal areas.
II. 1. 3. 6. Proposed Land Valuation and Taxation Regulations – Agricultural (Commercial) Land
Reform Act
This Government Notice is currently being formulated. There is mention that the value should
disregard the depreciation in value of land due to the results of excessive grazing, bush encroachment
(NB: desertification is not specifically mentioned) or poor management of land. Further studies and
expertise might be useful in areas such as land valuation techniques and taxation regulation.
62
The final document was released in October 2001.
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II. 1. 4. Current policies on land reform and resettlement
The responsibilities of 4 Ministries touch on the land issue. The Ministry of land, Rehabilitation and
Resettlement (MLRR), the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Rural Development (MAWRD). The
Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET) and the Ministry of Local Government and Housing
(MLRGH)
II. 1. 4. 1. Resettlement Scheme
Through the MLRR, the Government has implemented the Resettlement Scheme and so far acquired
527 233 ha of land in commercial areas and settled 3,464 households on it, some 22,000 people.
During the NDP1 period it obtained 357,747 ha; well above the target of 15, 000ha. The resettlement
scheme has had mixed results, partially because it aims at the poor and disadvantaged, and these
groups require substantial additional, sometimes continuous, support and the invest per beneficiary is
substantial
II. 1. 4. 2. Affirmative Action Loan Scheme
Through the Agribank, the Government launched the Affirmative Action Loan Scheme. The purpose of
the Affirmative Action Loan Scheme is to assist large-scale livestock communal farmers to purchase
freehold title land in the commercial areas. Agribank has so far granted credit to 250 farmers from
formerly disadvantaged groups to acquire commercial holdings. The average loan amount was NAD
600,000.
The scheme is regarded63 as successful and has surpassed the targets set for it. However by it’s very
nature, it reaches mainly the better off. Currently attempts are being made to include the middleincome groups through a corresponding lease scheme and the lower income groups by promoting cooperative or group based farming.
II. 1. 4. 3. North-South Incentive Scheme
Recently the North-South Incentive Scheme, was implemented. This scheme is designed to reduce
the pressure on land in Northern communal areas by allowing farmers from above the veterinary
cordon fence access to Agribank credit for farm purchases and animal transfer. As of last year it had
benefited 21 farmers.
63
See Annex 27 (Land Reform Namibia) and Annex 16 (Developing Sustainable Micro-finance Institutions)
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II. 1. 4. 4. National Agricultural Credit Policy
The Government established (in 2000) the National Agricultural Credit Policy (NACP) aimed to give
commercial farmers (holding no title deeds) the possibility to access to credit (for intensification and
diversification of land use purposes).
II. 1. 4. 5. Other initiatives
As highlighted in NEPRUs working paper N° 7864 , "redistributive land reform in Namibia is widely
regarded as a precondition for sustainable rural development and poverty alleviation" and all policies
and interventions should have a multi-dimentional cross-sectoral approach. In this view, the MLRR is
undertaking the land reform efforts through an Integrated Approach to Land Use Planning.
Finally, non-occupied communal lands are seen as an opportunity for further developments in land
reform sector and the Namibian Land Occupation Planning Initiative should be regarded in this sense
as a supplementary mean for livelihood enhancement for previously vulnerable groups.
II. 1. 5. Land issues in official documents
II. 1. 5. 1. Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS)
The PRS for Namibia makes no direct reference to the land issues.
II. 1. 5. 2. National Poverty Reduction Action Programme (NPRAP)
The NPRAP (2001 – 2003) considers indirectly the land reform as a pre-condition to the income
generation interventions, and specifically as requested tool fostering SMME development. Namely, the
NPRAP defines the land titling issues as constraints to entrepreneurship development. These
references have no direct link with the rural poverty concerns of the current RPSF study, because they
mainly concern urban and sub-urban areas for the land applications in the “Homelands” (and the
related "permission to occupy”).
II. 1. 5. 3. National Development Plan II (NDPII)
The NDPll contains a chapter on “Land Reform and Resettlement”. This sets the framework NDPll and
defines the stakeholders for future interventions on land reform questions.
It is mentioned that land and land reform continues to be a central issue to socio-economic
development in Namibia.
Land administration, surveying, mapping and land-use planning are crucial tools in the land reform
process, facilitating the planning of equitable access to resources and the best sustainable use for a
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given tract of land in a given set of physical, economic, social and political conditions. This includes
the development of sound, sustainable resettlement programmes.
It is said in the NDPII document that "in order to ensure cross-sectoral participation in, and
commitment to, the planning and administration of land as the basis for land reform the MLRR liases
with other relevant government institutions, NGOs and communities". The NDPll gives the main
directions and the starting point for a successful equitable and economically viable land reform
process. In Namibia commercial land reform is regarded as a process that starts with the acquisition of
land through the current system of willing seller, willing buyer, to the actual resettlement of individuals
on the land purchased for such a purpose. The process of land reform includes land valuation,
demarcation into allotments, advertisement/gazetting, to the actual stage of selection of beneficiaries.
Despite the progress made in all these areas, there is still room for improvement and external aid and
expertise is needed.
II. 1. 5. 4. Evaluation Report of the EC Country Strategy for Namibia (1996 – 2000)
This is also the conclusion of the report of Evaluation of EC Country Strategy for Namibia– (1996
2000) which identifies the “Mounting Pressure for Land Reform 65” as a major challenge for the
Government of Namibia. Once again the Namibia EC Country Strategy Paper (2001 – 2007 states that
Namibia is currently undergoing a complex-process of economic, social and political transformation,
where the land tenure issue keeps a central leverage role in the economic development process.
II. 1. 5. 5. Namibia – EC Country Strategy Paper (2001 – 2007)
Land reform is also defined as a major dimension of the fight against the poverty (through a more
equitable allocation of assets and wealth – including land). The CSP states that it is essential for
Government, supported by the donor community, to address these issues and implement the
recommendations of the National Land Conference of 1991.
The Major interventions foreseen by the EC are support to the diversification of on and off-farm
income generating activities, strengthening of community social nets and mitigating the impact of
HIV/AIDS, contribution to an appropriate framework for sustainable land use and land tenure and
support to the decentralisation process to foster rural livelihoods.
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Evaluation of EC Country Strategy: Namibia 1996-2000 (page 3 – Box 1.1.)
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II. 2. Major constraints and challenges for the Land Reform process
II. 2. 1. Linked to the Communal Land Reform Bill
a. Not yet enacted
Commercial Land reform Bill (providing for allocation of land-use rights and establishment of
commercial land boards) has been rejected by the National Council and is now to be revised and
resubmitted.
b. Until the CLR is not enacted illegal fencing will continue
The absence of legislation may further delay developments in communal areas and encourage illegal
fencing. The invasion of government farms by illegal grazers added another constraint (or
complication) to land reform. Not only was it disruptive to the settlement programme, but it also caused
and promoted conflict among the people eager to be resettled and the illegal occupants
c. Shortage of human and financial resources and lack of clear implementation procedures once the
CLR is enacted
The other challenge facing the Ministry is the implementation of Communal Land Bill (act) once it is
enacted. The Ministry will therefore require good and reasonable infrastructure such as office
accommodation and human resources to effectively carry out the management and administration of
communal land in collaboration with the traditional authorities.
II. 2. 2. Limited budget for the establishment of decentralised authorities
d. Budgetary contraint
The establishment of regional and satellite offices was mainly hampered by budgetary (financial)
constraints, which also led to a shortage of personnel to man these regional offices. Construction of
both Head Quarter and regional offices and recruitment of personnel could not proceed because of a
continuous shortage of funds during the implementation on the NDP 1.
II. 2. 3. Linked to the Resettlement Programme
e. Limited progress in redistribution of commercial farms
Recent government statements have signalled the need to accelerate the process. Institutional
support is needed for implementation of land-rights legislation and its decentralisation to the regional
level.
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f. Limited Budget Available
Another serious constraint was the limited budget for the Resettlement Programme which has made
the process equally difficult.
II. 2. 4. Limited Land Surveying and Land Registration System Capacities
g. limited capacities
Due to the limited land surveying and land registration system capacities, delays in obtaining in a
timely-way ownership titles have been observed and had as a result, among other negative effects,
exclusion from opportunities to obtain land titles in poor urban and remote areas.
II. 2. 5. Absence of coherent Land Use Legal Framework and Management Responsibilities
h. The absence of the determination of National Ecological Zones has hampered the establishment of
a National Land Use Policy and Legislation
i. Absence of Land Use Policy
The major challenge facing the ministry during NDPII is to come up with a policy and legislation that
will regulate all land use activities in Namibia. Land use planning is a crucial tool in the land reform
process, facilitating the planning of equitable access and best sustainable use of natural resources in
a given set of physical , social–economic and political conditions. Experience has shown that effective
land use planning can only be achieved with the active participation of all stakeholders.
j. Recent overexploiting farming management policies
In recent years agriculture in Namibia has experienced negative growth trends partly due to periodic
droughts, leading to intensive exploitation of the soil resources. Another significant feature of the last
decade is the acceleration in the movement of rural population to urban areas and the growth of
informal settlements around urban areas and the capital Windhoek in particular, leading to noncontrolled- and over-exploitation of resources in peri-urban areas.
k. Absentee Farming, Targeting of Resettlement Policy in Namibia and not always adopted off-farm
diversification
Important changes have taken place in commercial farming areas in recent years. Livestock farming
experiences declining per hectare and this became evident in the increase in farmer indebtedness. In
response, farmers in commercial areas have been seeking economies of scale by increasing their
acreage. Others have shifted their activities towards non-agricultural activities, notably tourism.
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II. 2. 6. Implementation of certain clauses of the Agricultural (Commercial) Land Reform Act
l. The concept of willing–seller willing-buyer has provided an opportunity for some landowners to
inflate land prices drastically over the last five years. The mission highlights that this is just one of the
factors having led to perverse price responses in Namibian agricultural land; reference has been made
in this report only to the direct effects of the Agricultural (Commercial) Land Reform Act facility on the
prices responses.
m. The lack of credited valuation institution, prolonged negotiations with the sellers and thus has had a
negative effect on the number of transfers per annum
n. The quality of farms offered to the Ministry leaves a lot to be desired under the willing – seller,
willing- buyer concept since good farms are not forthcoming. This might be only partially be explained
by the fact that the number of "good" farms offered to be purchased is low,, in fact the actual number
of "good" farms as a proportion of total acreage is in fact very low.
o. Difficulties to obtain bank-credit for indigenous business people settled in the former (urban)
“Homelands” through “Permissions to Occupy” 66 that are not recognised as ownership titles.
II. 2. 7. Lack of skills
p. Among the beneficiaries of resettlement programmes
"The capacity of settlers on co-operative resettlement schemes to plan and manage their enterprises
seems to be completely lacking. […] The feasibility of providing land reform beneficiaries with "starter
packs" tailored to their specific situations should be investigated. This […] include training in basic
farm management and planning" and "in issues such as animal health, animal and range management
as well as marketing"67.
r. The shortage of qualified land use planners, land valuers, land managers, resettlement officers and
land economists has made land reform difficult.
66
67
Poverty Reduction Strategy for Namibia – National Planning Commission P. 17 (Cabinet Decision 34th /01.12.98/002)
Land Reform and Poverty Alleviation – Experiences from Namibia (Wolfgang Werner, August 2001, NEPRU Working Paper n° 78, p. 16)
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II. 3. Strategy Proposal
With other countries struggling with the implementation of land reform it is important to highlight that
international experience holds strong lessons for the design and implementation of such programmes.
One should avoid the costly mistake of land reform programmes in other countries. The five lessons 68
to emerge from international experience in land reform are as follows:

The speed of implementation of programmes. One characteristic of a successful programme is
rapid implementation. In the absence of fast paced programmes, a combination of excessive
bureaucracy, over centralisation of the process and legal challenges is likely to render the
programme ineffective. The importance of this lesson is again reflected by the recent farm
invasions in Zimbabwe.

Economic viability of options. Before a reform programme in implemented, there must be a careful
assessment of the models or livelihood options available to rural households. That is, the models
should indicate whether the persons resettled on the land have sufficient land size and quality to
provide at least the target income. Further, in computing the costs and benefits, other assistance
and infrastructure necessary to generate the income should be planned.

Political acceptability and legitimacy of the programme. There must be a consensus across the
spectrum of political opinion that the programme is both necessary and the most acceptable way
of achieving the stated goals. Land reform programmes are not irreversible, particularly where this
consensus has not been achieved.

Clear definition of the role that the public sector can and will play. The proposed programme must
be evaluated in light of an understanding and acceptance of the roles that the public sector can
and must play, and what should be best left to the non-governmental sector. Programmes that
have relied entirely on the public sector in the belief that it is the only one capable of maintaining
integrity delivering services, determining needs, and managing the process have been failures.

Land reform is only one part of a comprehensive programme of economic reconstruction. The
redistribution of land is necessary, but not sufficient to guarantee the success of a development
programme. There is the need for additional services-infrastructure, markets, incentives, health-tobe considered an access provided. These considerations are necessary both to sustain higher
productivity consequent on reform and to include others who may not benefit from the direct
provision of land.
Because of the difficulties of implementing land reforms, land settlement is a soft option. But land
settlement is difficult to implement. The key problems69 needing to be resolved include:

Choosing the right location and carrying out adequate analysis of soils, topography and
aerial surveys
68
69
Intro to Rural Development Focusing on Small Scale Agriculture in Southern Africa – L. d'Haese, J. Kirsten, University of Pretoria, 2002
idem
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
Long distance from markets

choosing the right settlers, whether or not to resettle people with some previous farming
experience, and different ethnic group

physical land preparation before settlers arrive, such as constructing houses, schools
hospitals and business centres

settlers’ commitment in capital and how to motivate farmers for successful settlement
programmes

farm size and how to develop large enough farms for living but not too large that there is
idle land

conditions of tenure to anticipate intergenerational transfer without excessive land
fragmentation

basic farm management functions, such as whether or not the government should make
decisions of what to plant and when to plant
In practice we find that most settlement schemes underestimate costs. Also there are difficulties in
trying to provide technical support. Although a soft option land settlement is very complex. Few
countries have the capacity to deliver. Again many settlement schemes violate many of the key
principles discussed earlier such as speed of implementation as well as over-centralised nature of the
process.
Scope for Donor Support to Land Reform: 70
A short study undertaken in support of the Country Strategy Evaluation71 identified the fundamental principles […] for donor
support to land reform in Namibia:
Underlying Principles for Donor Assistance
The study identified three underlying principles for donor assistance:

Rationale : Land policies and institutions are critical determinates for the ability of the poor to accumulate assets,
sustainable resource use, agricultural productivity, financing of local government and the development of financial markets

Preconditions : Without a good governance structure and a coherent and consistent policy framework, complemented by
an institutional environment to implement such a policy, interventions in the area of land policy will not achieve their
objectives and can do more harm than good

Good Practice : Policy formulation needs to involve civil society at large with strong element of capacity building.
Community-based approaches at the local government level have great potential to demonstrate how even politically very
sensitive issues of land access and conflict can be resolved
The Role of Donor Assistance
Donor assistance could contribute to:

More efficient and effective land rights implementation under the proposed Communal Land Act

The decentralisation of land reform implementation to the regional government level in order to increase relevance and
widen it’s scope and application

A continuing programme of training and capacity building

The broadening of African ownership of commercial agriculture
70
71
Evaluation of EC Country Strategy: Namibia 1996-2000 (April 2001, p. 54, Box 5.6.)
Study undertaken by Martin Adams, DFID Adviser to the Department of Land Affairs in South Africa
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Possible local support should also take into account that one of the major constraints is the soil
productivity at the level of the on-farm strategies the following topics are discussed: a) the role of
fertilisers; b) anti erosion measures; c) overgrazing containment; d) fire containment; e) lime against
salinity; g) improved access to water.
Land reform is a complex activity and to be realistically addressed must cover all the activities related
to land and those persons who are to settle on it. It is also apparent that there is a need for political
support of any future land reform activity, without this any involvement from outside organisations like
the EC is liable to failure.
"Assistance, particularly from donors, does require that the aims and objective of redistributive land
reform in particular be spelled out more clearly by the government.72". In this hypothesis, the mission
proposes an intervention framework for further support to land reform issue, which, at the end, must
be resolved in Namibia by Namibians, any support from outsiders must be to assist and where
appropriate to help finance the process, rather than to be over-involved.
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Enhanced Land Policy Framework and Improved Land
Strategies (incl. Housing & Natural Resource Management
Improved legal framework
Increased assistance for
capacity building
Formulation of an
Action Plan on
Land
Implementation of
the Land
Legislation
Land
administration
and technical
areas
Support to the new
land owners / users
Support to new
instititions
implementing the
land legislation
Support
organisations whose
role is changed by
the new land
legislation
Management
of
environmental
challenges
Improvements
of
infrastructure
in communal
and
ressettlelent
areas
Establishment of economically
viable resettlement schemes
Preparation of
the
resettlement
schemes
Provision of
adequate rural
services and
rural
infrastructure
Resettlement
options in the
commercial
lands
Improved scheme for land
acquisition
Recapitalisation of
Agribank
and
Support to
commercially viable
land transfer
projects
Provision for a
municipal
commonage land
scheme to be
provided to local
governements
Improved housing
legal framework and
strategies
Improved
planning of
land
development
and housing
Enhanced and
integrated Natural
Resources
Management
Include
environment
al contraints
in all RPSF
strategic
orientations
& initiatives
Increased
access to
housing
opportunities
Improved Land
Registration System
Improved tenure
security in communal
areas (incl. solving
the issue of illegal
fencing)
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Type of measures that might be supported by donors include:
II. 3. 1. Technical Assistance for Setting a Legal Framework for Land Reform
II. 3. 1. 1. TA aimed to support the formulation of an Action Plan on Land
The terms of reference are already launched with the following overall fourfold objectives of this
activity:
1. To take stock of land policy and land actions to date
2. To assist the Namibian government in the formulation of a comprehensive land action plan, that
covers communal land, commercial holdings as well as current state lands, within the context of
the development objectives set in the NDP2
3. To facilitate the dissemination of information to stakeholders and the organisation of a series of
w/shops in the regions to seek consensus on central elements of proposed action plan : and’
4. To present the proposed action plan for land and its constituent elements at a round table
conference, for discussion with Namibia’s donor community
The terms of reference also mention that the work should into account the orientation of Land Policy of
the Namibian Government as laid down in the National Development Plan II and follow a participatory
design approach.
The approach needs to be holistic and the resulting action plan comprehensive. It should not
deal with land issues in isolation. All forms of land tenure need to be taken into account, as well as all
types of support measures required from government, be it infrastuctural, managerial and
administrative and in direct service delivery, i.e :
1)
Un- or under-utilised state land
(e.g. the Mangetti Block, government farms etc.) plus
necessary infrastructure to make this land usable
2)
Communal land (including measures to stimulate large communal farmers to take their
extensive herds elsewhere) There is a need for more varied production strategies.
Intensification of existing land uses ought to be promoted wherever possible. Diversification of
economic activities and new forms of agriculture appear needed, as to marketing facilities and
improved human and social infrastructure.
3)
Commercial land, with an emphasis on alternative land uses, more diversified production
strategies to overcome mono-cropping tendencies as a result of past farming subsidy
practices under utilised holdings, form of land acquisition
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II. 3. 1. 2. TA for training and community-facilitation aimed to support the implementation of the Land
Legislation
(i) Supporting actions targeting those who’s land rights are being legally confirmed
(ii) Supporting actions targeting staff of the new institutions mandated to implement the legislation
(iii) Supporting actions targeting organisations whose role and authorities have been changed
II. 3. 1. 3. TA for setting up an appropriate Land Registration System
A major cost of the process of land distribution and resettlement is the legal and survey process of
recording the rights to land. The current system of land registration: deeds registry with fixed
boundaries is both expensive and slow. While this system may be appropriate in urban and peri-urban
areas for commercial farms and for Commercial Land it is too expensive. With the availability of new
GPS technology the process can be speeded up and be less costly by introducing general boundaries,
that is a graphical record rather than the fixed and measured boundary the task can be further
reduced in time and cost. Other reductions by using a Title rather than a Deed are recommended to
speed up the survey and registration process. The ideal is to reduce the cost to a standard consistent
with the land value.
Recommended donor agencies contribution:

Assistance for the setting up, at decentralised offices, of a simplified, less expensive
method of surveying for low value land without the need for precise determination of the
boundaries.

Setting up of an appropriate land registration system

Acquisition of appropriate equipment and training both in Namibia and abroad of selected
staff
II. 3. 1. 4. TA for improving the security of tenure for communities and individuals on communal areas
The proposed Communal Land Reform bill has been approved by the National Assemble but rejected
by the National Council and has thus not yet become law.
Proposed amendments currently in the pipeline may have to be completed and revised to ensure
political acceptance of the bill. Special attention should be paid to; 1) potential conflict with the
Constitution; 2) protection of rights to grazing lands; (3) illegal fencing; 4) overlapping rights; and 5)
squatting in peri-urban areas.
All efforts should be made to provide security of tenure on Communal land by enacting the Communal
Land Reform Act. The overall objective of the bill is to improve the administration of land in the
communal areas and to protect the land rights of people. Land allocation would remain under the
control of the traditional authorities but Communal Land Boards to be created would exert a control on
land allocation and regularise land rights by introducing the appropriate land records.
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Recommended donor agencies contribution:

Provide expertise as required to finalise politically acceptable legislation.

Once approved, provide support for the establishment of the Communal Land boards and
training of their members

Assistance to land administration and technical areas such as surveying, mapping and
land-use planning are crucial.
II. 3. 2. Technical Assistance for Capacity Building
II. 3. 2. 1. Capacity building for land administration and technical areas such as surveying, mapping
and land-use planing
A thorough assessment therefore needs to be made of the capacity of line Ministries and other
relevant organisations to support and effectively implement the land programme.
II. 3. 2. 2. Capacity building for managing the environmental challenges of the land reform
The activity would involve the funding of a countrywide activity that will prevent the further soil and biodiversity degradation. Co-operation could be undertaken on the following matters:

reduce and reserve the process of bush encroachment, $

implement a monitoring process,

establish the environmental impact of changes

prevent soil erosion by constructing contour ridges and other structures

avoid the exploitation of water resources, especially underground reservoirs by metering
extraction rates and amount of irrigation

reduce overgrazing on land and the subsequent erosion that occurs

planting forests to counter erosion and diversifying farming activity.
Success will be indicated by the reduction of desert and bush encroachment, the increased planting of
trees and employment created in the industry, the number of additional structures built to reduce
damage to environment, the regulating water extraction by metering output, the amount of and
suitability of ground cover in grazing areas, the extent of land erosion and overgrazing caused through
overstocking.
When new land parcels are allocated, bore holes are provided and a viable water extraction rate is
established and methods for adherence to extraction rates are produced. The monitoring of water
levels will determine the stocking rate on land and the amounts of land for irrigation of arable crops
that is permitted.
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The environmental impact on land of the agricultural activities must be monitored and controlled where
necessary to ensure sustainable production. The strategy will be to ensure that any future land reform
activity is environmentally sustainable.
II. 3. 2. 3. Support for Infrastructure Improvements
The activity would involve funding to built all weather road networks for communal areas and in
commercial areas where resettlement has been undertaken, the provision and funding of more widely
dispersed boreholes to enable the spread communities and so reduce localised erosion, the provision
of additional water reservoirs and storage tanks for periods of drought, and the provision of more
serviced land parcels in both urban areas and villages.
The success would be indicated by the quality and strength of the all weather road network, the
number and spread of bore holes and the new reservoirs and water storage facilities constructed, and
the number of serviced land parcels allocated.
Infrastructure must be provided within the resettlement areas and be adequately serviced. Roads,
schools, clinics are some of the facilities required together with the qualified staff that needs to be
provided to operate them.
III. 3. 3. Contribution to the establishment of economically viable resettlement schemes
It is worth mentioning that in their article titled “Land Reform, Growth and Equity: Emerging Evidence
from Zimbabwe Resettlement Programme – A Sequel” published in the Journal of Southern African
Studies (March 2001), JGM Hoogheveen and BH Kinsey analysed critically an Income, Consumption
and Expenditure Survey carried out in Zimbabwe (Government of Zimbabwe, Technical annexes for
Poverty Analysis including for Poverty Datum Line, 1995) which concluded that, in Zimbabwe poverty
in rural areas was highest among land reform beneficiaries. Their analysis suggests that resettled
households do well in farming; attract additional household members but they remain as vulnerable as
communal ones to natural risks as drought.
Also valuable to the definition of the socio-economic, legal and political landscape in which are taking
place the actions concerning the resettlement option, was the document "Land Issues and Group
Settlement in Namibia"73. The contribution of the AECI to the process of land reform in Namibia
includes financing the following projects and technical assistance interventions:

Excelsior Rural Development Project (AECI, MLRR)

Queen Sofia of Spain Rural Development Project (AECI, MLRR)

Technical Assistance Project to the Namibian Ministry of Land Resettlement and Rehabilitation for
the creation, formulation and follow-up of a technical unit in Resettlement Projects (AECI, MLRR)
73
"Land Issues and Group Settlement in Namibia", AECI, Iranzo, May 2001. The mission acknowledges the Embassy of Spain
for making available this information.
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Recommended donor agencies contribution:
III. 3. 3. 1. Support for the preparation of the resettlement schemes on the Communal Lands
Contribute to the preparation of resettlement schemes with full ownership of the beneficiaries at the
regional level.
II. 3. 3. 2. Provision of adequate rural services and creation of adequate infrastructures in the
resettlement areas
Contribute to the provision of adequate rural services and the creation of adequate infrastructures in
the resettlement areas.
II. 3. 3. 3. Evaluation of the resettlement options on the Commercial Lands
Investigate the justification of resettlement on Commercial instead of the more obvious Communal
land resettlement process.
II. 3. 4. Land Acquisition
Referring to the terms of reference for the provision of technical assistance to take stock of and land
policy, initiative taken by EC, the following points were raised up:

the land acquisition is based on voluntary sale of property

the Government targets are for a 15% transfer of land in the next 3 years

the current thinking on land acquisition process should focus on the following :
1.
non or under-utilised properties
2.
those that own more than one farm/absentee farmers
3.
heavy emphasis on proper utilisation of soil. If a commercial undertaking is making good economic returns, there is little
accepting to break it up.
4.
land acquisition has been on basis of the willing seller willing buyer principle and against market prices. Even though this
principle has only been used extremely sparingly thus far (for example in order to accommodate the planned growth of the
capital Windhoek), guidelines for its further application may need to be worked out.
The national Land Policy (1998) incorporates a number of provisions that had been passed and
gazzetted in the Agricultural Land Reform Act (1995). It lays down a preferential right of the State to
purchase commercial farmland and provides for market related compensation. The State needs
additional funds if it is to speed up the process of the acquisition of commercial farms. Currently the
State invests N$ 20 million a year to purchase land for redistribution. To purchase 15% of commercial
farmland in the next 3 years – say 5 million hectares at N$150 per hectare – the State would need N$
0.7 billion. Additional funding is therefore required if the process is to be speeded up at a realistic
pace.
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Historically it has been rare for external donors to finance land purchases but there is new thinking (i.e.
within the World Bank) on the creation of new credit institutions in facilitating land purchase and the
role of private finance.
The aim of the Affirmative Action Loan Scheme is to resettle qualified, more establish and stronger
Communal farmers in the Commercial areas. For this scheme, Agribank provide loans for land
purchase at interest rates subsidised by the government.
The scheme appears to be functioning well, even though there might be a need to speed it up
somewhat and find ways of making it accessible to the middle income groups as well.
Examples of the types of measures that might be supported by donors include:
II. 3. 4. 1. Recapitalisation of the Agribank and technical assistance to support commercially viable
land transfer projects
II. 3. 4. 2. Assessing the feasibility and financing of a scheme providing grants to local governments for
the purchase of municipal commonage
II. 3. 5. Housing strategy
II. 3. 5. 1. Background
Immediately after Namibia’s independence in 1990, the Government identified housing as one of its
four priority areas of development, along with Education, Health and Agriculture.
The NDPll defines the future prospects and the mission statement of the housing sector as:
The housing sector will continue to promote and support home-ownership and develop a process of
housing affordable to the individual family and the country and ensure that housing is an integral part
of rural or regional development programme of all parts of the economy.
The housing sector aims to facilitate access to adequate and affordable shelter for communities and
individuals throughout Namibia in sustainable manner.
The mission of the construction industry is to contribute to sustainable economic and social
development through the co-ordinated provision of services to design, develop and construct the
required infrastructure.
The National Housing Programme is implemented through its four sub- programmes namely:

Urban – Rural Housing Sub-Programme

Social Housing Sub Programme

Single Quarters Upgrading Sup Programme

Informal Settlement Upgrading Sub Programme
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II. 3. 5. 2. Major Constraints74
Major identified constraints hampering the development of a consistent and equitable housing strategy
are:

absence of national policy to promote the use and production of local building materials

weakness of national policy in terms of land planning and housing provision

access to capital for small building contractor and for low income buyers
II. 3. 5. 3. Strategy Proposal
In terms of poverty reduction initiatives and actions aimed to enhance the livelihood of targeted rural,
poor and other vulnerable groups, the NDPll focuses on:
(i) Supporting local authorities in the planning of land developments and housing provision
(1) supporting the implementation of the decentralised process
Continued and intensified decentralisation of programme to local and regional authorities, both in
terms of responsibilities and related financial (budgets) and human resources (training and monitoring)
(2) improve access to finance
Improved access to finance through creation of effective, decentralised finance mechanisms (revolving
and credit guarantee funds) established with regional councils, local authorities and organised
community building groups
Development of novel approaches to provide access to finance for housing and the capitalisation of
credit funds, such as reinvestments, utilisation of pension funds for housing purposes in co-ordination
with responsible line ministries
(3) promoting partnership with the private sector
Continued encouragement of partnerships with the private sector (employers and commercial banks)
in credit extension for housing development.
Training of small builders, starting with the inclusion into the curriculum of the Volombala Vocational
Training Centre (VTC) in Ongwediva of Small Builders Development Course, presently offered inhouse by NHE. This will be done through a partnership agreement with NHE’s Training Department
and its facilitators. Other such partnerships will be pursued during NDP 2.
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see also the problems of housing planning in settlement areas
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Setting up of a homebuilders register (for both formal and informal builders) to facilitate contracting,
ensuring standards, training and protection of the consumer.
(4) implementation of a flexible land tenure system
Close co-operation with MLRR in the implementation of the flexible land tenure system to make land
available for housing in urban, informal settlement areas
(ii) Supporting programme aimed to give low income groups access to the housing opportunities
Regular local, national and international exchange among communities to raise awareness and share
skills thereby facilitating and strengthening:
(1) daily savings among the communities
(2) surveys
(3) improving incomes
(4) construction of affordable housing facilities
(5) lowering the cost of the land and housing developments
(6) provision for land development, aimed to assure the land availability for housing projects
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Chapter III: Rural Services and Rural Infrastructure Strategies
Improved rural services and
rural infrastructure
Improved
communications
Improved
health services
Improved
small-farm
infrastructure
Improved
market
infrastructure
Improved
access to
water
III. 1. Improved Communications
III. 1. 1. General background
This strategy implies 2 main sub-strategies:
a) improved information dissemination including an improved communication network and
the improved Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
b) improved transport facilities in rural areas
III. 1. 1. A. Specific background for information dissemination and communication networks
Information Dissemination
The ICT sector is tasked with the collection, storage, retrieval, production, and dissemination of
information and the facilitation of free flow of information. Through effective communication the sector
aims to empower the Namibian nation to contribute to nation building and development. The Namibian
Communications Commission aims at establishing a regulatory balance in the delivery of information
and communication services that will promote a standard of excellence for services that respond to
changing customer needs, are readily accessible, technologically advanced and satisfy environmental
mandates.
In fulfilling its mission statement, the sector aims at mobilising the electronic and print media, the wire
service and ICT, libraries and archives to collect, store, retrieve, and disseminate messages effectively
and efficiently countrywide.
The sector objectives for NDPII are:
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To enhance the free flow of information and meet the national demands for access to
adequate information

To empower people to make meaningful contributions to democratic processes and
national development

To implement the Telecommunications Policy and Regulatory Framework in order to fully
liberalise the telecommunications sector

To ensure that every Namibian gets accurate, clear and easy to understand information
on HIV and AIDS through an integrated multi-sectoral media campaign enabling them to
make informed decisions on sexual behaviour.
Communications network
The Government aims to distribute telephone and postal services equitable across regions and people
while contributing to economic growth. Related to rural development the Government intends to
increase the penetration of telephone services in rural and suburban areas and to provide efficient,
customer-orientated postal services throughout Namibia and to introduce value added services such
as the post office savings bank. Strategies include giving marginalised communities access to
telecommunications by establishing multipurpose centres in all 13 regions, introducing the Very small
Aperture Terminals (VSAT) making service delivery possible to remote areas like Tsumkwe, Mowe
Bay, Gam etc. focussing on the connection of customers, especially in the remote areas. In addition to
the objectives related to the actual communication services, the Government aims to enhance the free
flow of information and meet the national demands for access to adequate information, to empower
people to make meaningful contributions to democratic processes and national development, to
implement the Telecommunications Policy and Regulatory Framework in order to fully liberalise the
telecommunications sector and to ensure that every Namibian gets accurate, clear and easy-tounderstand information. A plurality in sources of information, freedom of the media, the free flow of
information and dissemination of information countrywide are guiding factors.
The communication strategy is supported by the following donor programmes

Programmes support “Communication” UNICEF

Telecom Namibia ll project (South link), EIB

Media Institute of Southern Africa, NOR/NORAD

Expansion of the NBC transmission Network and Production of Educational Broadcasting, CEC

Support to Media, French Development Co-operation
There is ample room for supporting activities aimed to insure improved access to communications
services for the marginalised rural-based population
III. 1. 1. B. Specific background for transport facilities in rural areas
Namibia’s transport system comprises of four major modes, namely roads, railway, air and maritime
transport. The transport sector occupies a central position in the development of all sectors of the
economy and in facilitating the integration of the national economy internally and internationally. It is
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also a major factor in agricultural and industrial production, in the exploitation of the natural resources,
in the marketing of products locally and abroad, development of tourism, and in facilitating mobility in
and within both rural and urban areas. Transport considerably influences efficiency in services and
enterprises and facilitates the implementation of policies in the health, education, and cultural sectors,
thus enhancing human welfare. An adequate supply of efficient, safe, reliable and affordable transport
services is therefore critical to increased productivity in all sectors of the economy and for sustainable
development. Realising the importance of this sector, the Government continues to give considerable
attention to the development, expansion, modernisation, upgrading and maintenance of road, rail air
and maritime transport facilities.
The PRS and the NPRAP presents a long term vision for development in Namibia and emphasise the
importance of investing in infrastructure that promotes transport and trade across southern-African
region and job creation in the manufacturing sector. What is important about this vision is that it
connects long term economic development strategies with programmes and services that are geared
toward reducing poverty.
As defined by the NDPll, the sector of the transport section is to contribute to national sustainable
development through co-ordinated provision of transport services that are equitably distributed across
regions and people that are environmentally friendly and contribute to economic growth through,
employment creation, poverty alleviation and reduction of income inequalities in a safe, efficient,
effective, reliable and affordable manner and in partnership with the relevant stakeholders.
Specific priorities and objectives of the transport sector are defined by the NPRAP as follows:

Include poor and vulnerable communities (groups) in the planning and implementation
activities (access to health and education facilities and involvement in high input works)

Promote and enable Namibia to realise its transport and manufacturing potential in the
southern African region. Infrastructure projects are aimed to maximise Namibia’s potential to
become a regional transport hub.

Ensure that regional disparities in infrastructure spending will be addressed

Attract foreign investment into manufacturing ventures that add value to Namibian products,
through the creation of Export Processing Zones (EPZ) in order to accelerate the growth of
export – manufacturing success.
Aimed to define the long-term orientations, the Vision 2030 defines in concordance with the other
national strategies and objectives, the ways and objectives for Namibian development, having as a
final goal equal development of all Namibian regions, social and economic inclusion of vulnerable
groups which should be provided with the possibility to access relevant information (including training
and education), and all basic rural services (including health facilities and facilitation of market
access).
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III. 1. 2. Major constraints
In terms of communication

There is a lack of multipurpose community centres in order to give marginalised community
access to telecommunication services, information and communication technologies.

There are areas that are under-served with affordable telecommunication services.
In terms of transport

Poor communities are isolated for extended periods as they lack reliable all-season road
access. Visits by motorised vehicles are rare and often limited to right-after harvest or occasional
visits by government agencies and NGOs.

Poor people do not own or can not rely on secure accese to motorised transport. Journeys
are thus time- and effort- consuming (collecting water and fuel, crop production, harvesting and
processing, visiting hospitals or clinics, marketing produce, or searching further afield for jobs)

The transport burden for domestic tasks tends to fall disproportionately on women and
social rules and customs often limit their access to available means of transport.
III. 1. 3. Strategy proposal
III. 1. 3. 1. Improved information dissemination
A sure way of increasing information flows in the rural setting is to provide already established media
and service suppliers with data and news that the people need. Thus community radio programmes,
local newspapers, traditional story tellers, folk theatre groups, local agricultural input suppliers, church
communities, local entrepreneurs, the bus conductor, the town council, the traditional healer are
ultimately potential users of the information and they are more likely to pass it on.
In order to stimulate communication the following is worthwhile channels to consider:
(i) traditional use of communication channels by development agents
See also extension chapter (On- and Off- Farm Diversification)
Traditionally, development agencies have used communication channels as an extension of their
publicity campaigns to raise people’s awareness of the various activities on going in the community or
as a mean to transfer knowledge and technology in an uni-directional mode.
Researchers publish their research methodologies and results in technical documents far removed
from the community. Copies given to the community are usually in a foreign language inaccessible to
the community in which the research was done.
The most common channels of communication used by agencies have been the various forms of print
media, audio-visual materials like radio and television.
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There is a growing recognition that the impact of such approaches is limited or short-lived and
additional efforts are needed to give voice to the knowledge and perspectives of people at the
grassroots since they are no longer willing to be treated as passive recipients of information.
The field of communication and information technologies is evolving very rapidly. The costs are
constantly decreasing both in terms of servicing costs and robustness of the facilities. Several
agencies are seeking ways to reconcile technological innovation with rural people’s needs and
constraints
(ii) radio-listening clubs
This form of participatory radio programming is one of the most effective as it involves community
participation and uses local languages as well as it takes into account cultural traditions. Community
participation is a fundamental characteristic of radio-listening clubs – live public shows, village debates
and the recording of communities’ comments are other features of the methodology.
Radio-listening clubs often go beyond agricultural issues to address a wide range of related social ,
educational, health and cultural issues. It is excellent in motivating farmers and for drawing their
attention to new agricultural production ideas and techniques.
Some principles underlying the role of radio for rural development are:

Recognising and building on the experience and knowledge of the learners

Developing the subject matters around the experience and knowledge of the learners

Relevancy, practicality and practical utility

Mobilising people for community and self-development in addition to extending the chance to learn
to people who had previously been denied the opportunity and,

Emphasis on fostering autonomy in learning or participatory group learning rather than
dependency on educators
(iii) community newsletters
The production of community newsletters should be localised. The farmers with the help of the
regional information offices should write these newsletters
Farmers see this community newsletter as a vehicle to improve communication and information flows
between themselves and the policy makers within their communities. Other development agents
operating in the same community have access to publish and read the community newsletter, thus
improving communications networks in the area.
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(iv) exchange visits
Most farming communities appreciate exchange visits as an indispensable way of gaining knowledge
and opening new perspectives. Exchange visits combine three powerful reinforcing elements: peer
learning, peer motivation and peer solidarity
Already done for Farm Extension Development Groups (exchange of knowledge and expertise)
(v) farmers groups
Communities have constituted themselves into farmer groups for the purpose of accessing new
technologies, work methods and sharing experiences and skills. Schools are frequently used for the
purposes of technology transfer through training, demonstration and pupil-to parents/community
dissemination.
For these strategies one has to take into account that:

Appropriate communication media are those that can be sustained by the community. Women use and prefer different
communication channels to men. The youth have their own preferences. Audience analysis is very important within the
context of appropriate communication media

Communication for development is a dynamic discipline, evolving and adapting new development paradigm. In the past,
development approaches were top-down based on transferring technology and information. Now, participatory people
centred development approaches are used. This requires that personnel that work closely with rural communities need to
update their skills regularly.

A good understanding of local communication patterns and channels is essential to ensure appropriate participation

Access to electricity; access to radio
(vi) church role in information dissemination
Church’s crucial role in information should be highlighted and taken in consideration while designing
communication / information dissemination actions.
III. 1. 3. 2. Improved communication network
The NDPII programme at the level of information and communication technology section agreed on
several strategies. Among these some are important for the rural area:

Expanding transmitter networks and establishing the necessary ICT infrastructure to give all
Namibians access to broadcasting and Internet services

Encouraging and supporting human resource development at all levels throughout the ICT sector
by addressing the critical shortage of qualified, trained and experienced media practitioners,
librarians, ICT specialists through suitable degree training as well as dedicated short training
courses

Introducing training programmes to enable regional and local governments to assume and expand
information gathering and dissemination functions

Embarking on Information, Education and Communication campaigns to inform and educate the
nation on issues of national importance
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
Motivating the existing media to expand their distribution to rural areas

Encouraging the establishment of community-based media to give rural communities a
mouthpiece to air their views on local, regional and national issues

Encouraging regional governments to avail space for the establishment of multipurpose
community centres in all 13 regions by the year 2004 to give marginalised communities access to
telecommunication services, information and communication technologies, audio-visual and
printed material and encouraging inter-ministerial co-operation in the provision of information
services to promote professionalism in these services

Applying information and communication technologies in the day-to-day administration of ICT
sector as well as other sectors for more efficient and effective communication and service delivery.

Facilitating the generation of new information, through research, monitoring and other areas where
there are significant knowledge gaps such as relating to the livelihood strategies, climate, soils,
bio-diversity and a variety of socio-economic issues, in active collaboration with other sectors
including the Research, Science and Technology Sector

Lobbying international donor organisations, multinational and national companies and the public
sector to assist the ICT sector with financial and other assistance to provide all schools and
community libraries with equipment and Internet connectivity in order to enhance the learning
processes and to establish multipurpose community centres across the country

Producing more information, education and communication material on HIV and AIDS and
preventative strategies

Supplying information on care and support for those affected by HIV and AIDS

Availing information on legal and human rights issues surrounding HIV and AIDS
NDPII, in the section strategy level of communication repeated some of the strategies of the
information and communication technology sector. The telecommunication sector focus on the
connection of customers in remote areas by acquiring and implementing a fully fledged network
III. 1. 3. 3. Improved transport
The RPSF mission in its recommended areas of intervention has focussed on the leverage effect of
the transport sector on the different poverty dimensions (malnutrition, ill health, illiteracy, vulnerability,
physical isolation and political exclusion).
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In order to stimulate the economic and social development and of poor and vulnerable groups, RPSF
mission sets the following objectives:
1. Creating opportunity by:

allowing a better access to markets, inputs, schools and health clinics

lowering production/transaction costs and expanding trade opportunities
2. Facilitating empowerment by:

involving poor communities and their organisations in priority setting; implementation of
transport interventions and maintenance of infrastructures

adopting transport interventions to the needs of women, the disabled and the vulnerable
groups
3. Enhancing security by:

enabling poor and vulnerable communities to better respond to economic and natural
shocks

reducing vulnerability and severity of impacts of household level risk (such as medical
emergencies) by maintaining all-season basic access
The RPSF mission defined several priorities in terms of pro-poor approach to transport initiatives. In
the meantime, the mission highlighted the danger of negative effects of road building (with effects such
as invasive tourism, logging, environmental degradation, destruction of a way of life, …).
(i) access and mobility
All the actions should target one (or more) dimensions of the “accessibility”:

providing transport means to poor for medical emergencies (see health section)

access to education: improve access to school facilities

access to markets and inputs
The extent of a road network and conditions of these roads during the rainy season may influence
farmers’ strategies and practices. A poor road network and unreliable distribution will force the farmers
to grow their own food and less perishable commodities, causing a lower productivity of resources
employed. Increased costs of transportation will also affect the input used and the marketing strategies
followed by the farmers.
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(ii) improve and maintain rural transport infrastructure through labour-intensive works
The RPSF mission underlines the potential important (positive) impact of food for work and cash for
work projects in the Namibian context.
Through the White Paper on Labour Based Works Policy, Government has provided guidelines aiming
broadly at the substitution of labour for capital, where technically and economically feasible, to
increase employment opportunities and income generation for the poor and marginalised sectors of
Namibian society. The implementation of the White Paper’s policies is to be facilitated by a statutory
Labour Based Works Forum.
NDPll sets the following goals:
Infrastructure

Complete the upgrading of the Trans-Caprivi Highway by 2002

Complete National Roads master plan by 2002

Invest N$3 500 million in road construction and rehabilitation until 2006

Invest N$600 million in construction and rehabilitation of rail infrastructure until 2006

Invest N$500 million in upgrading of port infrastructure until 2006

Invest N$41 million in institutional reform in the transport sector until 2005
Labour Based Works

Labour-based construction of 8km of bitumen road by 2005

Labour-based construction of 400km of gravel road by 2006

Labour-maximised construction of railway to northern border by 2005
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Compiling the Namibian official strategic documents (mainly NDPII, RPS, NPRAP and Vision 2030) and the EC objectives
outlined in the CSP (2001 – 2007), the following principles underlying all decisions and activities have been highlighted as
providing the basic guidelines for a policy framework. The four strategic principles are proposed to ensure the design and
implementation of transport policies and interventions are pro-poor oriented:
1.
Transport needs of poor people and poor areas should be recognised explicitly
This is an overarching principle. The transport sector can be a powerful ally in a country’s attack on poverty – transport sector
policies and strategies must support the national poverty reduction strategy, and in a sustainable manner, respond to the needs
of poor people, poor communities and vulnerable groups.
2.
All transport interventions should address both efficiency and equity concerns
Interventions that are primarily orientated to efficiency should address equity issues, and interventions that are targeted at poor
people should be done in an efficient way (be guided by “least-cost”)
3.
Poor people should be fully compensated for any adverse effects of transport programs
The national transport policy must provide a framework for identifying and addressing any adverse impacts of transport
interventions on poor people. It should provide full compensation of adverse impacts – poor people should not be harmed by
transport intervention. Inappropriately designed transport policies and interventions can harm poor people. The following types
of impacts are common and warrant explicit attention:

Displacement of a transport mode that is popularly used by poor people and other vulnerable groups to make way for
another (for example the displacement of pedestrians and bicycles and other low cost modes by cars and trucks)

Disruption/partitioning of low-income neighbourhoods due to road construction

Involuntary resettlement

Excessive regulatory control of transport services, especially entry barriers to the informal sector

Transport tariff increases as a result of removal of subsidy

Traffic accidents, especially for pedestrians

Environmental pollution emission concentrates and noise from vehicles

The spread of HIV/AIDS (through increased communications – transportation - with risk communities)

Labour redundancy caused by restructuring, commercialisation and privatisation of state-owned transport enterprises
Although these impacts can affect all income groups, poor people are likely to be hardest hit as they have few if any resources
to adjust to the impact imposed (for example, by relocating), i.e., these impacts are typically regressive. Poor women are
particularly vulnerable and poverty reduction and compensations strategies must be gender –sensitive to ensure they will benefit
4.
Transport interventions require full participation of all stakeholders, including representatives of poor people.
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III. 2. Health Strategy
III. 2. 1. Background
At independence in 1990, the Namibian Ministry of Health and Social Services (MHSS) inherited a
health system from the colonial era that was fragmented alone ethnic lines, inequitable in terms of
accessibility and extremely skewed towards curative services. Consequently, the health profile of the
population reflects the country’s skewed wealth distribution. It also displays the classic disease
problems of developing economy.
The health sector is pluralist. There is a well-established private for profit sector with general and
specialist medical and allied health practitioners. Private hospitals offer services in most of the main
centres. There are a number of mission based health services. Mostly in the communal areas in the
north. The traditional sub-sector, represented by traditional healers, birth attendants and other
practitioners is also prominent in rural areas. The public health sector consists of a small military
medical service and the MHSS.
One of the greatest health challenges to the Namibian population is the pandemic of HIV/AIDS. Not
only is the current rate of HIV infection. But there is also a huge social cost that all Namibians must
bear. This cost comes from the loss of productivity- as large sections of the working population are
removed from the workforce through sickness and death. Then, there are the increasing number of
children who are orphaned and left to the care of their extended family and the support of the state
Immediately after the Independence in 1990, the Government responded to HIV and AIDS by
launching a short term plan and first medium term plan of action, focussing on;

prevention

awareness raising

surveillance

strengthening of sexual transmitted disease (STD) management

maintenance of blood transmission safety
Although progress in ensuring safe blood supply and increasing use of condoms has been observed,
limited success was achieved in raising awareness, motivating behaviour change or reducing stigma
and discrimination. The HIV epidemic increased rapidly during this period and the programme failed to
achieve its main aim, which was the reduction of the transmission of HIV.
Through the launching of the Second Medium Term Plan on HIV and AIDS (MTP-ll) in March 1999 the
Government aimed to create a broad national response by:
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
Involving all sectors to expand the national response to HIV and AIDS

Link prevention to care and support for persons of families affected by HIV and AIDS to
reduce stigmatisation

Strengthen the capacities of regional councils and local authorities to co-ordinate manage
and monitor HIV and AIDS activities

Establish partnerships with private sector and civil society organisations to implement
programmes
MDPll expands and accelerates the response to HIV and AIDS in Namibia. It outlines a medium term
(1999 – 2004) multi sectoral response to the epidemic in which sectors are given specific objectives
and actions to be taken. For the regional level co-ordination regional HIV and AIDS activity planning,
implementation, monitoring and evaluation is a key obligation. Implied by this responsibility is that the
region represents the primary implementation policy, which devolves responsibility to communities and
districts.
Regional HIV and AIDS action plans were developed by the regions (through the formation of
Regional AIDS Co-ordinating Committee) for July 1999 – June 200. Though comprehensive they were
characterised by too wide scope, little focus on region specific situation, poor sectoral collaboration
and limited implementation. Further regional expectations for funding were not met resulting in limited
HIV prevention activities occurring in the regions during this time. Plans were revised for each of 13
regions with support of national level staff and extended consultants to form initially short term six
month plans (October 200 – March 20001) and 1 year plans (April 2001 – March 2002). Each of the
objectives in the regional plans is linked to the three main strategies outlined in the MTP-ll plus an
additional fourth recognised as essential to all regions. The reduced number and scope of activities
developed within the regional action plans realistically reflect current limited regional and district
capacity to co-ordinate and implement HIV and AIDS activities.
The four strategies of the MTP-ll are:
Strategy 1: Prevention of HIV and AIDS through development and production of Information Education
and Communication (IEC) materials, messages and dissemination of information on HIV and AIDS
Strategy 2: Prevention of HIV infection through condom use, strengthening the source of condom
supply and distribution
Strategy 3: Provision of care and support to HIV affected people through counselling, home based
care and general care
Strategy 4: Regional management and institutional strengthening
For the period April 2002 – March 2002 the 13 Regional AIDS co-ordinating Committees developed
indicative budgets to the total of N$5,096.997 (estimated to N$20,316,918 for 2001 to 2005).
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The NDPll reflects the priorities of the Namibian Government in terms of Health and Sanitation
improvement and in terms of containment of the HIV /AIDS transmission and minimisation of the
impact of HIV/AIDS on infected individuals and affected families, communities and regions.
Thus the NDPll defines the Health Sector mission statement as to attain a level of health and social
well being by all Namibians which will enable them to lead economically and socially productive lives.
The overall objectives to be pursued during NDPll are:

to improve the physical and mental health of all Namibian

to improve and maintain the social well being, self-reliance and coping capacities of individuals,
families and communities.
The mission statement of the National Response to HIV/Aids leads to the definition of the following
objectives:

Mobilise all Namibians to prevent the further spread of HIV infections in adults and children in
Namibia, by intensifying support to HIV/AIDS prevention and control efforts

Ensure that all Namibians living with HIV and their families have access to services that are
affordable, of high quality and responsive to their needs and are not subject to discrimination

Support and strengthen the National and Regional Programme Management Structures to ensure
the co-ordination and Monitoring of the National Strategic Response to HIV/AIDS in Namibia

Solicit and facilitate continuous support from national and international communities to address all
aspects of the impact of the HIV/AIDS pandemic
The Outcome Objective of the NDPII (target period 2001 – 2006) is to:

attain a levelling off of the HIV transmission rate in all age groups as well as a levelling off of the incidence of new AIDS
cases

Reduce the burden of disease related to tuberculosis and malaria

Ensure that life expectancy is at minimum 42 years

Reduce the infant mortality rate by 10% from the current level of 58/1000

Reduce the under five mortality rate by 10% from the current level of 77/1000

Reduce the maternal mortality rate by 10%from the current level of 225/1000,000

Reduce the total fertility rate (TFR) from 4.7 to 4.0 per woman by 2010

Reduce the under nutrition among the under fives from 17% to 8%

Continue to improve the quality of life and environmental impact through the promotion of environmental health at all levels

Increase the % of rural households with access to adequate sanitation from 28% to 60% ; maintain the existing coverage
levels in Urban and peri-urbun areas

Reduce the level of domestic violence, child abuse and rapes with the subsequent negative impact on labour productivity
and costs to society.
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In terms of poverty reduction objectives, the RPSF mission proposes an integrated approach, a
multi sectoral involvement, with a decentralised approach supported by regional and national
policies and programmes.
Key initiatives will focus on:
(i) Supporting accessibility, availability and appropriateness of primary health care;
(ii) Reducing inter-regional disparities in terms of health expenditures and assuring an equitable
access to health services and facilities of poor groups and other vulnerable groups;
(iii) Increasing participatory initiatives at the local community level in terms of health services, access
maintenance and management awareness building to prevention and care services through
information dissemination
Health interventions
National actions are already detailed in the background sub-chapter
EU Programmes : Namibia integrated Health Programme (NIHP) – 7th EDF) which covered the following components : 1)
strengthening of regional health services : 2) construction of rural clinics ; 3) strengthening of administrative support services ; 4)
support to the essential drugs programme ; and 5) assistance with health financing reforms
Other Donors Programmes:

Health and Social Sector Support Programme (HSSSP), supported by the Government of Finland

Programme support « health Nutrition and Environment » UNICEF

Social Mobilisation and community based health care , UNICEF

Integrated child health services UNICEF

Nutrition and alimentation of iodine deficiency disorders UNICEF

Improvement of health facilities in former Owamboland, GFR/GTZ

P Sante, French Development Co-operation

Strengthening of Health Management in the 4 North Central Regional, DFID/VSO

The social marketing of Malaria Retreatable Bednets in Eastern Caprivi DFID
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Particularly for the HIV/AIDS pandemic ongoing are implemented the following programs:
National Initiatives:

National AIDS co-ordination Programme (NACOP) with central and regional management and co-ordination structures was
established in 1998

National Aids Committee (NAC) , supra ministerial level, co-ordinates and manages the national response towards
HIV/AIDS

A multi-Sectoral Co-ordination Committee (NAMACOC) was established comprising of the executive officers of all line
ministries, regional councils, para-statals and NGOs. The operational arm of this committee is the National Aids Executive
Committee

Thirteen Regional Aids Co-ordinating Committees (RACOC) are established responsible for activity planning,
implementation, monitoring and evaluation

Various Information and Education materials have been developed and translated in the different local languages

On-going awareness raising activities include : campaigns via TV/radio, competitions, national awareness weeks,
commemoration days, safe sex weeks, condom days, cultural rallies sporting events.

Namibians are trained as HIC/AIDS educators, counsellors and home based caregivers, for which education and training
modules, guidelines, curricula and policies were developed and implemented

Other activities include : provision of care and support for persons with HIV/Aids effective surveillance procedures for
monitoring the pandemic, control over HIV transmission through blood and instruments, prevention of discrimination of
HIV/AIDS infected people, and strengthening of the management structures.
EU Programmes :
HIV/AIDS programme (7th EDF) focussing on : 1) training of health staff on the management of STD/AIDS ; 2) development of
guidelines for clinical treatment of AIDS ; 3) promotion of health awareness under infected persons ; 4) promotion of safer
sexual behaviour
Other Donors Programmes:

Finance Aids information programmes via NGOs NORAD

Increase awareness of HIV/Aids among young Namibians SIDA

Policy formulation and services co-ordination « youth health and development » UNICEF

Strengthening Namibia’s national response to HIV/AIDS, SPA/UNAIDS

Information and Communication UNICEF

Reproductive Health and HIV Prevention GFR/GTZ/KFW

HIV/AIDS Prevention services UNAIDS SIDA

P Sante French Development Co-operation Regional HIV/AIDS and STD Prevention (DFID)

Choose life booklet to all 12 – 16 year olds in BLNS (DFID)
Support by Non State Actors :
Basic counselling services has been established in all hospitals
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III. 2. 2. Major constraints
The RPSF mission identified the following constraints hampering the economic development and
health situation improvement for the 4 target household-groups:
Group1:
Limited resources to counteract the effect of illness and death of HIV and AIDS leading to immediate
economic effect and weakening of labour force. Limited access to nutritional foods hastening illness
and death. Large burden of home based care with limited access to services and low affordability of
treatment and medicine. Clustering of HIV within households leading to large accumulation of shocks,
illness and death. Burden of orphan care and child headed households.
Group 2:
Drift to « lower « groups. Reduced labour productivity. Loss of « off farm » income. Large burden of
care reducing productivity. Sale of livestock as mechanism and secondary mechanism using savings .
Clustering of HIV within households leading to accumulation of shocks and consequence increase
number of female and child headed households.
Group 3 :
Some vulnerability to HIV. Less immediate economic severity. Economic buffers in place. More access
to treatment of opportunistic infections and care and therefore less weakening of labour in short term.
Access to nutritious foods. Clustering of HIV within household leads to accumulation of shocks and
long term negative effects. Migration labour returning home with illness causes a loss of external
households’ income. Possible driving of transmission through migration and « off-farm » working.
Group 4 :
Limited economic severity effects. Range of coping mechanisms. Access to treatment of opportunistic
infections ; longer good health. Longer life expectancy, less effect on labour productivity. Access to
foods. Access to HIV prevention, education and services. Less vulnerable to HIV with exception of
access to greater sexual social networks and unequal sexual relationships increase possibility for HIV
transmission.
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III. 2. 3. Strategy proposal
The RPSF mission identified priority sectors in which the intervention could leverage and strengthen
the expected outcomes in terms of health and social well being
Improved
health
services
Improved
performance
of health
sector
Improved
physical
accessibility of
health
services and
facilities
Improved
financial
accessibility
Improved
availability of
material
resources
Strengthened
community
driven primary
health
services
129
Improved
support of
environmental
health
Promoted
cross cuting
and multi
sectoral issues
Increased fight
against
HIV/AIDS
Improved
education and
health
Increased fight
against
occupational
diseases
Improved
transportation
and health
Improved rural
sanitation,
solid waste
disposal, and
rural water
supply,
collection and
storage
Improved
communication,
information
dissemination
and health
Improved food
hygiene,
safety and
quality
Improved
awareness fo
gender and
vulnerable
groups health
issues
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III. 2. 3. 1. Improve the performance of the health sector
(i) physical accessibility of health services and facilities
Clinics and hospitals (usually located outside the remote areas where vulnerable groups live) have not
enough ambulances in order to assure timely and effective access to the health services for the poor
people.
Moreover, there is no efficient national ambulance service, each health care provider dealing with its
own transportation means (if available)
The interventions of the EC could thus focus on providing the transportation means (vehicles) for
health care providers. Interventions could also focus on community owned/based transportation
management (pools of vehicles)
Those actions will strengthen NDPll efforts, targeting

Strengthen the vehicle Management system (VMS) at all RMTS & Directorates

Reinforce the use of vehicle log books

Provide training on transport management to all operational units

Install computerised systems at all RMTS

Facilitate the writing off of vehicles and replacement/acquisition thereof

Improve vehicle maintenance by annually replacing 10% of current stock
(ii) financial accessibility of health services and facilities
Need of in-depth analysis of possibility of defining a social security fund aimed to cover the primary
health care expenses
(iii) availability of material resources
NDPll sets priority areas and programmes aimed to improve the availability of pharmaceutical and
clinical services as follows:
Pharmaceutical Services – Availability of essential drugs

Test drugs for quality and all drugs sold

Conduct stock out surveys and amount prescribing courses

Renovate Windhoek, Oshakti and Rundu Medical Stores

Implement HR plan targets for Namibian Pharmacists

Evaluate progress with National Pharmaceutical Master Plan (NPMP) implementation after 3 years

Conduct regular inspection of pharmacies for quality assurance

Establish an autonomous Central Medical Stores

Continue to improve cold-chain management for drugs that must be kept cold
Clinical support services
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Radiographic equipment and services

Ensure qualified Namibian radiographers/radiographic assistants are available in all hospitals with x- ray departments

Ensure the adequate availability of functional x-ray units and processors in all hospitals, reduce down time of equipment,
and introduce maintenance registers for all units

Train x-ray radiographic assistants per year
Equipment availability and management

Plant equipment maintenance 6% current stock

Equipment plant replacement, 10% of current stock

Maintenance teams established at district and regional levels

Decentralised equipment inventory control to the regions

Improve annual equipment maintenance by achieving 10% replacement of current stock
Healthcare infrastructures exist and can be considered as adequate in terms of number and location.
However the mission has derived on important shortage in terms of essential drugs and medical
equipment. Therefore the RPSF mission proposes that interventions focus on providing
financial support for purchasing essential drugs and medical equipment in the target areas.
(iv) strengthening community-driven primary health care services, prevention actions and grass-root
level safety nets
Detailed in the Annex 13 specific report on HIV / AIDS issues, covering the HIV/AIDS issues and
proposed interventions
III. 2. 3. 2. Support “Environmental Health” at the community level
(i) HIV/AIDS
The NDPII sets the targets for the HIV/AIDS prevention programmes:

Reduce HIV/AIDS by 25% amongst 15 – 25 age group by year 2006

Increase by 100% access to affordable quality condoms by year 2006 (14 million in 2000 and 28 million in 2006)

80% of formal education on reproductive Health Sexuality and HIV/AIDS in all Educational Institutions

Increase access to affordable Femidom condoms from 300 in 1999 to 1,000,000 by 2006 (2000.000 per annum)

By 2006 90% of all employers will implement the National Code on HIV/AIDS
The specific mission on HIV/AIDS defined specific regional strategies for the following 8 regions
1. North central
2. Caprivi
3. Kavango
4. Kunene
5. Otjozondjupa – Tsumkwe
6. Communal Areas – Okakarara, Otjinene, Gobabis
7. Communal Areas – Hardap, Karas
8. Commercial Farms Labours
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Main problems observed in the health sector in the 8 defined areas are:

Communities are increasing being integrated (due to increased road development, tourism etc. )
with limited knowledge and “modern” skills for self-protection.

Limited use and acceptance of health services, low understanding of HIV and reliance on
traditional interpretations of disease for protection.

Difficulty in collection of reliable statistics and data.

Limited use of health services, reliance on traditional health services in remote areas.

Limited access to services and outside of main town , limited youth friendly health services.

Isolated rural population with limited literacy skills, health services usage and low school
attendance. Knowledge of HIV and Aids is high, although behaviour change is slow and condom
use in rural areas limited.

Traditional beliefs and understanding of HIV is held by many of the rural population.

Stigma and discrimination associated to HIV and AIDS illness is high, leading to denial and
neglect. Government policy is oriented towards Home Based care, even though limited training
and support programmes in its implementation can lead to a great burden of care and increase
poverty.

Limited access to and use of VCCT services reduces opportunity for responsible behaviour, and
planning for sickness or death.

Tendency for clustering of HIV through transmission within households increases dependency and
poverty.

Rapid social changes and opening up of remote areas.
Possible areas of intervention:

Assistance in strengthening of Regional AIDS Committees through the identification of stakeholder
from the agricultural and rural development sector at regional level

Assist in the development of the role of traditional authorities in understanding HIV and working
toward the development of an enabling environment

Development of specific education programmes responding to specific educational , language and
communication needs of communities

Assistance in identification of key stakeholders in rural settings, (for example conservancy
workers, community tourism groups FED Groups etc.) in developing key workers in training and
awareness of HIV and condom distribution programmes, reaching most remote communities

Assistance in developing the role of agricultural Extension workers in raising awareness of HIV
issues and supporting condom distribution

Support inclusion of sexual health education into School programmes and specifically develop
sexual health programming within vocational (agricultural) based education

Support the development of the provision of youth friendly accessible health services and services
provided by MPYRC in line with MOHSS policy

Assist in the strengthening of and provision of VCCT services
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
Assist in the accessing of information, preventive and sexual treatment services.

Assist in the advocacy and strengthening of the implementation of the Married Persons Act 1996
to support the rights of women and children with regard to inheritance of land and property.

In line with MTP-II support the development of HBC Policy with regard to provision of support
training and resources.

Assistance in developing supportive community mechanisms for the orphaned and the vulnerable
children.
(ii) occupational health
NDPII sets the following targets in terms of reducing of occupational health risks:

Eliminate work environment related hazards at source as far as reasonable practicable.

Enforce occupational health and safety regulations.

Expand environmental health inspection coverage and educational awareness to include unregistered enterprises.

Develop and implement an environmental health awareness programme related to industrial and agricultural
contamination of the environment through the poor waste disposal and air, water and soil pollution.

Medical surveillance of all employees in accordance with work environment

75 registered nurses will be trained in prevention, early diagnosis and where indicated treatment and referral of
occupational diseases.

50 health inspectors and environmental health assistance, safety officers will be trained in base inspections and
measuring techniques in occupational health.

100% of enterprises (include health facilities) implement statutory occupational health and safety requirements.
The RPSF mission proposes interventions targeting the increase of the awareness to understand and
to cope with agricultural risks. The actions should be co-ordinated the specific development (on- & off farm diversification) strategies.
(iii) rural sanitation, solid waste disposal, and rural water supply, collection and storage
Linked interventions are presented in the “Water strategy chapter”. They will support the achievement
of NDPII objectives:

Increase percentage of rural households with access to adequate sanitation from 28% to 60% by focusing on:
1.
promoting and facility availability of affordable sanitation options,
2.
promoting hygiene behavioural change at the household level,
3.
ensuring the protection of ground water resources.

Increase school coverage with adequate sanitation facilities 55% to 100%

Develop and implement an education and awareness hygiene programme for targeted areas.

Expand recycling options

Enhance mechanisms to collect solid waste from health facilities, separated at source and safety disposed of.

Strengthen awareness activities for solid waste disposable, littering and recycling

develop and implement an environmental hygiene awareness programme, for rural water supply for targeted areas,
including reduction of contamination and wastage of water, to prevent water and sanitation -related diseases

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(iv) food hygiene, safety and quality assurance
Joint actions could be taken at the on- and off- farm level interventions, focusing on the definition,
implementation and respect of standard norms (to be set!) and will enhance NDPII objectives.
III. 2. 3. 3. Cross-cutting and multi-sectoral issues
(i) education and health
The education & training formal and in formal channels are important vectors for information
dissemination , building awareness at health sensitive issues among vulnerable groups changing
cultural behaviours. The NDPII Education chapter emphasises this synergy.
(ii) transportation and health
The subject is detailed in the specific RPSF chapter on “Transportation” and is very important in order
to assure access of poor health services & facilities.
(iii) communication, information dissemination and health
See specific RPSF chapter on “Communication”.
(iv) gender and vulnerable groups health issues
See specific reports on Gender Issues and HIV/AIDS prepared by the RPSF mission.
III. 3. Small-farm infrastructure strategy
See On- and Off- Farm Strategy Section.
III. 4. Market infrastructure strategy
See On- and Off- Farm Strategy Section.
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III. 5. Access to water
III. 5. 1. Background
The Government aims at providing safe water to the hole population guided by equity and sustainable
management principles. The department of water affairs has a well functioning and relatively
decentralised programme to assist the rural population and to empower them through community
based operation and maintenance of the water supply systems.
Government objectives for NDPII are:

increase in water provision from 75% of the rural population to 80% by 2006.

maintain current levels of urban access to potential water (95%)

ensure that a minimum of 15L/p/d costs less than 5% of the population by 2006 in accordance
with and thought the implementation of pricing policies
This objective of NDPII include to provide domestic water for the whole population , with priority to
rural areas, to manage the water in an environmentally sustainable manner , to manage and allocate
water resources in an equitable and support gender balance, social and economic development in the
water development programme. These objectives will be supported by co-ordinated approach with all
stakeholders involved, ensuring a proper legal environment with participatory approach, using a decentralisation policy to empower the people, regulating water sector to ensure affordability to their
clients, establishing a Development Fund to assist the Water Users Associations with major repairs
and implementing recruitment and capacity building strategy at all levels.
A series of projects have been formulated and budgeted in the three -year rolling development budget
2001/2-2003/4. The MAWRD will continue to implement a borehole construction and rehabilitation
programme in almost all regions, a construction of rural secondary pipelines in Caprivi, Ohangwena
and Oshikoto regions, a main water supply in Hardap and different surveys about water resources.
The Access to Water Strategy is supported by the following donor programmes:

Advisory Services to Department of Water Affairs,GFR/GTZ

Support to training activities, SIDA

Communal areas water supply, GFR/GTZ

Community Water Supply Management Programme, Phase11, FINNIDA

Water supply ,hygiene and environment, UNICEF

Namibia Water Resource Management Review (NWRMR),GFR/GTZ

Several NGO’s involved in the water sector are part of the water and sanitation forum (WATSAN).
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There is still room for improvement of water resources management, especially at community level.
Improved use of available water resources, including the awareness of water sights and the expansion
of the decentralised water services.
III. 5. 2. Major constraints
1. Scarcity of water has the potential to constrain the development of virtually all sectors, from
major developments in industry such as mines and factories, to development in the health sector
relating to the provision of potable water for domestic consumption. Scarcity must however be
considered in the context of aridity as a normal phenomenon in Namibia and disaster droughts.
In Namibia, it is very difficult to ensure sustainability given the uncertainties associated with
hydrological and hydro-geological systems. Closer links between water, land and agricultural
sectors are essential for sustainability.
2. An integral part of the Directorate of Resource Management (DRM) function is that of the
regulation of the water sector. However, due to the restructuring of DWA since the formation of
NamWater, the issue of regulation has not been sufficiently addressed in institutional
arrangements and operations or enabling legislation. As a result this is not currently carried out by
DRM in its present guide and is something that has to be addressed further during NDPII.
3. Major constraints encountered linked to the water sector are defined in the NDPII. At rural water
supply level, the authorities are facing the following challenges:

A shortage of qualified staff members. (Because of Government salary structure, it is
difficult to compete with the private sector.)

Slow and cumbersome tender procedures with the results that projects could not be
completed in the financial year for which the budget was allocated.

Staff leaving because of uncertainty of decentralisation.

Unexpected and sudden cuts in budgets.

Lack of proper separation of operation between NamWater and Rural Water supply in the
communal areas.
4. Major pipelines are nowadays inadequate to the debit and increased number of users (no
sufficient pressure for water)
5. The improved access to water in rural areas is also a matter of maintenance, continuation and
equipment of the water infrastructure (i.e. waterhouses, boreholes, piping )
6. The domestic water distribution network in the commercial land has been improved since the last
two years. During the same period , the population has growth and as occupied new areas. The
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two main difficulties are the distance between water points and some remote households and the
time to get water in populated areas.
The target is an increase in water provision from 75% of the rural population to 80% by 2006. This
include:

A maximum walking distance : 2.5km by 2006.

Minimum water supply: 15litres per person per day by 2006.

Walking times to water point reduced to maximum 30 minutes by 2006.

Water to be of acceptable quality according to published guidelines.
The target of NDPII is that 50% of all water supplied achieve this goal by 2006. In order to achieve this
goal the following performance indications are set forward:

Lease hand over of 95% of all points (WPs) to WPAs for operation and maintenance (O&M) costs by 2003.

Full cost recovery ( capital, administration and O&M costs) hand over of 95+% of all existing WPs to WPAs BY 2007.

Training of 95+% of all water point committees established. 100% of all WPs handed over will have their own WPs
established.

Rehabilitate 95+% of all existing WPs to acceptable working condition according to guidelines before the lease hand over.

Affordability - Ensure that a minimum 15l/c/d cost less than 5% of the income of the poorest segment of the population by
2006 in accordance with and through the implementation of pricing policies.

Full cost recovery hand over of 20% of all existing WPs to WPAs includes a choice of technology relating to the water
resource available, which address the issue of affordability.

Development Fund established to assist WPs with major repairs by 2004.
The following targets are on the matters mentioned, at the level of NDPII.

The general New Water bill approved by 2002.

Utilisation 50% of water management basins by 2006.

Conservation -water loss from all reticulation systems should be reduced to 15% of the total
supply of water supply by 2006.

Protection -50% of all waste disposable points should be operational by 2006. By 2006 there
should be no pollution of water resources.

New water quality standards available by 2004.

Environment - Have methodology finalised to determine ecological reserves and basic needs in
water management basins in Namibia by 2003.

Environmental assessments will be conducted for all new projects according to environmental
assessment policy and relevant legislation.
In order to meet these objectives the NDPII highlights the following important issues:
1. Use public awareness programmes and water demand management strategies to promote
conservation and more efficient use of water resources by organising the link between the
environment and development.
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2. Formulate and implement relationship/controlling legislation/collaboration and co-operation with
local authorities and other relevant decentralised organisations to:

reduce levels of unaccounted for water,

ensure cost recovery in local authorities and other relevant institutions supply of water,

ensure affordability to all income levels of urban consumer,

promote water conservation for the sustainable use of water resources, and

promote a more equitable and efficient allocation of water.

ensure accountability of local authorities and other relevant institutions water use
efficiency

promote and facilitate co-operate with the private sector.
3. Ensuring co-operation, collaboration and co-ordination with all water sector stakeholders, partner
and resource organisations in the areas of policy and relevant legislation formulation, resource
management and protection initiatives, sustainable and equitable use incentives and capacity
building within the resource sector.
4. Using public awareness programmes and water demand management strategies to promote
conservation and more efficient use of water resources recognising the link between the
environment and development.
5. Implementing recruitment and capacity building strategies at all levels following an audit to ensure
there is sufficient technical and organisational capacity too carry out programmes and participate
integrated human resource development in partner organisations.
6. Ensuring a proper enabling environment through the implementation of necessary legislation and
institutional changes, in consultation with all stakeholders.
7. Use de-centralisation policy to empower the people to have ownership and responsibility to
monitor, maintain, conserve and allocate water, with support from and in collaboration with the
centralised bodies.
8. Providing
new rural water supply infrastructure that will be guided by Regional Rural Water
Supply Development Plans completed in the early stages of NDPII.
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III. 5. 3. Strategy proposal
The RPSF mission was not provided with specific expertise in the area of the water resources
management. Due to the relevance of the question to a sustainable enhancement of rural livelihoods,
the mission considered the improved access to water as an objective for the strategic interventions
and proposed, for further investigations, two pillars: (1) the improvement of water infrastructures in
rural areas and (2) the improved use, conservation and productions of all water resources.
Improved
access to
water
Improved use,
conservation
and production
of all water
resources
Improved
water
infrastructure
in rural areas
Improved
provision of
water smallinfrastructure
and equipment
Improved
management
for water
supply and
water
infrastructure
and equipment
Promote
public
awareness
and water
demand
management
Clarified
definition of
legal and
function links
Improved
participatory
approach for
water resource
management
Improved
capacity at all
levels
III. 5. 3. 1. Improved water infrastructure in rural areas
The mission identified two possible areas of interventions and considers the necessity of a further
mission to develop the technical details and orientations for the interventions concerning:
(i) provision of water small-infrastructure and equipment
(ii) community-based management for water supply and water infrastructure & equipment
maintenance75
This areas is already supported by the on-going Finnish supported programme “Community Water Supply Management Support
Programme” (CWSMSP). However, the importance of the water supply questions justifies further support and interventions in the field, to be
co-ordinated with the CWSMSP.
75
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III. 5. 3. 2. Improved use, conservation and protection of all water resources in an environmentally
sustainable manner
The mission identified four possible areas of interventions and considers the necessity of a further
mission to develop the technical details and orientations for the interventions focused on:
(i) public-awareness programmes and water-demand management
(ii) clear definition of legal and functional links at local level
(iii) participatory approach for water-resource management
(iv) capacity building at all levels
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Chapter IV: Strategies supporting the Decentralised Process
IV. 1. Background
The conditions of decentralisation have been introduced in the Constitution in the early days of the
independence. The Constitution provides for regional councils and local authorities as the
decentralised tiers of government. The legal framework for decentralisation scheme has been
progressively introduced76.
The process started in 1992 with the Regional Councils Act and Local authorities Acts repealing most
of the legislation and the decrees from the pre-independence days, giving the legislative basis for the
regional and local government system and establishing the relationship between these sub-national
levels as well as between them and the state, and their role vis-à-vis the citizenry.
In 1995, the Traditional Authority Act, completed the clarification of the roles of key players. The
Constitution validated customary laws in force at the date of independence, to the extend that it does
not conflict with the constitution or any statutory law. The Traditional Authority Act of 1995 tries to meet
the concerns about the dichotomy in authority systems by naming the supreme leaders of the
traditional communities "chiefs" and at the same time allowing the use of traditional titles, which all
mean king or queen. However, the question is not so much of a title use, but whether the traditional
leaders can accommodate a democratic process, and pay allegiance and pledge loyalty to the
Constitutional Authorities. This respect and adherence to the Constitutional laws allows a republic to
contain a number of kingdoms.
A decentralisation policy was adopted by Cabinet in 1996 and approved by National Assembly in
1997. The Policy identifies national development objectives to be addressed through decentralisation:

extend, enhance and guarantee participatory democracy;

ensure and safeguard rapid and sustainable development;

transfer power to the regional councils and local authorities based on national ideas and
values;

improve capacity of the regional and local government councils to plan, implement,
manage and monitor delivery of services for their constituents.
The policy sets criteria that will influence the decisions on greater decentralisation of functions and
states the ministerial functions, which shall be decentralised to the Regional Councils and the Local
Authorities. It calls for a progressive approach for implementation with much preparatory work to be
done.
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It introduces a framework opening towards co-ordination between local actors and planning at local
level with the definition of development committees at different levels:

Regional Development Co-ordinating Committees;

Local Development Co-ordinating committees;

Constituency Development Committees;

Settlement Development Committees;

Ward Development Committees.
Enacted in December 2000, the Decentralisation Enabling Act provides for and regulates the
decentralisation to regional Councils and local authority Councils of functions presently vested with
line ministries. It states the terms and conditions:

for delegation and withdrawal of delegation of functions;

and for the use of funds paid to regional councils or local authority Councils.
The Trust Fund for Regional Development an Equity Act, also enacted in December 2000, provides for
the establishment of the Fund and its Board of Trustees. The purpose of the fund is to financially
support the development of regions and local authorities. The Board shall be chaired by the
permanent Secretariat from MRLGH (Chairperson) and shall comprise the National Planning
Commission (Vice chairperson), the Office of the Prime Minister and nominated members of the
Associations of Local Authorities and the Association of Regional authorities, of the NGO Forum, and
the Association of Physically Handicapped persons.
IV. 2. Major Constraints
IV. 2. 1. Roots and challenges of the decentralisation process
The Namibian decentralisation process relies on its historical, socio-cultural and economic specificity.
In the pre and early days of the Namibian independence, the Namibian leading forces had to address
two key challenges, a structural need to build the unity of the country out of the social and territorial
duality inherited from the colonial past and the necessity to deeply modify the administrative et political
system allowing the people to get involved in their destiny at their living level.
The Namibian decentralisation process is then in-built on these two broad visions: It is “ultimately
under the responsibility of the unitary state of Namibia” and it “must be the product of a consultation
and participation in decision making of those who are personally affected by it”.
The decentralisation process is facing major challenges related to:
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the creation of both an administrative system providing all the citizens with services and a
political system allowing local governance, local accountability towards the populations;

the urbanisation scheme rooted in the history. The urban settlements from the southern
and the central parts have developed an administrative and financial seniority on their
counterparts in the north these regions with the highest population density have the lowest
urbanisation rate;

the recent assumed increase in migration trends toward the capital city and secondary
towns;

the need to cope with two existing institutional environment in the rural regions, as the
customary law and traditional government are co-existing with the political and
administrative structures based on the constitution and progressively introduced since
then;

the resistance to changes (at central level as well as local level)
IV. 2. 2. Future policy framework for Civil Society and Economic and Social partners
Civil society and economic and social partners have played a significant role in the struggle for
independence. During the first decade of the Republic, most of them had to readapt their organisation,
aims and even activities to the new needs and challenges of the Namibian society. Their support to
the national development policy was not formally recognised in the drafting of the first National
Development Plan.
Moreover, the Decentralisation Policy in Namibia (Decentralisation, Development and Democracy,
MRLGH, September 1997) recognises decentralisation as a necessary support and tool providing “an
opportunity for people to have access to relevant participative decision-making, [extending] democracy
to people as a right based on national ideas and values”.
The government is addressing this gap in NDPII with the integration of a specific chapter dedicated to
"Development partnership with Civil Societies Organisations, Community Based Organisations And
Non-Governmental Organisations". This chapter traduces the willingness to ensure how "businesses,
unions, community groups and civic associations, non governmental organisations, women and youth
organisations, and other groups within the Civil Societies in Namibia can participate and contribute to
the realisation of the objectives of the five year development plan". It also sets the important role of
partnership with the sectors of society: «development requires the mobilisation of all sectors of society.
(…)».
The proposed partnership with NGOs, CBOs and CSOs aims at improving the quality and
sustainability of development actions at local level: «partnership can improve government towards
decentralisation by using NGOs, CBOs and CSOs in expanding the range of information available,
broaden perspectives (…).
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Governmental authorities consider NGOs, CBOs and CSOs for their added value in terms of
intermediation with the local levels «especially grassroots level through regional councils», their
capacity of «access and link with people at the grassroots» and «community mobilisation». Their
potentials contributions are also including «technical expertise in specific fields, policy influence in
support to the poor, project advocacy related to specific development issues and operational support
and service delivery».
The national strategy for the next planning period is the following:

Formulating a policy framework for CSOs, CBOs and NGOs; in consultation with umbrella
organisations, NPC is currently formulating the policy which should be formulated by the
year 2002;

Establishing registration and eligibility criteria for registration. The registration Act of CSOs
and NGOs is to be enacted by the year 2003 (legal existence in order to obtain funds and
tax exemptions, registration authority and registration process, establishment of Civil
Societies networking and co-ordinating mechanisms of these organisations);

Preparing policy guidelines and procedures on self regulation and code of ethics, after
registration (procedures of accountability and transparency, mechanisms for government
support);

Establishing an annual consultative forum for effective co-ordination (annual consultative
forum facilitated by NPC and NANGOF);

Establishing a NGO, CBO and CSO Development Fund (Management by an independent
board of trustees drawn from government ministries, Civil society and other development
agencies, objective of the fund to support projects identified by NGOs, CBOs and CSOs);

Creating NGOs, CBOs and CSOs data bases (information on NGO/CSO/CBO sector and
individual organisations);

Strengthening Institutional Capacity Building.
The RPSF mission identified several constraints in terms of support to the Civil Society and economic
and social partners. Even if it is early to assess the impact of this new strategy on the Namibian civil
society, some constraints or possible difficulties were identified:

(not defined) consequences on the autonomy of NGOs and control it would add on them

possibility to organise thematic in-depth consultation and co-ordination with government
agencies while the current modalities of consultation are rather formal

statutory flexibility is currently not ideally adapted to the diversity of organisations (in terms
of specific legislation for NGOs, based on common and shared code of ethics, harmonised
fiscal and financial regulations, …)
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IV. 2. 3. Decentralisation, a starting-process in Namibia based on young structures
There is no doubt that decentralisation process will contribute to poverty alleviation in the country and
number of donors77 are engaged in supporting the Namibian authorities in this process. Nevertheless
former analysis of the implementation policy shown that the implementation process is starting and
still fragile. Many scheduled powers and resources which will allow the local authorities to deliver
services, impulse and plan local development, or allow the regional authorities to fulfil their coordinating role in the development of the region are not currently transferred. There has been progress
since the launch of the implementation of the decentralisation policy in 1998, but the reform is still
facing enormous constraints both at central and local level.
Some of the constraints hampering the process of decentralisation are linked to the administrative and
political young structures and responsibilities. On the central level, the Decentralised Policy
Implementation Committee, chaired by the Secretary to Cabinet in the Prime Minister’s Office has still
to be made functional, the promulgation of the Decentralisation Enabling act has been delayed and
the Equity Provision fund has not been receiving all the funds pledged. High level commitment to the
functioning, adoption and implementation of ministerial Action Plans has still to be obtained.
Other constraints for the management of the decentralisation process are:

Lack of human and material capacity at the regional Council Offices

Lack of adequate financing resources and great inter-regional disparities

Inadequate infrastructure and equipment

Lack of adequate housing for decentralised personnel

Lack of financial and personnel delegation.
On a short term basis at very local level, support to local populations through very weak or nonexistent local authorities may hamper the impact of the rural development support to alleviate poverty
in the rural zones, overcome their absorption and co-ordination capacities and undermine current
functions fulfilled by traditional authorities. On the other hand, letting young or fragile structures aside
from the proposed activities would diminish their role and hamper their further development. The same
paradox applies with the regional councils and their role in regional development co-ordination and
delivery of services to settlement areas.
77
Among others, World Bank, Finland, UNDP, GTZ, Lux Development, DSE and France
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IV. 3. Strategy Proposal
The general objective for the proposed interventions follows the directions established by the RPSF,
that is the reduction of the rural poverty, by improving the socio-economic status of the local
communities in the targeted areas, while ensuring a participatory planning and management of
development actions. The general objective of the forth strategic orientation is improving rural
livelihoods through strengthened decentralisation process in the targeted rural areas. The proposed
interventions will thus focus on both capacity building for all the actors involved – at a decentralised
level - in the development planning and implementation and institutional strengthening through a
better definition of the responsibilities at each level of the government and an adequate provision of
funds allowing each level of government to finance the assigned.
Improved Rural Livelihoods through
strengthened decentralisation
process in rural areas
Enhanced capacity for
development planning and
implementation at
decentralised level
Strengthened
institutions
IV. 3. 1. Capacity Building and Overarching Issues
Taking in account the constraints faced by Namibia, the proposed strategies should be build on a
balance between short-term impact (by direct providing of support and services to communities at
local and regional levels) and long term impact (by empowering local capacities at both community
and local authority levels as a support to the decentralisation implementation).
The following Priorities and Objectives and Levels of Action in terms of support to the decentralisation
process and empowerment of the non-state actors can be proposed:
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Level
Priority
Community
level, 1. Empowerment of
communities,
community
constituencies, villages, development
at
wards
local level (bottom
up approach)
Regional councils
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Objectives (and preliminary actions)
To provide local communities and existing organisations
with support for group activities (benefiting the sole
group or collective interest e.g. conservancies)
To reinforce appraisal, planning and management
capacities of the communities
To reinforce dialogue and joint action, -taking into
account existing co-ordinating committees and local
authorities, and existing services activities (non state
and governmental):
 identify available services to communities (statal,
NGOs other programmes) –field, non-state actors
at local level
 identify the rural infrastructures component of the
RDPSF at community level -field
 socio-economic survey in the different zones (see
gender report)
2.
Support
to To support progressively the local authorities capacities
decentralisation
at micro level villages and the constituency in its coimplementation at ordination role
local level
 analyse and map the local capacities of villages and
constituencies (mapping)
 identify possible support for the equipment of
establishment of constituencies
 support sensitisation / civil education at local level
 identify possible local development fund feasibility
(constituencies, communities)
3. Enhance the To organise regional development poles (support
operational
co- agency of regionalised operators including non-state
ordination
and actors )
capacities
at  Identify and assess decentralised state functions
regional level
and non state actors efficiency at regional level
 Identify empowerment activities of regional
organisation (such as farmer unions)
 Analyse feasibility of regional support agencies
4.
Support
decentralisation
at
regional level
Central Level
EURATA Consortium
To prepare regions for effective decentralisation
 Identify support to regional councils in their already
transferred functions (management of settlement
areas etc)
 Identify support for development of regional
planning capacity building (training, data collecting,
establishing communication system, surveying
identification of potential resources, equipment )
 Identify information activities and dialogue with
communities
Enhance capacities To prepare MRGLH for co-ordinating decentralisation in
of
MLRG
at rural zones
regional and local  Identify support to easy communication, data
level
collection and information on the rural zones
 Monitor the Launch of the Regional Development
and Equity Provisions Trust and impact or rural
development projects and identify possible support
 Monitor the delegation of functions by line ministries
and identify possible support to devolution for
effectively delegated function such as water
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The support to decentralisation is a rather new area for GRN/EC co-operation and the implementation
of the decentralisation is reform is complex.. Thus the process of identification of the programmes,
could follow the following principles:

close consultation with the stakeholders such as MRLGH, NPC, Ministry of Finances,
ALAN, ARC etc ;

validation on the field at community level, local authority levels and regional councils;

co-ordination with MRLGH and other donors.
The mission analysed the strategic orientations and priority actions (strategic pillars) by focusing on
the four dimensions of the poverty and proposing priority actions meant to improve the economic,
social and political situation of the poor and vulnerable groups.
The cross-cutting, overarching issues have been integrated in the definition of the proposed
strategies, as follows:
(i) creating economic opportunities for poor, including “Support and development of improved
organisations”, “Appropriate research” (see also On- and off- farm strategies); “Improved
education and training, and capacity building”
(ii) increasing capabilities for poor, by improved access to basic rural services and infrastructures
(iii) increasing security for poor, including the “Development of risk bearing capacity” through
improved safety nets, “Improved information systems and databases”, “Reduced environmental
degradation and improved conservancies” (see also On- and off- farm and Land reform strategies)
(iv) empowering the poor, including “Gender equity”
Main programs will cover cross-cutting, overarching issues identified by the RPSF mission, and will
target the main strategic orientations (on- and off- farm diversification, land issues and rural services &
rural infrastructures), at all four dimensions of poverty defined above.
Enhanced capacity for development
planning and implementation at
decentralised level
Increased economic
opportunities for poor
Increased
capabilities for poor
Increased security
for poor
Empowerment of the
poor
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The following paragraphs give an extended description of interventions and priority actions that might
be implemented through the RPSF strategy.
IV. 3. 1. 1. Creating Economic Opportunities for Poor
access to productive resources
Increased economic
opportunities for poor
by removing barriers to:
labour markets & employment
opportunities
rural infrastructures
credit schemes & other financial
services
Improved incentive
environment: in
terms of legal,
organisational and
financial regulations
Legal and
regulatory
framework
reformed
National and
local APOs
and CBOs
established
Linkages
between
research and
extension
services
improved
Microfinance
institutions
improved
Improved capacity at all
levels (decentralised
governments, NGOs,
community based
organisations, ...)
Capacity of
APOs and
other CBOs
improved
Training of
extension
specialists
improved
Education and
training
programmes
improved
Improved provision
of and access to
rural services and
infrastructure
Production
infrastructure
improved
Provision to
rural services
&
infrastructure
increased
Access to
information
and to
communication
increased
Ability to
exploit export
market
improved
Rapid economic growth is the engine of poverty reduction, using both income and no-income
dimensions of poverty. Creating economic opportunities for poor is understood in this report as all
actions aimed to increase and diversify the rural incomes. Removing barriers to access to productive
resources (e.g. land access), to labour markets & employment opportunities (through human capital
improvement – the most effective way of improving the asset base of poor by educational, health and
skills acquisition measures), to rural infrastructures (e.g. mobility through transportation services, …)
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and to credit schemes and other financial services are the different types of assets endowments that
directly influence the well-being of poor.
The measures to be taken in order increase access of poor to labour markets & employment
opportunities, and to productive resources will require both support from the central and regional
governments and involvement of local authorities, private sector, CBOs (and vulnerable groups’
representatives) and NGOs.
(i) Improved incitating environment – reform legal and regulatory framework for agricultural producer
organisations and community-based organisations
Such an environment should include: (i) responsive decentralised and elected local government and
intra-governmental frameworks; (ii) inter-governmental arrangements for fiscal flows to local
governments and CBOs; (iii) clear sector policies with well-defined financing rules, roles and
responsibilities of each key actor in each sector.
Recommended donor agencies contribution:

Support to improved legal and regulatory framework mainly adapted fiscality, standardisation of
product quality, improved co-ordination of intervention, contractual legislation, improved water
rights, adapted trade legislation, enforcement of anti-discrimination legislation, incentives for
deepening of credit and land markets

Support to adapted institutions, to entrepreneurship characteristics (i.e. small scale enterprises), in
terms of better access to small credit, to infrastructures and premises, adapted information and
training and to co-operatives development (support to creation of informal producer “cooperatives”, electricity and water co-operatives, credit-co-operatives)

Support to the introduction of methods for reducing exclusion, mainly enforcement of legislation
against barriers to entry

Provision of information on labour and credit markets
(ii) Support establishment of national and local APOs and CBOs
Legal advisory and support for the definition of Operational policies should be provided.
(iii) Build capacity of APOs and other CBOs
Capacity-building of CBOs and strengthening linkages with formal institutions is a critical area for
investment. Training and “learning-by-doing” should be an important component of the decentralisation
and community-based development. The same capacity-building considerations apply also to local
NGOs, local governments and private sector actors.
Recommended donor agencies contribution:
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NGOs and CBOs targeted training programs
(iv) Improve linkages at national / regional level between research and extension services
This subject is covered in details in the On- and Off Farm Strategy Section.
(v) Provide training for extension subject matter specialists
This subject is covered in details in the On- and Off Farm Strategy Section.
(vi) Provide education support and training, including basic education & managerial and accounting
skills
Even if this matter is mainly supported by the specific “Human Resource Development Strategy”
(see Namibia – EC Country Strategy for 2001-2007), the RDSF mission identifies and highlights the
importance of the education, training and capacity building actions, in all sectors of interventions.
(vii) Improve ability to exploit the export market
Detailed in the On- and Off- Farm Strategy section.
(viii) Assist in formulation of rural micro-finance policy and programme strategy
Detailed in the On- and Off- Farm Strategy section
(ix) Support establishment of micro-finance institutions and provide funds in support of diversified
income generating activities
Detailed in the On- and Off- Farm Strategy section
(x) Support communities to implement projects improving production infrastructure and increasing
agricultural production and food security
Detailed in the On- and Off- Farm and Rural Services & Rural Infrastructures Strategies sections.
(xi) Improve information and communication technologies and access to information
Detailed in the On- and Off- Farm and Rural Services & Rural Infrastructures Strategies sections.
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IV. 3. 1. 2. Increased Capabilities for Poor
Increased
capabilities for
poor
Increased
access to
basic services
and social
protection
Adequate and
predictable
resources for
local
communities
Better
demarcated
responsibilities for
delivery
Capable and
motivated civil
servants
Improved
accountability
downwards
Increased
capacity and
mangement of
local
development
Divisional
level
institutions are
operiational
Programme
management
and
monitoring
units
established
and
operational
Low educational attainment, illness, malnutrition and the difficult access to employment opportunities
are major contributions to income poverty. Government policies and actions should be design in order
to improve the coverage, access, efficiency and sustainability of basic services (such as education and
health services, social protection facilities and rural infrastructures).
Specific actions are detailed in the section concerning the Rural Services and Rural Infrastructures
Strategy and will mainly focus on participatory approaches indirect involvement of poor, through
community-based organisations. At the governmental level (pre-conditions to the efficient
implementation of the poverty reduction strategy), the specific poverty reduction strategy should target
on providing:
(i) Coverage & access to basic services and social protection
Specific priority actions linked to the basic services are detailed in the Rural Services and Rural
Infrastructures Strategy Section.
Recommended donor agencies contribution:

Public works involving large number of poor for short / mid term periods (stress on high
participation of women, minority groups and other vulnerable groups)

Social funds for construction, rehabilitation, maintenance of small-scale infrastructures, or
focused on support to small and micro-enterprises, youth training, community capacity
building, and delivery of community-based social services

Agricultural Input Programs (eg. for seeds and fertilisers distribution)

School Feeding Programs, integrated with other interventions (health and nutrition
education, health screening, water and sanitation, parasite treatment)

Scholarships or Fee Waivers for Schooling

Micro-enterprise Development Assistance (assistance targeted at particular groups,
women, and older individuals, …)

Fee Waivering in Health (use pre-certification or selection by a community group of
beneficiaries)
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(ii) Adequate and predictable resources for local authorities
Recommended donor agencies contribution:
Priority actions should target:

pro-poor budget priorities for service provision;

stable intergovernmental transfers with hard budget constraints;

hierarchical and transparent budgeting processes.
(iii) Demarcation of responsibilities for delivery
The principle underlying all regulations and legal documents should be the assignment of
responsibilities according to subsidiarity principles.
(iv) Capable and motivated civil servants
The public service human resources management should be revised in order to induce: (i) merit-based
recruitment and competitive pay; (ii) Hiring to fill real needs, within a hard budget constraint; (iii) public
services that earns respect.
(v) Accountability downwards
Recommended donor agencies contribution:

Publication of accounts for local-level activities

Dissemination of basic data on performance

Mechanisms for client feedback, including report cards and client surveys
(vi) Development of local capacity to and manage local development
Recommended donor agencies contribution:

Incentives to deploy staff to poor and remote areas

Appropriate autonomy in deploying staff

Training multi-disciplinary facilitation team and providing operational support

Strengthening community organisations & institutions

Improving community planning capacity

Strengthening and supporting community implementation and maintenance of projects
(vii) Divisional level institutions operational and supporting local development
Recommended donor agencies contribution:

Strengthening organisational management and planning capacity of Local Government
Authorities
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
Establishing and operationalising Division Development Fund

Supporting the creation of Technical Advisory Committees and Sub-committees
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(viii) Establishing and operationalising programme management and monitoring units
Recommended donor agencies contribution:

Support to the Creation of Programme Steering Committee for the Support for the
Decentralised Development Strategies

Establishing and operalionalising Programme Management Unit
IV. 3. 1. 3. Increased Security for the Poor
Natural risks
Environmental risks
Increased security for the poor
(against sources of vulnerability )
Health risks
Social risks
Economic risks
Risk preventing and
bearing capacity
developed
Rural safety nets and
prevention
interventions improved
In the present report, insecurity is understood as vulnerability to a decline in well-being and can have
multiple sources: (i) natural (landslides, pests, drought, …); (ii) environmental (pollution, soil
degradation, desertification, …); (iii) health (illness, disability, death, epidemic AIDS, …); (iv) social
(crime, thefts, domestic violence, corruption, civil strife, …); and (v) economic (unemployment, harvest
failure, high inflation, …). Declines in income are more devastating for the poor who are less likely to
have the assets (savings) or access to insurance or credit to hedge against the above mentioned
potential shocks.
Risks can be lessened by actions at the public level (central and decentralised authorities); public
actions against the economic shocks could encompass: (a) Rules for sound economic management;
(b) Safeguard against economic vulnerability (mainly recognition of property rights over physical rights
and access to social insurance and other social protection services).
Public actions meant to reduce the vulnerability against corruption, crime and violence should imply
support to efficient courts with competent judiciary and legal personnel and alternative mechanisms for
dispute resolution.
The specific actions proposed to be undertaken through participatory processes, will cover:
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(i) Development of risk preventing and bearing capacity
Recommended donor agencies contribution:

support to improved information systems and databases

support to improved sound economic management rules knowledge

safeguards against economic vulnerability / development of risk bearing activities (see Onand Off- Farm Strategy Section)

safety net to bear drought, food and pests (see priority actions proposed under “Improved
Capabilities” section)
(ii) Improve rural safety nets & prevention interventions at community level
See priority actions proposed under “ Improved Capabilities “ Section
Those actions could target relief and prevention in terms of natural, environmental, health, social and
economic risks. Those actions would target sound management principles in terms of
environment-friendly approaches.
IV. 3. 1. 4. Empowerment of the Poor
Empowerment
of the poor
Participatory
development policies
improved through
decentralisition
Pro-poor
governance
rules and
priorities
defined
Gender equity
improved
The level of empowerment among vulnerable populations increases as they gain access to economic
opportunities, develop human capabilities and establish greater income security: they become more
aware of their needs and rights and are more able to defend their interests through the participatory
process. Empowerment is an active - and more, a proactive - process taking place at two levels: (i) at
the household level (with reference to intra-household inequities in terms of access to productive
means, control and property rights on the assets / resources and decision-making process); (ii) at the
community, regional and national level (with reference to gender and minorities inequalities, access to
decision-making bodies).
The Poverty Reduction Strategy presented by the RPSF mission proposes actions having a positive
direct effect of empowerment on the vulnerable groups. Those actions focus on:
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(i) Improved participatory development policies through decentralisation
Despite the success of community-targeted actions, there would be significant opportunities for scaling
up community-based development, and providing possibilities to CBOs to concentrate on microregions co-operation (through nodal, neighbouring groups) and/or to promote networks among CBOs.
(ii) Definition of pro-poor governance rules and priorities
The overarching principle of the pro-poor governance rules and priorities should be included in all
further supporting actions taken by the Namibian authorities and the external donors.
(iii) Improved gender equity
All priority actions proposed with the Poverty Reduction Strategy will target gender- and vulnerablepopulations-responsible policies, programs, projects and actions options, and will focus on:
(1) improved access to education
(2) improved access to health services
(3) support women’s associations
(4) increase autonomy of women
Recommended donor agencies contribution:

Promote micro-income generating projects for women

Promote supporting programs for orphans from AIDS families

Increase access to, and quality of, health for women and children

Increase girls access to education

Make parents and communities aware of the importance of girls' education

Sex education

Reduce maternal mortality

Reduce prevalence of micro-nutritional deficiencies in women
The most promising orientations which could be considered when designing the interventions, could
be:

Micro-project Programme (see also Rural Services & Rural Infrastructures Section) targeting
both community-based micro-programmes and income-generating activities

Support Programme to the Decentralisation Process (formulating a policy framework for
CSOs, CBOs and NGOs)

CSOs, CBOs and NGOs Development Fund and Creation of the Civil Society Poverty
Reduction & Development Forum

Technical Assistance to Strengthening Institutional Capacity Building and Support to the
Decentralised Rural Development, along with the ongoing decentralisation process
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IV. 4. 2. Institutional Strengthening - Assessing the design of intergovernmental relations for
the poverty reduction strategy
Strengthened Institutions
Clear definition
of functional
responsibilities
Adequate
provision of
funds
Coordinationa and
intergovernmental
transfers
Designing sound intergovernmental relations is critical for most aspects of development including
alleviating poverty.
The focus is on designing intergovernmental relation to avoid potential problems while enabling
efficient and equitable service delivery.
The first component for designing sound intergovernmental relations is a clear assignment of
functional responsibilities to each level of government. Where assignment of functional
responsibilities is not clear (not assigned to one unique level), confusion in service delivery is likely to
ensue.
The second component, is to assure that each level of government has the resources to finance
the assigned functions.
The third component is assuring that the design of the intergovernmental transfers enables
some flexibility as well as ensures that central priorities are met. The third component is the most
complex of the issues to assess since there are several ways that flexibility can be limited. The
mission emphasises the fact that Namibian authorities should be assisted in the prioritisation exercise
and in the definition of particular responsibilities of the different actors. This highlights the importance
of an effective selection of those components which together produce the most conducive and
effective framework for foal achievement and of an effective distribution of responsibilities and means
to achieve those objectives through a co-ordinated and cross-sectoral approach towards rural
development and povery reduction.
The RPSF mission proposes that the National Planning Commission, in the framework of the Poverty
Reduction Workgroup, co-ordinates and designs for the implementation of the intergovernmental
relations for the poverty reduction.
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The design must reflect history, actual decision-making processes, distribution of political power,
geographic characteristics and cultural traditions. Some normative proposals for intergovernmental
relations exist (e.g. based on the subsidiarity principles), but more important that any decision,
intergovernmental relations for poverty reduction in rural areas must be designed as a “system”.
Due to the fact that poverty reduction in rural areas is a complex matter and to be realistically
addressed must cover all the activities related to it. It is obvious that the National Planning
Commission is the most appropriate official body to co-ordinate the Rural Development
Strategy aimed to alleviate poverty.
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Chapter V: Strategic Framework and Orientations
The mission defined and detailed strategic orientations for further interventions, within the framework
objective: reduction of rural poverty and of unequal income distribution. The exercise of defining the
Rural Profile and Strategic Framework has been completed during the two field missions, February –
June 2001 and October – November 2001.
Namibia – EC Country Strategy Paper and the National Indicative Programme (for 2001 – 2007)
defined the Rural Development as a focal sector for the co-operation strategy and set the basis of a
logical framework for the major interventions foreseen in the area.
In the light of the findings of the current report, the mission regrouped the proposed interventions' in a
simplified logical framework presented hereafter:
Performance indicators
Sources of verification
Assumptions
Overall objective:
Sustainable enhancement of rural
population livelihoods in Namibia
Intervention Objectives:
Reduce the proportion
of poor and severely
poor rural households
Reports of the NPCS Division
for Poverty Reduction (DPR°
Operational reviews
by 5% by 2006
1.
Diversification
of
income On-
and
generating opportunities on- and diversification
off-farm
Minimal
off-farm
and
employment creation
levels
of
Food security indicators
maintained
Consumption indicators
Legal
Employment data (surveys)
framework operational
MLRR reports and surveys
Entry
and
nutrition
administrative
Creation of new SMEs.
2. Enhancing the policy framework Formulation
and supporting the implementation implementation
and
of
of GRN measures with regards the effective Land Use and
land issue (including Housing and Land Tenure System(s)
Natural Resources Management)
Definition of clear rules
for settlement schemes
and
(administrative,
support
legal
and financial) for the
implementation
159
of
legal
acts
and
commitment of central and
decentralised
policy reform
authorities
to
Rural Profile and Strategic Framework
EURATA Consortium
3. Improvement of Rural Services Improved provision of
and Rural Infrastructures in terms of and access to social
Reports and surveys (at the
level of competent ministries
accessibility
and
availability
target groups
4.
Improvement
of
to services, food security and decentralised authorities)
and rural infrastructures
Rural Improved
Livelihoods through strengthened local,
capacity
regional
of
and
Reports and surveys (at the Decentralisation
process
is
level of competent ministries accompanied bt appropriate
decentralisation process in rural central authorities and and decentralised authorities)
areas
stakeholders
Clear
definition
responsibilities
the
of
resource
allocation
and
commitment to co-ordinate by
all relevant organisations
within
implementing
authorities
Results:
1.1. Increased on-farm diversification of income generating opportunities
1.2. Increased off-farm diversification of income generating opportunities
1.3. Increased linkage between farms and SMMEs creating development synergies
2.1. Enhanced legal framework and support to implementation measures
2.2. Enhanced capacity for the implementation of land-reform measures
2.3. Enhanced economically viable resettlement schemes
2.4. Improved / more appropriate schemes for land acquisition and external aid financial support
2.5. Improved housing policy
3.1. Improved communications
3.2. Improved health services
3.3. Improved small-farm infrastructure
3.4. Improved market infrastructure
3.5. Improved access to water
4.1. Enhanced capacity for development planning & implementation at decentralised level
4.2. Strengthened institutions
Activities: The RPSF gives orientations for possible further interventions. It is advised to consider a further followup mission in order to prioritise the specific interventions and to define related actions.
Pre-condition(s):
Approval of the (Namibian)
National Rural Development
Policy based on the RPSF
mission findings
Establishment of mechanisms
and
structures
implementation
for
the
of
the
National Poverty Reduction
Action Programme
160
Rural Profile and Strategic Framework
161
EURATA Consortium