CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS
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
Classification of verbs is closely related to its definition.
The word class of verb can be defined:
A. Morphologically:
verb displays specific morphological features which realize its morphological
categories person, number, tense, aspect, mood, voice.
B. Syntactically:
verb performs specific syntactic function - clause predicator
Note.
Non-finite verb forms can perform other syntactic functions than the
predicator:
To love is to live. Loving is living.– infinitives/gerunds = S and C
C. Semantically:
generally, verb denotes processuality; more concretely:
processes or actions which substances perform The dog jumped over the fence
states in which substances occur I understand what you mean
Note.
Processuality is, however, present in some nouns as well:
Cf.
Suddently the train jerked to a stop. (zrazu/naraz zastal) –
The train moved off with a jerk .(zrazu/naraz sa pohol)
jerk = actional verb/actional noun
MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
A.lexical verbs = ´typical´ verbs:
- open membership,
- autosemantic → have their own (lexical) meaning
- occupy the position of the main verb within a VP
- realize all grammatical categories;
but cf. ´stative´ verbs do not form progressive inflection: *I´m having two sisters.
- exhibit all inflectional characteristics of verb (full verb paradigm)
- use ´periphrastic DO´ to form interrogative mood/negation
B.auxiliary verbs:
- closed membership
- synsemantic → carry little independent meaning;
- combine with the main verb within a VP in one semantic unit,
- occupy a position of an auxiliary within in a VP; hence do not exist independently
- they do not realize the full range of grammatical categories,
- are deficient in lacking a full range of forms
- have some specific features
– negative → negative particle: She isn´t here/I can´t come
–
–
as operators before the subject (= inversion) has a grammatical function of
interrogative: Can I come?
can substitute the entire predication:
You can see me, can´t you? = ellipsis (can´t you see me)
Do you love me? Yes, I do. = proform (do = I love you)
Within the auxiliary verbs we identify the following subgroups:
a. primary verbs: have, be, do;
have, be - aspectual (perfective/progressive) aux.
do
– periphastic aux.
be
- passive aux.
Note. They can be used as lexical verbs: I am being calm.
b.modal verbs:
central (9): can/could, may/might, shall/should, will/would, must
marginal: used to, ought to, dare, need
Note.
Need, dare - modals: I need to go there. I dare say it.
- lexical verbs: I need your help. How dare you!
C.Lexical-auxiliary verbs
= a special group on the transition between auxiliary and lexical
- subdivisible into: semi-modal (modal idioms): had better/would rather
semi-auxiliary - BE type: be able/about/going/supposed/certain/
due/bound/liable/sure/(un)likely to, be to
- HAVE type: have (got) to
- other: come (=happen) to, fail to, get to, tend to,
appear to, happen to, seem to, turn out to
They share features with
- auxiliaries - they form a unit with the infinitive which is their head – He failed to answer
my question.
- lexical verbs - inversion or negation with DO Did you happen to see him?
From the morphological point of view, verbs are:
1.single-word verbs: sing, play
2.multi-word verbs = verb + particle (= preposition, adverbial particle, or both)
a. phrasal verbs: put on, bring up
b. prepositional verbs: look for, call up, look into
c. phrasal-prepositional verbs: go in for, look forward to
SYNTACTIC CLASSIFICATION
The syntactic classification is based on:
a) verb complementation = whether or not a verb requires any completion in order to
function well-formedly,
b) type of complementation
-
A. Intensive (copular) verbs
morphologically = lexical verbs
semantically are almost empty:
-
have little independent meaning
require further complementation: typically Aj, N, Av: The tea is good. *The tea is.
-
function: - assigning (predicating) property/feature to the subject: The tea is good.
- realizing grammatical categories (person, number,tense, aspect, mood)
-
subgroups:- BE type (current copulas):
- be
- look, feel, smell, sound (=verbs of perception)
- seem, appear, prove, turn out (express a degree of certainty/factuality
→ a means of epistemic modality): The tea seems good.
- remain, stay, keep, continue, rest (express the duration of a feature)
- BECOME type (resulting copulas):
- turn, grow, get, go, come, fall, make: Your button is coming undone.
- HAVE type: have (have a rest), give (give a laugh), make,
B.Extensive verbs
1. intransitive – do not require obligatory complementation (except for S)
sleep
2. transitive – require complementation:
a.monotransitive (kiss, get, pass, set) He set an exam date.
*He set.
b.ditransitive (give, get, ask)
He got me a gift.
*He got me.
He considered it.
c.complex transitive (consider, put) He considered me foolish.
*He considered me.
SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION
A.stativity vs. dynamicity:
- stative (non-dynamic)
- dynamic
B.durativity vs. punctuality:
- durative:
- punctual:
Durative
Punctual
Stative
STATES
-
→ state:
→ process:
→ activity:
→ act:
→ event:
He understood what you meant.
He grew up quickly.
He wrote out a prescription.
He stopped to think.
He caught a cold.
→duration:
He was standing.
→ punctuality:
He stood up to sing.
Dynamic
PROCESS, ACTIVITY
ACT, EVENT
C.agentivity vs. non-agentivity:
- agentive
- non-agentive
He played the game well.
The floor dried up quickly.
D. boundedness vs. unboundedness
-bounded (telic): return, ask, break, enter, land
denote action
a. directed towards some goal; imply an end-point
b. which must be fully completed in order to attain that goal
He returned home soon after he left.
-unbounded (atelic): want, rain, carry, know, wait, play
do not imply reaching a goal/end-point:
They carried him.
Note.
1. some verbs can be used in the two predications: sing = unbounded
sing a song = bounded
2.(un)boundedness and progressiveness:
- bounded:
He grew up. = completed action (Slk. dokonavý vid: vyrástol)
He was growing. = incompleted action (Slk. nedokonavý vid: rástol)
- unbounded:
The fruit ripens in the sun = timelessness
The fruit is ripening fast this summer. = temporary action currently in progress
A
S
P
E
C
T
simple
progressive
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
bounded
completed
incompleted
unbounded timeless
in progress
Note.
1.There are many cases of a multiple membership of verbs:
think, wonder, puzzle, weigh, measure = stative, non-agentive/dynamic, agentive
2.The relation between (un)boundedness and (non)dynamicity:
- dynamic verbs include bounded and unbounded verbs,
- non-dynamic verbs are typically unbounded: cf. I knew something = vedel som,
but: I knew what to do = got to knew/understood/pochopil)
3.Performative verbs – the action is realized by the very act of their saying (under certain
conditions which must obtain
- the verb must be used in 1st person sg. present tense: I declare a war on drugs.
- they are verbs of saying (verba dicendi): agree, admit, beg, bet, call, consent, declare,
demand, deny, forbid, insist, refuse, object, promise, request, suggest, warn, apologize,
declare, name
- that a person has to be authorized to do so etc. I name you Queen Elisabeth II.
-
performative act may be pronounced explicitely by using ´hereby´I (hereby) demand your
apology.
cannot be used in progressive *I (hereby) am demanding your apology.
if used in other than 1st person present tense, they are used referentially: I demanded
your apology.
Literature:
Biber, D. et al. (1999). Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Longman.
Downing, A. and Philip Locke. (2002). A University Course in English Grammar. Routledge.
Dušková, L. et al. (1988). Mluvnice současné angličtiny na pozadí češtiny. Praha: Academia.
Kavka, B. (2000). Morphology. In P. Štekauer (Ed.). Rudiments of English Linguistics.
Prešov: Slovacontact.
Leech, G. and J. Svartvik (1975) A Communicative Grammar of English. London: Longman.
Quirk, R. and S. Greenbaum (1973) A University Grammar of English. London: Longman.
Quirk, R. and Greenbaum, S. (1990) A Student´s Grammar of the English Language.
Longman.