Part7-FRANCE
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Note: Lecture notes for Part 7 - FRANCE containing the relevant illustrations will be handed out in class in week 13. The University of Melbourne FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING AND PLANNING 705-117 CULTURE & HISTORY of URBAN PLANNING Lecture Notes ©1999 C.M.Gutjahr PART 7 - FRANCE 1450-1815 The principles of classical town planning laid down in Italy in the 16th century, were perfected in France during the subsequent two centuries. Urban Planning and Design in France were dominated by three principles: 1. 2. 3. The straight line The monumental perspective The programme The requirement that all houses of a certain part of town: a street, a square, or a district, must obey a given programme ie. conform to a uniform design concept, e.g. Rue de Rivoli, Paris. TRANSITION FROM MIDDLE AGES 1453-1515 The formative years of the French Renaissance were characterised by the transition from the Medieval Castle to the Renaissance Chateau. Artchitectural activity in France, from 1490 on, was principally concerned with chateaux for the nobility; these buildings ususally represented a medieval legacy which was remodelled and extended in the new idiom of the Renaissance style. For example: Chateau de Blois, 1508, in the Loire District. Charles Vlll (1483-1498) and Louis Xll (1498-1515) cultivate close relationship with the Italian Renaissance scene and soon after 1500 Italian masters such as Fra Gioconda, Domenicc Bernabei da Cortona, Sebastiano Serlio, and Leonardo da Vinci are called to the French court to work alongside local artists. EARLY RENAISSANCE 1515-1547 The reign of Francis I (1515-47) May be regarded as the forlnative period of the French Renaissance. The years: 1. 1515-1535 represent a period of apprenticeship during which many drchitects and artists in the King's employ visit Italy to gain experience and absorb the new ideas and techniqles of the Renaissdnce. Particularly from 1530 onwards, young French architects study the exainples of the Italian Renaissance on the soot. They included Du Cerceau, in 1530, Delorme, in 1533, and Bullant, in 1535. 2. 1535-1547 a period of essentially French work, combining the Italian style with independent local ideas of design. progressive and HIGH RENAISSANCE AND COUNTER REFORMATION 1547-1650 This period is also referred to as 'classical' (the term includes ne BaroQue, irl France). The early Renaissance was under strong Italian influellce while the High or late Renaissance was more directly inspired by antiquity. This period began with the reign of Henri II in the second half of the 16th century. Contemporary planning practice was very limited dnd to be found mainly in the disposition of spatial elements in chateaux constructions not in cities themselves. The period comprises four kinds of activies: (i ) Chateaux constructions The artistic centre from now on was the Seine Valley, and the najor French architects were: Philibert Delorme (1512-1570) appointed surveyor of the King's works (under Henri II); built the Chateau d'Anet for Diane de Poitiers (fro~ 1547), the Tuileries Palace for Catherine de Medici (1564), the great Gallery at Chenonceaux Castle, and wrote 'Traite d'architectllre' in 1567. Pierre Lescot (1515-1578) - from 1546 worked solely on the building of the ollvre, collaborating with Jean Goujon Jean Bullant (1510-1578) built the Tuileries for Catherine de Medici, the Hotel de Soissons in Paris, and wrote 'Les regle generale d'Architecture, etude des cinq ordres de colonnes' which was a great success. Jacques I Androuet Du Cerceau (1515-1585) famous for his engravings, the most important series of which 'Les Plus Excellents Batiments de France' contain engravings of the principal Chateaux of the period. (ii) French Fortress Towns The fortification of the Franco-Austrian fronter resulted in the construction of of military garrison towns (fortresses). a number e.g. ROCROI first example of radial Italian plan built during first half of 16th century. HESDIN (1554), CHARLEMONT (1555) & PHILIPPEVILLE (1555) all by Sebastien van Noyen. VILLEFRANCHE-SUR-MEUSE and MARIEMBOURG based on design by Girolamo Maggi (iii) New Towns The building of new towns was extremely rare, there being little case for such The most famous example is probably: activity. 1545 VITRY-LE-FRANCOIS (Champagne District) - built by Francis 1 in 1545 to replace Vitry-en-Perthois, destroyed the (note: new location) - designed by Girolamo Marini from Bologna on the gridiron pattern. (iv) previous year Residence Cities A new urban type born out of the fantasy of man; became characteristic of the 'capital' city. Baroque 1606 CHARLEVILLE - founded by Duke Charles de Gonzague - developed between 1608 and 1620 by architect Clement Metezeau, it was perhaps the outstanding example in France of the application of Renaissance theories of city design. 1633 RICHELIEU - a Residence City of Renaissance urban design principles (juxtaposition of located 10 miles south of Chinon in the Chateaux country of the Loire. Cardinal Richelieu commissioned architect with Jacques Lemercier to design in relation to the palace, gardens and park of Richelieu. THE BAROQUE AND THE PLAYFUL ROCOCO 1650-1750 elements) the town Playfulness of form is limited to architecture only while French town plans betwen 1530 and 1790 remain much the same: forlnal and strict in layout (although the organisation of internal spaces tends toward freer forms). Residence Cities: 1665-1710 VERSAILLES The palace, gardens, and township of Versdilles are the creation of Louis XIV, King (1643-1715). the Sun He made it the archetype of the Residence City, which was to influence and an example to many European courts. become To implement his grand design, he appointed experts who had provei their ability at the great estdte at Vaux-le-Vicomte, (1655-1661): Le Vau, as architect Le Brun, as decorator Le Notre, as landscape architect, who in 1657 became Surveyor General of the Royal Works. He is also credited Witl the layout of the town of Versailles. Fortress Towns: Sebastien le Prestre de Vauban 1633-1707 - recognized as possibly the greatest military engineer in history, as a result of his lifetine's work in the service of Louis XIV. Architect and town planner who between 1698 dnd 1772 built more than 30 new (fortress) towns including: MONTLOUIS, NEUFBRISACH, MONT-DAUPHIN, LONGWY. Toward the end of the 17th century, planniny activity also extends to the French provinces, although major developments there did not take place until after 1750. Most important developments, however, took place in the capital. PARIS Although never the largest city on earth - as Rome or Babylon - Paris can claim to have been metropolitan in character for longer than any other city still in existence. Today - as for centuries before, thousands of travellers continue to make Paris the object of their pilgrimage - however, the eternal charm of this city, its old age and occasional seaminess are eroded and bulldozed by the speed of contemporary change. This city represents a most exciting case study in urban history . The full range of design forces underlying the urban formation of Paris can be studied in the inumerate records of its development which have been preserved. NEOLITHIC ORIGINS - located on advantageous crossing point of Seine River + important N - S road. settlement since neolithic times when Celtic tribes established small settlement on central island. ROMAN OCCUPATION 52 B.C. - 486 A.D. - Romans occupied Paris for 500 years, naming it Lutetia centre of gravity on South Bank (left) with Forum near Mt St Genevieve. grew to important provincial centre 10,000 inhab. on 370 acres. latinized and christianized renamed PARIS after original Parisii tribes the main N - S axis linking the two settlement nuclei can still be seen today - the Rue St Jacques. DARK AGES AND EARLY MIDDLE AGES 5 -10th C. Under Merovingian and Carolingian rule, Paris increases in political and religious importance. 20,000 - 30,000 inhabitants. MEDIEVAL PARIS FIRST CITY WALL - PHILIPPE AUGUST 1200 A.D. - 5 1/2 km. long, enclosed 251 ha (600 acres) 50-60,000 (100,000) inh. urban area spreads to north bank, particularly Rue St Denis (opening of grand pont) Left bank still dominates in size: becomes seat of great religious institutions (University and poorer social district) In spite of increased urban area, pressure to develop outside new wall King forced to grant permission: - usually such development took place along major access roads some distance beyond rubbish dumps, which were now part of city's topography give conflicting information on population 80,000 - 200,000 inh. Paris certainly one of 3 biggest cities in Europe (Venice, Milano) black death and war caused havoc with census figures SECOND CITY WALL; CHARLES V (1364 - 1380) - wall of 1370 added another 174 ha (430 acres) to urban area, but exclusively on north bank; total now over 440 ha (1000 acres). - Charles V, peeved by the provost of merchants (incidentally, he had begun 2nd Wall) and riots, removed himself from his precarious residence on Cite Paris began its path to fame and fortune only after end of 100 years war, 1453 onwards renewed economic activity immigration from rural areas results in increased urban density construction of pont Notre-Dame heralds advent of Italian Renaissance in France THE RENAISSANCE IN PARIS (a) from Francis I to Henri III Under FRANCIS I 1515-1547 Paris became the capital of an effectively united France and the scene of its brilliant court. The official boundary of the city was still the defensive wall of 1367-83; within this confined area the city displayed most of the characteristics of unplanned medieval form in the 16th century: - too small for its urban population (150,000 - 200,000 people) too vast for its defence too crowded for sanitation - too tortuous for traffic (clarity of Roman road network has been lost during the centuries of contraction back on the Ile de la Cite' and laissez-faire growth of medieval days) - the city was stifled within its own walls. It reached its physical limit: the swamps to the east and north. no public open spaces of major significance (even the few bridges were continuously lined with houses as the general street pattern). - Yet the King tried to check suburban expansion, about which old Parisians themselves were hostile (it destroyed the surrounding truck farms and sheltered artisans escaping the fees of the urban trades). Paris expanded within at the expense of its free and private open space: there were still many convent gardens, poultry yards, rabbit hutches, stables and fields within the urban fabric. Much space was parcelled out without co-ordinated plan; even dumps became building sites. Still, the suburbs expanded south and west. Louvre substantially altered by Francis I and Henri II (1546 and after, by Goujon and Lescot, architects). - Abandoned since 1380, Francis I began its modernisation by tearing down the keep. The wing of Francis I, entirely new and without Italian precedent, was one of the very first truly French Renaissance work. - became generator of a dominant design idea, architectural and visual axis. HENRI II - 1547-1559 Rents rose. By 1550, even a modest salary could no longer rent a complete house. Tuileries Palace, 1563 on, constructed by Philibert Delorme for Catherine de Medici, widow of Henri II, outside the walls on a swamp embankment. Jardins des Tuileries The construction of a spacious pleasure garden outside the city wall extendingwestward from the Palace was introduced by Catherine de Medici as an idea from Italy (to maintain contact with nature). Catherine conceived idea to connect Louvre to Tuileries by a gallery along the Seine (scheme not completed till 300 years later). This gallery continued the westward thrust set up within Louvre and moving through Tuileries Palace into Tuileries Gardens and beyond. Description of gardens in 1579. - checkered plan with alleys of equal width criss-crossing - squares not quite equal but general impression that they were squares self-sufficient 'Garden Plots' one alley centred and abutting at palace but not more important than others plan certainly not subordinated to that of garden inward looking self-completing design, i.e. of static quality devoid of axial emphasis 1563 Parliament calls for prohibition of private carriages (traffic is choked) 1566 The 'fosses jaunes' (yellow trenches) were begun forming a dam at the end of the palace gardens; the reason being that the Tuileries were exposed to raids during the wars of religion and old walls were outdated. Paris lacked sufficient water; the south bank had no fountains; certain districts were foulsmelling; traffic became choked while Francis I called for straight, aligned streets and had a wide stone quay built from the Louvre to the Chatelet. (b) Henri IV and Louis XIII 1589 - 1643 HENRI IV 1589-1610 Consolidates French state; re-organizes financial and agricultural systems; first Canadian colony acquired Paris has population of 200,000 inhabitants Henri IV, entering Paris in 1594 had inherited a ruined city: razed suburbs, rents reduced by 1/3 and even unpaid, poverty stricken mobs ready for anything. A custom of violence had provoked merciless repression by the King and his comrade, the provost of merchants Francois Miron. The north bank was an impenetrable urban fabric. Henri was unable to estalish a controlling plan such as that of Amsterdam after 1607, but he had a public works program which revived the city as well as enhanced his prestige. His principle was to juxtapose the old districts with more open and ordered ensembles linked to the old city. 1594 Gallerie du bord de l'eau (along the Seine) After 1594 the small gallery wa finished and the large gallery connecting the Louvre and the Tuileries resumed (L. Metezeau and J. Du Cerceau architects). Henri IV planned a symmetrical north wing 1604 Pont-Neuf was resumed and freed of houses to preserve the view of the Louvre. It was extended by the Rue Dauphine, to the south, the Pont-Neuf was more of a public square than a bridge and the razing of houses between the Louvre and Tuileries palaces. The King made the alignment of houses obligatory and prohibited over hanging stories and wood construction; these restrictions went largely unheeded. 17th CENTURY URBAN DEVELOPMENT: UNDER HENRY IV Took a different course to that in Rome (started with a system) although there was a strong desire for concrete form right from beginning. Paris, experienced a series of monumental movement axies which slowly came together to form a coherent, systematic structure - this continued into 18th and 19th century. In both Rome and Paris, a Baroque form of life needed to be concretised and in both cases the basic means was to create meaningful foci. Henry IV started in Paris what Sixtus had done for Rome i.e. to transform the capital into a worthy expression of the new system. Sixtus V had seven basilicas as his point of departure for the urban foci. Henry IV had to start afresh, using a new urban element: the place royale (the Campidoglio being prototype i.e. the first monarch of divine right is placed in centre of a space which symbolises the centre of the world; space is surrounded by buildings of a purely monumental civic purpose although in Paris, surrounded by dwellings). ROYAL SQUARES OF PARIS (AND FRANCE) Conceived by French monarchs as 'urban interiors' basically intended as open spaces surrounded by dwellings but not, as in Rome, dependent on a particular monumental buildings. French monarchy concentrated its planning activity on squares rather than streets. - convenient compromise of conflict between: city's urge to expand and constraining royal desire i.e. if city could not be enlarged, at least it could be improved. - squares were built in honour of the sovereign, the central focal point being a fitting statue - many removed during French revolution and often replaced by inadequate substitutes. - squares were clever subterfuge for a real estate venture as sovereigns were more agreeable to granting development rights in cases where the project was to be a royal square in their honour - the owner/developer, of course, would be principally concerned with letting or selling the new town houses defining the boundaries of the square. - the royal square (as the piazza in Italy and squares everywhere then and since) became the object of close attention by Renaissance and Baroque designers. Anyone of importance in the arts, would not neglect to reflect on the intricacies and details of piazza design: The plaza suited the needs of urban design in 16th century cities, because it furnished a place of spatial response amidst what was often a sea of urban squalor. They originally had been carefully set apart from main traffic (calm and serenity) but the 19th century intrusion was a blatant disregard of that supreme law: Fitness for use. The four examples Royal Squares of Paris included here, are: • variations on a common theme, basically intended as spaces yet not, as in Rome, dependent on particular buildings rather conceived as 'urban interiors' • therefore the continuity of their boundary wall is as essential as the definition of their centre PLACE ROYALE (renamed PLACE DES VOSGES state which yielded highest tax revenue after Revolution) 1607-12 The first planned square in Paris, built on unsold lots in the Marais district near the eastern edge of the city. Area was to have been a silk manufacturing centre, instead became a monumental promenade sheltered from traffic, the centre of an aristocratic district. The elegant and reserved atmosphere of this high Renaissance residential square represents the royal square at its most perfect. Plan - square is 321' x 321' surrounded by 38 houses of uniformly designed facades, intended as town palaces for cardinals, ministers, dukes, etc. the square plan is reminiscent of the southern French Bastide town squares: arcades on all sides at ground level. - a second corner has since opened up opposite the original corner access, thus introducing the undesirable through traffic. equestrian statue of Louis XIII placed in 1639, taken down during Revolution, reerected 1819 at first gravel, then in 1663 lawn, then in 1792 trees planted (English influence) which remain today originally 4 lawns surrounded by splendid iron fence. Square was meeting place for social promenade, not a crossroads. - Function - its function like many other R. squares, to be a promenoir for the inhabitants of the neighbourhood e.g. a pedestrian promenade sheltered from traffic. (Pedestrian mall) exclusive housing development for the French aristocracy. - Influence Place Royale is the first of its kind to be built in Paris; it was executed in the elegant and reserved atmosphere of the High Renaissance. Imitated in many European cities, especially in London (Covent Garden) PLACE DAUPHINE 1606 Henri IV's second Royal Square, was to achieve a special relationship to the city as a whole. Site In 1604, Henry had almost completed construction of the Pont Neuf a bridge across the Seine at the western point of the Island of La Cite. This point consisted of two small islets, waste land, which presented the opportunity to plan 'from a clean slate'. King decided that the intersection of the bridge with the islets (which had been filled in and consolidated) should become a more comprehensive urban scheme. In 1607 Henry ceded the land to the President de Harley on the understanding that the later would create a place royale i.e. an urban space for repose, centred on and developed around a statue of the sovereign. Design Solution - - - site poses problem : it tapers to its western extremity. Design of Place Dauphine is a spendid, convincingly genial idea and solution to the problem. Design is adapted to configuration of site; its regular triangular form also tapers to west. at apex of thiswhere longitudinal design axis (E - W) of square intersects with Pont Neuf axis (N - S), the President de Harley placed an equestrian statue of Henri's 6 year old son, Louis XIII. statue not being within square but at apex of outside, providing focal point not only for square itself but also wider area of city; particular, a terminal point for vistas along river's embankments. - 32 houses, conforming to a strict programme lined the square, which has since been decimated : only two pavillions at apex remain. - base of triangledisappeared in 1874 when Palais de Justice was completed. Pont - Neuf - is major N - S, connecting St. Eustache and St. Germain via Rue du Pont Neuf and Rue Dauphine; it is Paris' first Renaissance urban design axis, transverse to city's principal axis, natural water axis of Seine. "Place Dauphine concretizes and emphasis water axis in its architectural design : it makes it architecturally manifest and was the first of a series of projects which gave the Seine an importance surpassing that of rivers of other cities." Norbert-Schulz LOUIS XIII 1610-1643 - Henri IV died in 1610 when Louis was only 9. Hence the regency went to mum. Marie de Medici for seven years. (She abandoned the real power to her Italian advisor Concini.) period of consolidation of absolute monarchy: theoretically based on Thomas Hobbes' 'Leviathan' Paris suffered sharply rising land costs during the expansive and active years of 17th century. : first 40 years of century saw 60 fold increase in price of land. Rents multiplied 5 and 10 times. THIRD WALL OF PARIS (Fortifications of Louis XIII) - opened up new land to the west of the Tuileries Palace. Louis pulled down part of Charles V fortifications replacing them with a more elaborate, militarily up-to-date third wall of Paris. - 16 km long addition of modern geometric system of bastions, added to old wall of Charles V and to ramparts which had been started. COURS-LA-REINE Carriages were great irritation to Parisians who did not own one and to those who did : noisy, cumbersome, circulated with difficulty in narrow medieval lanes (1610 - 325 carriages registered in Paris). Louis XIII built a promenade especially designed for coaches : Cours-la-Reine, where enthusiasts could race their carriages on a custom built race track outside western city edge. Today, still an important outlet road along embankment. PALAIS MEDICIS (LUXEMBOURG) 1615-25 Palais Medicis built by Solomon de Brosse for Marie de Medici (now Palais Luxembourg) Park 23 ha, smaller than original. THE BAROQUE IN PARIS LOUIS XIV 1643 - 1715 Early reign marked by aftereffects of General European Slump and Civil War (Fronde Insurrection); period coincided with general deterioration of conditions in Paris. Louis, his finance minister Colbert, take city in hand in attempt to beautify it, to improve physical conditions, as well as safety : - - appointed the energetic la Reynie as Lieutenant of police (had authority to carry out public works). rigid new legislation against lawlessness traditional places of asylum were suppressed; so was one of the last robbers' refuges e.g. the most notorious 'cour de miracles' near the Porte Saint Denis was entirely razed. sewers and latrines were now required (most houses had neither) offensive factories were banished to outskirts (urban periphery) city lighting (6,500 lanterns) and paving were extended. Efforts were compromised by inertia of inhabitants who were unwilling to do their share. Paris remained dirty (great stench : could get around in boots only in a corrosive slime which rotted fabrics). Sewage clogged up the Bievre in summer; King filled in the St. Victor canal but riverside dwellers refused to help clean up the Bievre river. Two new pumps and 15 fountains supplied only partial remedy to constant water shortage. In theory, Paris was still a complex of feudal seigniories, in which private property was virtually non-existent; however, in practice 'effective' property was indistinguishable from active property. But when the King tried to abolish seigniorial justices to clarify the situation he encountered strong resistance from the large abbeys. Case for clarity and precision produced statistics and first correct maps. 1670 Colbert had an annual records of births, marriages, and deaths published (enormous mortality is evident, constantly higher than birthrate). 1684 485,000 inhabitants in 23,086 houses, each sheltering an average of 20 or 21 residents. 1652 The Gomboust Plan, the first of number reasonably precise plans of Paris. These succeeded the bird's-eye views and rather symbolic maps of the 16th century. Plans show expansion : 1652 1715 2000 acres 2750 acres with 500,000 - 510,000 inhabs. Urban Transformations under Louis XIV 1676 Bullet and Blondel Plan for Paris Colbert and the provost of merchants, Le Pelletier, commission the preparation of a plan for the desirable future public works projects that ought to be undertaken to augment the convenience of the public, to facilitate intra-urban movement, and embellish to city. - became law in 1676 according to Louis XIV but remained little more than existing conditions map designed to beautify the city and enlarge it in a limited way new gates wider streets and new ones in new urban areas to improve traffic conditions new river banks stressed necessity that new urban planning measures should conform to predetermined plan may have served as basic ideas for Grands Boulevard but many of its ideas could not be implemented as expropriation was non-existant (at least in practice) efforts to come to grips with central, medieval, building core of city were unsuccessful - except a few street widenings and alignments. Louis's first attempts at cheap public transport 5-sou coaches, failed owing to narrowness streets and impossible layout. Continuation of East-West Axis At the end of 16th century, Tuleries Gardens, Palace, and Louvre complex was still static; except for the Gallerie connecting two Palaces, there was no hint of westward design thrust that was to come (although urban development had been in westerly direction) TULLERIES GARDENS 1637 - Colbert entrusts embellishment of the neglected gardens to A. Le Notre, a gardener at the Tuileries. The work was carried out for Marie de Medici (Mother of Louis XIII). Le Notre turns static design into a dynamic one by way of a central alley vista and levelling of the two terraces. - Renaissance pattern is brilliantly extended, breaching outer walls altogether, by the thrust of a principal axis, generated within the gardens and continuing outward along the Avenue des Tuileries. "energy, previously compressed within city wall was released and set into motion an axial design thrust westward". - Ed. Bacon The Tuileries Axis is a man-made. land-based, parralel continuation of the E-W water axis of the Seine River, running through cite island from which it is propelled westward by the Place Dauphine triangle. CHAMPS ELYSEES 1667 Le Notre continued Tuileries Axis or Vista by planting trees in rows on the plain known as the Grand Cours or Av. des Tuileries (renamed Champs Elysees in 1709). 1724 Extension by Duke of Antin to Chaillot Mound (present Etoile) ending in a large round point. a similar view leading eastwards from Porte S. Antoine - Vincennes was also planned and in part executed. a system of radiating path was thereby intiated which expresses the role of Paris as the capital of the whole of France. The radiating roads - avenues were linked together by the ring of boulevards without closing it in. Radiating avenues of Paris display the great centering characteristic of the period. They were linked by a ring of : THE 'COURS' OR BOULEVARDS 1670 - 1705 - from 1660, most fortification around northern part of Paris (Madeleine - Bastille) were demolished as in poor repair and country at peace. - ground was cleared and levelled making room for a linear form of open space some 5.5 km. in length. Design - - linear space was 36 m. wide and developed into a • 4 carriage lanes central drive-way • pedestrian 'contre-allees', each planted with a double row of trees, on either side of drive-way. a number of triumphal arches were erected at intersections with older, existing outlet roads (radial streets), to mark historic entrances to city, e.g. 1672 1674 Porte St - Denis (by Blondel) Porte St - Martin (by Bullet) - 1778 main carriage-way paved - 1838 all-weather pavement provided to the 'contre-allees'. Idea - Stems from garden architecture and reflects a new attitude to landscape in general (first decisive developments having been made in Italy) also allows earlier circumnavigation of city-centre. i.e. early form of ring road which allows city centre to be by-passed. by 1750, once landscaping had matured, boulevards had become fashionable openair recreation areas : promenades. Development These 'cours' are now the following boulevards (having been substantially altered and remodelled under Haussmann) : to the west, a segment lined with high class shops, boutiques, cinemas, restaurants, cafes, prestige offices : - de la Madeleine - des Capucines - des Italiens - Montmartre to the east to the Place de la Republique, all uses are of significantly lower quality with diminishes tourist interest : - Poissonniere Bonne Nouvelle - St. Dennis - St. Martin - du Temple Further along to the Place de la Bastille, only residential and commercial uses, in the Boulevards. - Beaumarchais de la Bastille Later when the boulevards were built-up, western part became a fashionable housing district, in contrast to the eastern sections which retained their leisure functions (cafes, restaurants, theatres). Boulevards, although not forming physical barriers, for a time marked urban limits beyond which building was forbidden. The E - W axis (natural one by Le Notre, concretizing the natural E - W axis) and the N - S axis (historic v. man-made cross-town movement axes) become basic framework to which French rulers and urban designers add a complimentary design idea : INCREASE OF REAL AND VISUAL SPACE ALONG RIVER First, although rudimentary indication of this design idea can be seen in the 1662 Palais de l' Institut de France - on site of former city wall, on left bank - designed by Le Vau for Mazarin - set back from embankment facing Seine across large elliptical Cours d'honneur, suggestive of open space at right angles to river. 1670 - 1676 Les Invalides - one of Paris' most outstanding monumental group - founded in 1670 by Louis XIV on edge of the, then, Grenelle Plain and designed after plan by Liberal Bruant. First to develop his architectural composition at right angles to Seine. - Dome completed later by Jules Hardouin Mansart. Jardin des Plantes - opened in 1650, having been established on this new site in 1626. Concorde - Madeleine Axis 1760 Champ de Mars - probably undeveloped during much of 17th century, then market gardens running Seine to what is now Ecole Militaire. - 1765-67 Gabriel replaces these gardens by a parade ground or Champs de Mars, in front of his just finished Ecole Militaire. Trocadero - Chaillot Palace and Gardens - 1850 Place de Trocadero laid out. - 1878 Exhibition : Moorish Edifice erected upon it. - 1937 replaced by present Palais de Chaillot and gardens. Function of Design : All of these spacious open, landscaped ensembles, thrust from the Seine river, perpendicularly into dense city structure, opening it up and introducing air, space where it is most needed. By the consequential application of this design idea/technique the space above and along the Seine River could be made to alternate between closed front, along the quays and repeated surprising openings into the urban fabric. This is quite a unique and independent design to that of the E - W although it must be seen to compliment it. The Seine space was thus filled with surprises, the river's curvature being particularly suitable for this effect. Effect : This urban design technique allows the space along the river to be drawn into the built-up area and increases the real and visual effectiveness of the open space hovering above river. Continued failure to deal with medieval centre of Paris Just as Louis failed in his efforts to come to grips with central Paris - the medieval, dense, near inpenetrable core of the old city failed to contain urban expansion. Paris expanded in all directions, particularly in the St. Germain and St Honore suburbs to the west, due to the King's presence in the Tuileries; the two royal squares dedicated to Louis XIV are within this area. PLACE DES VICTOIRES (Place Louis XIV) 1685-87 - site formerly of fortifications. - Marshal de la Feuillade to curry favour with King commissioned a statue of the King by Desjardins. It was to stand in the centre of a specially designed circular square he entrusted to Jules Harouin-Mansart. Predot supervised the development. - it was felt that a circus, designed to connect several important landmarks, would be the only suitable form for this square. i.e. not to remain isolated but to connect • Rue des Fosses Montmartre (rue d'Aboukir) • Rue Croix des Petits Champs (south to Louvre) • Rue de la Feuuillade (leading west to new districts) Concept - Circle or circus was only way to solve functional requirements of square. Hence, it became the prototype for a series of great circular open spaces throughout Europe. - Mansart, however, did not design a regular rond-point. The Rue des Fosses Montmartre (Rue d'Aboukir) is used as an axis superimposed on the circular pattern. The 2 other streets (above) branch off symmetrically to this axis, the whole composition being centred on the statue of Louis XIV (1686). Design - Height of Desjardins' statue determined by radius of square 120 feet (30 metres). - originally 6 streets converged in the statue, one touching tangentially and another, short one, leading to the Hotel de Toulouse (Petite Rue de la Vrillere). - the enclosure of the space is formed by 3 uniformly designed arcs of a circle of facades, rusticated on ground floor and of giant Ionic order on the two upper floors. Mansart's facade enclosure is Berninesque in origin but lighter and less plastic than the Roman examples. He applied order only to the walls facing the square the square, this leaving the lateral walls along the street to a simpler articulation. The space is thus the constitutive element of the composition rather than the surrounding buildings (cf Michaelangelo's Campidoglio). Critique - additional short street destroyed one of the 3 regular arcs of facades. - only parts of the original facades are still standing, the obligation of owners to preserve the buildings was subsequently ignored. - design suffers fromm following weaknesses : inequality of building blocks limited vistas tangential street cutting off segment of circle half-open, half-closed layout of square unfortunate side and rear views of statue. - Professor E.A. Gutkind has called it "A dress rehearsal for later radial squares, still indecisive and experimental; yet sign that Renaissance side by side arrangement of independent elements dispersed over the urban area without consideration, was slowly giiving way to a more imaginative conception of the organic unity of a city." Older squares e.g. Place des Vosges, remained isolated from the urban setting and structure as a whole, while the Place des Victoires a centralized square with radiating streets and partly coverging vistas, was conceived as and resulted in an integrated part of the physical environment. PLACE VENDOME (Place Louis - Le - Grand) - built as a focus for the new districts in western part of city. - 1685 Hardouin-Mansart make first project, and parts of the facades were built without any houses behind them. This initial project for a monumental square surrounded by academies, the mint, the royal library was originated by Louvois. Mansart's design then envisaged a rectangular square open ai its full length to the Rue St. Honore. - this plan abolished and facades torn down. Design Hardouin-Mansart re-designed a smaller square, 360' x 430', a rectangular space with truncated corners forming an irregular octagon (increased perimetre meant increased and resalable building). Two short streets originally provided the access, one was later extended to become the Rue Castiglione and rue de la Paix. Development - contractor took only two years to complete facades of Mansart's design (the coulisses). Private persons could then buy 'a length of facade' from 2 to 10 windows and finish the building at their own expenses. - the square still has great dignity and balance although greatly spoilt by the substitution in 1810 of the original equestrian statue of Louis XIV by a column cast from 1,200 captured cannons and crowned by a statue of Napoleon as a Roman emperor (to glorify his victories in the 1805 campaign). Critique Column destroys architectural balance of square; its excessive scale or height (135') reduces effect of surrounding facades and interrupts the continuous silhouette of the roofs. Place Vendome repeats the example of Place des Vosges. It is also closed, as stressed by the cut-off corners and the strong regular rhythm of the wall articulation but it goes beyond that. The shape is structured longitudinally along its axis which is open toward two nearby churches (Capucines and the Feuillants). This is representative of the Baroque characteristic of centralization and longitudinality, of closure and interaction with the environment. Assessment of Louis XIV's work. Under Louis XIV, who ruled for 72 years Paris became dominant intellectual and social centre of France, Europe, and perhaps the entire world. (In spite of the fact that London was larger in 1700 with 650,00 inhabitants versus 540,000 in Paris). French architecture and planning between 1530 and 1790 resisted the example of the Italian Baroque and should, therefore, not really be called Baroque; it is rather more classical, meaning that rationality and intelligence are foremost in achieving balance and harmony. Clarity, logic, balance, a happy medium, such were the characteristics of the art of this period. As far as planning is concerned, this must be understood purely in relation to the architectural i.e. visual and spatial quality of the projects. While formal and strict in layout, the organization of internal spaces, however, made some concession toward freer forms. Playfulness of form is limited to architecture. The needs of the citizen, hygiene, ventilation, light, tolerable densities, are not important. The attention, talent, and efforts of architects and planners are devoted to the design of: Streets and squares Palaces and residences for the nobility Churches and Town Halls Versailles The Palace, gardens and township of Versailles are the creation of Louis XIV, the Sun King (1643-1715). Their execution along ideal plans on the largest scale represents the characteristic elements of the Baroque. Versailles represent the archetype of the 17th century city, the Residence City, reflecting • domination + definition + dynanism + openness It represents much more than a mere absolutism for its design structure has general properties which give it the capacity of receiving other contents and qualities. Origins Louis XIV, disliking life in his capital city, spent much time at his various chateaux, St Germain, Fontainebleau and, in particular, at Versailles, built by his father, Louis XIII as a hunting lodge, some 22 km south-west of Paris. Early 17th century Versailles was still a village surrounded by marsh and woodland. 1631- Louis XIII engages Philibert Le Roy to reconstruct a manor farm he 1634 had bought at Versailles. The resulting small rose brick and stone chateau consisting of a main building and 2 wings can still be seen surrounding its Marble Court. 1661 Louis XIV, who favoured his father's old hunting castle above others, resolved to extend it into a permanent palace residence, once he gained his majority (in 1661). Louis' undeclared purpose was: - to create the finest residence in the civilized world - to transfer, in due course, the entire court and government from Paris to Versailles. (Achieved twenty years later, in 1682, although the work was still not completed) note: influential members of the Aristocracy were obliged to take up residence in the Chateau, a ploy which virtually stripped them of all their power and influence in national affairs. - to outstrip the grandeur of the most famous and fashionable palaces of the time, the country mansion of his finance minister Fouquet at Vaux-le-Vicomte. The Palace and Gardens of Vaux-le-Vicomte - built and designed by Louis Le Vau, Le Brun, and Le Notre, for Fouquet, Finance Minister to Louis XIV. - while Le Vau, Le Brun were responsible for the architecture and the interior design (respectively) Le Notre created the Great Gardens: a clear site offering great scope in terms of 'a single burst of planning' (Lavedan). - Le Notre used the trident design found in such Italian renaissance villas as Pope Sixtus V's Villa Montalto and similar basic elements. The trident is turned around to concentrate on the entrance of the Palace. It follows the longitudinal axis, through palace and main part of garden, then (the movement) radiates away to form another Patte-d'oie (a motif which became Le Notre's trademark). - Design of V le V is original: • Bosquet and Parterres are not placed behind each other but next to each other, giving the space along the main axis a splendid width i.e. the limits of the Italian gardens have dissolved. • instead of defining space by boundaries, Le-N, used open but regular system of 'paths'. (Hence his gardens were called 'Jardins d'Intelligence') Louis XIV commissioned the three architects who had been working for Fouquet, to conceive his new chateau at Versailles: Le Vau as architect Le Brun as Decorator Le Notre as Garden Designer Versailles Garden Design Gardens of Versailles are a culmination of a development started over 100 years earlier: The Early Renaissance Garden: - still retained medieval character of Hortus Conclusus however, it was geometrizied to express idea of an ideal nature, forming thereby a complement to the ideal city of the Epoch. - during 16th C. this idea of static perfection was substituted by the idea of a mysterious and fantastic world consisting of a variety of 'places'. The Baroque Garden - Idea of a 'regular nature' now was superseded by that of a 'capricious nature', full of 'inventions' of the unpredictable. - the garden was a wonderful, fantastic place, even magical or enchanted ; this led to breaking down of walls and fences and the transformation of gardens into an arrangement of different places/spaces, each designed in relation to human feelings. - It was Le Notre, more than any other landscape designer, who furthered the development of the Baroque Garden, realizing the idea of Baroque space on the urban (city) level and natural landscape (garden) level. Le Notre produced an infinite variety of gardens, most of which are based on simple principles, which can be observed at Vaux-le-Vicombe as well as Versailles: The Versailles Gardens are not so much a setting, as an open air architectural extension. The Design Concept While both the Versailles Palace and city represent important elements of the design, the Versailles Gardens, by virtue of their sheer size and power, dominate the total ensemble. The design and layout of the gardens, the work of Le Notre, served as master plan and guiding force for all other elements including palace and city. The Longitudinal Axis the main element forms 'path' leading beholder to his 'goal' giving him the experience of infinite space'. All other elements are related to this axis: Transverse axes and radiating patterns introduced to indicate general openness and extension of the systems Flat terraces and large basins of water transform natural topography to further emphasize experience of extension and openness. Fountains, Basins, Canals introduce a dynamic element in the whole composition Palace, is Principal Transverse axis which divides longitudinal axis, path, into 2 different halves each half designed and organized in such a way as to combine into one spatial sequence, characteristic of Le Notre's Baroque gardens: Arrival from Man's Urban World Movement Departure through open through still courtyard And civilized world of the parterres Proceeding To Natural though tamed nature civilized of the Selvatico (wilderness) Bosquet The Development of Versailles Louis XIV, at first, made minor alterations to the existing chateau, from 1668 on, major works extensions on a lavish scale were undertaken to put a sumptuous envelope around the old building, including a garden and a town. To implement his grand design, he appointed experts who had proved their ability at the illfated Nicholas Fouquet's great estate at Vaux-le-Vicomte. Early Construction Phase 1661 - 1668 1674 1678 Court established permanentely Further additions by Jules Hardouin-Mansart Le Vau - added elegant wings 'Les Grands Apartments' to the 'Cours De Marble', the original facade around 'Court' of Louis XIII and his architect Le Roy, remaining intact. Jules Hardouin-Mansart - became favourite architect of Louis XIV and project architect for the palace in 1678, aged 31, a post he was to occupy until his death 30 years later. - 1678 Galerie des Glaces (Hall of mirrors) giving facade a monotonous, and now flattened, character 246' long x 33' wide (ceiling by Le Brun). - 1682 & 1684 North and South wings eventually accommodated 1000 people. - 1684-86 Organgerie flanked by famous pair of marble staircases 700 orange trees (once 3,000?). - 1687 Le Grand Trianon (marble trianon) to replace short-lived porcelain Trianon by Le Vau. Italian style Palace used by Mme De Maintenon, in particular. - 1689-1710 The Royal Chapel in white creteil stone. - Queen's staircase, in south wing. Le Brun (1619-90) - first painter and decorator simultaneously carried out complete transformation of the interior; influenced by Italian Baroque. - his opulence, sense of perspective, desire to astonish remain very close to Italian spirit. - Les Grand Apartments and were decorated by him including: Venus, Diane, Mars, and Apollo Saloons war drawing room. Life at Court Court numbered 20,000 people including: 9,500 soldiers billetted in the town 5,000 servants housed in the Palace annexes 1,000 nobles and their 4,000 servants, lived in palace itself 1,000 lesser nobility frequented the precincts On death of Louis XIV in 1715, Court moved back to Paris. Versailleri in 1722 and royal residence ceased in 1789. Louis XV moved back to Le Notre 1613-1700 1657 surveyor general of royal works 1661 commences his work on landscape gardens for Versailles (autumn) - credited for general layout and concept of gardens and town of Versailles The Gardens - - supervised gardens for more than 30 years Le Notre gave a brilliant demonstration of the art of treating architecture and landscape as complementary elements in a grand composition. transformed the 250 acres (100 ha) of flat and spacious plain surrounding the chateau into a stupendously magnificent and rigidly artificial setting. employed hundreds of gardeners, 36,000 labourers and 6,000 horses. necessitated diversion of river Bière and drainage of 37,000 acres (16,000 ha) - the design united the following elements in an unprecedented scale: - • • • a vast cruciform 'grand canal' 1,805 yards by 68 yards - Petit Canal 1,170 x 88 lakes, basins, and pools of symmetric shape serving a water mirrors emphasizing spatial illusions • statue - decked basins: Apollo, Latona, Neptune, Nymphs of Diana • scintillating fountains (1,400 originally, 600 today) • a myriad of trees clipped and shaped and arranged in precise patterns • hedges, high and low, trimmed to resemble flat or rounded walls to define the vast parterres of incredibly intricate embroideries of flowers: originally, much more colour with 150,000 bedding plants a year. • triumphal arches • sweeping flights of steps • long balustrades • statues and sculptures (100 statues commissioned by Le Brun for gardens alone) • columns and colonnades •' round-points' and 'squares' marking the intersections of avenues. Le Notre employed same system as at V-le-V but at bigger scale and with greater variety: particularly in the bosquets section e.g. the Salle Verte. The Selvatico is still present in the Grand Parc but it is quite tame, making it easy for hunting parties to get quickly from one place to another. Great canal structures whole area and indicates main directions of the layout. The Town dates from 1671 (10 years after Palace construction began). • was developed gradually from a plan prepared by Le Notre in1665. • the plan's axiality relates town to palace, where town is merely a prelude to architectural splendour of design; city is thus subordinate to the Great Baroque layout of the Palace and gardens. • laid out on a radial pattern with 3 avenues focussing on the Place d'Armes (cf Piazza del Popolo in Rome.) A vast forecourt to the palace. Twin features at the angles were not churches but huge barrack blocks. •wedged between these 3 great avenues were the buildings housing the lesser courtiers, minor court officials, and clerks. • plan was designed for about 30,000 people, contained mostly small houses set along streets following a chessboard pattern relieved occasionally by squares. • (houses were mostly built by the municipality, but land would be granted to people who covenanted to build houses of approved specifications). • public buildings e.g. town hall, prefecture, were located along the main avenues. • stringent control was exercised over the height of buildings (to prevent visual competition with the royal constructions) and even over building and roofing materials. • town never achieved 'organic unity' of the envisaged plan, because of different and unrelated development between radials. • there was not even a cross-axis to tie together the four sectors of town (considered in plans - never eventuated). Conclusion Even more than St Peters in Rome, Versailles represents the baroque method of placing microscopic design elements within the macroscopic environment. The idea is the same: that an important piece of architecture can and will influence its surroundings. Town of Versailles is an urban area as seen by the absolute ruler. Versailles represents the contemporary French Genius: grandeur and clarity of the intellectual design concept; elegance and dignity in physical execution, scale, proportion and harmony. Influences on later Developments Le Notre's stately geometry inspired layouts for innumerable parks and gardens e.g. Charles II's Hampton Court (restauration of the Stuarts); the influences on city development were even greater: • • • • • Mannheim Karlsruhe Washington DC New Delhi (Edwin Lutyens and J.A. Brodie) Canberra (W.B. Griffin) The spacious geometric framework of broad avenues long vistas, rond-points and terminating features reappeared in various forms in unexpected places. Popular with Governments, despotic or democratic, with grandoise ideas, ample funds and the urge to impress their pride and power on the populace. A General Comment on Palace or Residence Cities Direct result of a national centralised authority which controlled and absored all wealth of the country in question. This abundance of wealth, made the following possible: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) an extravagant palace a mass collection of treasures from all over building of a theatre within establishment and extravagant scenery to keep private menagerie of no mean dimensions within own grounds of ruler to keep up dramatically large gardens about ruler's residence to pay for bst brains and ability in all fields to administer this colossal self-indulgence. It becomes, more or less, pattern of living in the European court towns, and in the new towns (natural or planned) which developed about the royal residence. Existed to serve the vast population which constituted court. We owe some features of subsequent and present day cities (which are generally taken for granted as a natural development) to these cities: 1. Hospitality of the palace is forerunner of the luxury hotel (Palaces often became first luxury hotels). 2. Collections of art treasures originated then, which are now main core of national heritage. 3. Many theatres: an art made fashionable by Royalty. 4. the Zoo derives from royal menageries. 5. Great public pleasure gardens of 18th century . Introduction: Hubala, E. (1989) Baroque and Rococo, The Herbert Press, London. Variano, J. (1986) Italian Baroque and Rococo Architecture, Oxford University Press. Principal references are shown in bold: Adams, W.H. (1979), The French Garden 1500-1800, George Braziller, New York. Bacon, E.N. (1967) Design of Cities, Thames and Hudson, London, pp. 172-179. Braunfels, W. (1988) Urban Design in Western Europe: Regime and Architecture, 9001900, The University of Chicago Press, Chap. seven. Cooke, C., Hennessey, C. & Wardlaw, D. (1965), 'Neuf-Brisach' in RIBA Journal, February. Dennis, M. (1986) Court & Garden : From the French Hotel to the City of Modern Architecture, Cambridge, Mass., M.I.T. Press. De Montclos, J-M. (1997) Vaux Le Vicomte, Scala Press, Paris Giedion, S. (1970) Space, Time and Architecture, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, pp. 133-141. Girouard, M. (1985) Cities & People: A Social and Architectural History, Yale University Press, Part 2. Gutkind, E.A. (1970) Urban Development in Western Europe: France and Belgium, Int. Hist. of City Development Vol. V, New York, The Free Press, pp. 238-252. Kostof, S (1985) A History of Architecture: Settings and Rituals, Oxford University Press, Chapter 21. Lavedan, P. (1941), Histoire de l'urbanisme: Renaissance et temps modernes, Laurens, Paris. Lavedan, P. (1960), French Architecture, Harmondsworth, Penguin Books. Morris, A.E.J. (1972) History of Urban Form, London, George Godwin Ltd. Mumford, L. (1960) The City in History, Harmondsworth, Penguin Books. Norberg-Schulz, C. (1971) Baroque Architecture, Harry N. Abrams, New York. Rasmussen, S.E. (1951) Towns and Buildings, Liverpool University Press. Stewart, C. (1952), A Prospect of Cities, London, Longmans, Green & Co., pp. 114-131. Thomson, D. (1984) Renaissance Paris: Architecture and Growth 1475-1600, London, A. Zwemmer Ltd. Webb, M. (1990) The City Square, Thames and Hudson, London, Chap. 6. Zucker, P. (1959) Town and Square, New York, Columbia University Press, pp. 165195.
