The following commentary should be useful to students during the outlining
and note taking process. It may also prove useful as a guide to taking inclass notes and preparing for exams. It can be found on the following
website http://philosophy.lander.edu/study-books.html.
How to Take Book Notes
I.
In many University classes, taking book notes often marks the difference between
an A and a B course grade for a normally good to average student.
A.
If you tend not to be organized, the following suggestions concerning
book notes are matters of personal preference yet should prove helpful.
1.
Use 3-hole loose-leaf notebook paper and a binder with dividers
for various subjects.
a.
b.
c.
2.
In this manner, you can loan specific sets notes without
risking the loss of the whole notebook.
You can also easily interleave lecture notes, Photostats,
diagrams, and other sources.
Add your syllabus with the aid of a 3-hole punch.
Begin study notes with the following record at the top or margin of
the page:
Text:
Subject:
Date:
Time:
3.
B.
If your teacher is a poor lecturer [not me!] but follows the
textbook, take good notes from the text and supplement them with
the lecture notes. Hence, you must read ahead and take notes
before the class presentations.
The Use of Books: the P, Q, R, S, T method. Each hour of study should
be divided into the following time-periods.
1.
Preview: scan the chapter noting italicized and bold-face type,
introductory and concluding sentences, diagrams and tables. (5
minutes).
2.
Question: write out what appear to be key questions covered in the
chapter and answer them orally based on what you already know
about the subject. (5 minutes) This step is especially important.
(The rationale for this step might be initially difficult to
understand. Psychologically, we tend to remember better if we
have already have in place a conceptual structure by which to
compare new information. Consider the student who argues about
a 1 point question on a test--this student has a vested interest in the
answer and is unlikely to forget the correction.)
3.
Read: read the chapter carefully and critically. Either underline and
make notes in the text or jot down an outline of the key ideas in
your notebook or both. (20 minutes).
4.
Study: fill in your outline and mentally review the important
concepts by comparing your answers to the text. (20 minutes): fill
in your outline and mentally review the important concepts by
comparing your answers to the text. (20 minutes).
This step is the "study" in the P, Q, R, S, T Method. It's quite
surprising to many teachers that even at the college level, many
students assume that the "R" step is the whole sum and substance
studying.
5.
Test: shut your book and notes. Repeat, as precisely as you can, all
that you can remember about your notes. Important points should
be given almost verbatim. Of all steps, this one is the most
important. (10 minutes)
Do not look up information you have forgotten at this time. Instead, jot down the concept
to be reviewed at the next study period (q.v., III, B, 2, b above). (The fact that you don't
remember the information at the present time will be of some concern until the next study
period when you can put the annoyance to rest.)
How to Take Lecture Notes
I.
Good lecture notes record the meaning of the lecture, its general direction, and
points for further study.
I.
If special presentations are made (e.g., film, audio, DVD, overhead, or
PowerPoint presentations), take especial care to take thorough notes.
(Yes, the taking of notes will affect the enjoyment of the presentation, but
your grade isn't usually based solely on how much enjoyment you derive
from the presentation.)
II.
Classroom preparation should be thought out in advance.
I.
Sit as close to the front of the room as will make you slightly
anxious, yet not too uncomfortable.
I.
Sit on the right-hand side of the class if the teacher is righthanded—especially in language, mathematics, and science
classes.
(You can see the blackboard as the teacher is writing; on
the left-hand side the presence of the teacher obscures the
board.)
II.
III.
If you cannot initially see, hear, or concentrate,
immediately move to a place where you can.
Generally speaking, a right-handed teacher tends to call on
students toward the back of the class on the teacher's right,
and a left-handed teacher tends to call on students at the
back of the class on the teacher's left.
(To escape notice, it sometimes works to sit toward the
front of the classroom at the left of a right-handed teacher
and vice-versa for a left-handed teacher.)
II.
If you can afford a course planner, by all means, use one. In any
case, begin all lecture notes with the record in the left-hand margin
or at the right-hand top:
Class:
Date:
Topic:
Assignment:
III.
III.
Be ready to start taking notes before the teacher enters the class.
The major difficulty in lecture classes is that you must listen, select, and
write at the same time. Most students will have to overcome twelve years
of classroom experience where they have become accustomed to passive
listening. Initially, you will have to dedicate yourself to the attempt--after
about two or three weeks, most note-taking difficulties are overcome.
I.
II.
Doggedly try outline form; it's better to write down too much than
too little, at first. Studies have shown that even good listeners
remember only about 25% of the spoken word immediately after
class—and next to nothing a week later.
Select the main heading for your outline form by…
I.
II.
III.
IV.
the logical structure of the lecture announced by the
teacher,
the basic principles drawn from assigned readings,
definitions, and/or
new topics.
III.
Do not write out verbal illustrations or examples—jot down only
some key words to remind you of the examples later. If possible,
fill in the left-out steps immediately after that class.
IV.
Leave four or five blank lines between major topics and subjectpoints so you can supplement with book notes or other references
later.
(Error on the side of leaving too much white space.) If you have
an acquaintance or friend who also wishes to do well in a course,
it's a good idea to compare notes not only to supplement your own
notes, but also to obtain concrete tips for improving your own
note-taking skills.
II.
Look through your lecture notes at the earliest opportunity after class for
corrections and amplifications. Usually, these revisions are best done immediately
after class while the material is still fresh on your mind—even if you only have a
few moments between classes.
III.
On days when you do not feel like doing anything (and there will be days like
this), keep track of the subject in key words only, or think of this class as an
opportunity to improve your handwriting skills. As Aristotle pointed out, usually,
your actions determine your state of mind, rather than your state of mind
determining your actions. By "pretending" to take notes, you will often be
surprised to find yourself actually taking notes.
Reviewing For Exams
I.
Techniques for reviewing for tests form an essential part of being a student.
A.
Under most conditions, it is more efficient to study alone. There are,
however, three exceptions:
B.
II.
1.
If two or more persons have already mastered the material very
well, quizzing each other may be more effective than self-quizzing
alone. Some studies have shown the students learn from each other
as much as they learn from the teacher
2.
If the course material is too difficult, then collaboration with
another student or setting up a study-group can be profitable;
however, study groups work best when they meet on a regular
basis well before the exam is scheduled.
3.
Sometimes in order to reduce anxiety and conflict, it is more
profitable to study with others than to study alone. Avoid mixing
socializing and study--it seldom works for difficult classes.
Intensive studying the night before an exam has serious disadvantages.
1.
Anxiety impairs thinking, reasoning, and learning.
2.
Anxiety is incompatible with enjoyment. By studying intently the
night before an exam, you are learning not to enjoy not only the
subject being studied but also learning not to enjoy the study and
leaning process.
3.
If you have already formed the habit of cramming the night before
a test, then your task is made much more difficult, since just the
sight of a textbook at any time, not just before an exam, may cause
anxiety. Even the thought of studying can cause apprehension
because past study has been associated with tension, dread, and
negative feedback.
4.
The "institutional syndrome" can be seen to be established when
our natural creativity, discovery, and curiosity is hindered by past
negative reinforcement.
Cramming is psychologically unsound for other reasons as well. Having spent an
enormous amount of effort and loss of sleep the night before an exam, a student is
usually rewarded with a less than acceptable grade. The negative conditioning
leads to the loss of desire to study until some sort of an emergency situation crops
up--i.e., usually, the next test, and so the effect tends to perpetuate itself.
Notes Example
BA 246
Chapter 48
Real Property and Landlord-Tenant Relationships
The Nature of Real Property:
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Land: Unless a statute or case law holds otherwise, a landowner has the
right to everything existing permanently below the surface of his/her
property to the center of the earth and above it to the sky
Air Space and Subsurface Rights: significant limitations called
“encumbrances,” on either air rights or subsurface rights normally must
be indicated on the document transferring title at the time of purchase
Air Rights: Until 100 years ago, the right to use the air space over an
owner’s property was not too significant…early cases are of whether a
telephone wire could be run across a person’s property…flights over
private land do not normally violate the property owners’ rights unless
the flights are low and frequent, causing a direct interference with the
enjoyment and use of the land
Subsurface Rights: this can be extremely valuable when minerals, oils,
or natural gas is located beneath the surface…but a surface owner’s
rights would be of little value if he/she could not use the surface to
exercise those rights…a subsurface owner will have a right (called a
“profit,”) to go onto the surface of the land to, for example, find and
remove minerals…at common law, a landowner has the right to have the
land supported in its natural condition by the owners of the interested
under the surface…if the subsurface owners excavate they are absolutely
liable if the excavating causes the land to collapse…many states also
have statutes to cover any damages that may occur to structures on the
land as well
Plant Life and Vegetation: Plant life, both natural and cultivated, is
also considered to be real property…in many instances, natural
vegetation, such as trees, adds greatly to the value of realty…when land
is sold and the land has growing crops on it, the sale includes the crops,
unless otherwise specified in the contract…if just the crops are sold they
are considered “Personal Property,” and is thus governed by the UCC
rather than real property laws
Ownership Interests in Real Property: it is an abstract concept b/c no one can actually
possess, or hold, a piece of land, the air above, and the earth below, and all the water
contained on it…one can only posses “the rights” in real property…the one who holds the
entire bundle of rights owns the property in “fee simple”
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Fee Simple: in a “fee simple absolute” the owner has the greatest
aggregation of rights, privileges, and power possible…the owner can
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give the property away, sell the property for a price, or transfer the
property by will to another…it is limited to a person and his/her heirs
and is assigned forever without limitation or condition…the rights
include: the right to use the land for whatever purpose the owner sees fit,
as long as it doesn’t interfere with others land or zoning laws, the owner
also has the right to “exclusive” possession of the property…it is
indefinite in duration and can be disposed of by deed or by will…even if
there is no will it will be passed to the owner’s legal heirs
Life Estates: is an estate that lasts for the lifetime of some specified
individual…A “Conveyance” or transfer of real property, “to A for his
life” creates a life estate…In a life estate, the life tenant’s ownership
rights cease to exist on the life tenant’s death…they only have the rights
to the land as long as no “waste” (injury to the land) is committed)…the
life tenant also has the rights to mortgage the life estate and create liens,
easements, and leases; but none can extend beyond the life of the
tenant…along with the rights there are some duties the life tenants must
do-keep the property in repair and to pay property taxes
Leased Estates: is created when real property owner or lessor (landlord)
agrees to convey the rights to possess and use the property to a lessee
(tenant) for a certain period of time…every leasehold estate the tenant
has a qualified right to exclusive possession (but the landlord can enter
to verify that the tenant is not creating waste of the property
Tenancy for Years: is created by and express contract (sometime can be
oral) under which property is leased for a specified period of time, such
as a month, a year, or a period of years…if the tenant dies during the
lease period, the lease interest passes to the tenant’s heirs as personal
property
Periodic Tenancy: is created by lease that doesn’t specify how long it is
to last, but does specify that rent is to be paid at certain intervals…this
type of tenancy is created by automatically renewed for another rental
period unless properly terminated…at common law, to terminate a
periodic tenancy, the landlord or tenant must give one period’s notice to
the other party
Tenancy At Will: when a landlord rents “for as long as both agree”
under common law either party can terminate the lease at will without
notice Tenancy at Sufferance: is the possession of land without
rights…is created when a tenant “wrongfully” retains possession of
property
Nonpossessory Interests: interest in land without the right of
possession, such as “easements, profits, and licenses”
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Easements and Profits: an “easement” is the rights of a person to make
limited use of another person’s real property without taking anything
from the property (the right to walk across another person’s property)…a
“profit” is the right to go onto land owned by another and take away
some part of the land itself or some product of the land…an easement or
profit “appurtenant” arises when the owner of one piece of land has the
right to go onto (or remove things from) an adjacent piece of land owned
by another
Creation of an Easement or Profit: they can be created by deed or will,
contract, implication, necessity, or prescription…creation by deed or will
simply involves the delivery of a deed or a transfer of will by the owner
of an easement stating that the grantee (the person receiving the profit or
easement) is granted the rights that the grantor had in the easement or
profit…when they are created by contract, with the contract terms
defining the extent and length of time of use…they may also arise by
implication when circumstances surrounding the division of a parcel of
property imply its creation…an easement by necessity does not require
division of property for its existence…an easement arises by prescription
when one person exercises an easement, such as a right-of-way, on
another person’s land without the landowner’s consent, and the use is
apparent and continues for a period time equal to the applicable statute
of limitations
Effect of a Sale of Property: when a parcel of land that is benefited by
an easement or profit appurtenant is sold, the property carries the
easement or profit along with it…when a parcel of land has the burden
of an easement or profit appurtenant is sold, the new owner must
recognize its existence only if he/she knew or should have known of it or
if it was recorded in the appropriate office of the county
Termination of an Easement or Profit: they can be terminated or
extinguished in several ways…the simplest way is to deed it back to the
owner of the land that is burdened by it…another way is to abandoned it
with the intent to relinquish the right to use it
Licenses: (in the context of real property) it is the revocable right of a
person to come onto another person’s land (ticket to a movie or a play)
Transfer of Ownership: Ownership of real property can be passed from one person to
another in a number of ways

Deeds: Possession and title to land are passed from person to person by
means of a deed-the instrument of conveyance or real property…a deed
is a writing signed by an owner of real property by which title to it is
transferred to another…the following are required for a valid deed:
1. The names of the grantor (the giver or seller) and the grantee (the
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donee or buyer)
2. Words evidencing an intent to convey (Example: “I hereby
bargain/sell/give”)
3. A legally sufficient description of the land
4. The grantor’s ( and usually his/her spouse’s) signature
5. Delivery of the deed
Warranty Deed: this makes the greatest number of warranties and thus
provides the most extensive protection again defects of title…most
courts will infer from this language that the following covenants are
being made: a covenant that the grantor has the title to, and the power to
convey, the property; a covenant of quiet enjoyment (a warranty that the
buyer will not be disturbed in his/her possession of the land); and a
covenant that transfer of the property is made without knowledge of
adverse claims of third parties
Special Warranty Deed: which is frequently referred to as “limited
warranty deed” warrants only that the grantor or seller held good title
during his/her ownership of the property…if the special warranty deed
discloses all liens or other encumbrances, the seller will not be liable to
the buyer if a third person subsequently interferes with the buyer’s
ownership
Quitclaim Deed: this warrants less than any other deed…it simply
conveys to the grantee whatever interest the grantor had
Grant Deed: with this the grantor simply states, “I grant the property to
you” by state law grant deeds may carry with them an implied warranty
that the grantor owns the property being transferred and has not
previously encumbered it or conveyed it to someone else
Sheriff’s Deed: is a document giving ownership rights to a buyer at a
sheriff’s sale, which is a sale held by a sheriff to pay a court judgment
against the owner of the property.
Recording Statues: (Every jurisdiction has them) which allows deeds to
be recorded…recording a deed involves a fee…the grantee typically
pays the fee b/c he/she will be protected by recording the deed…it gives
notice to the public that a certain person is now the owner of a particular
parcel or real estate…placing veryone on notice as to who the real owner
is…they are recorded in the county that the grantor sign the deed in the
presence of two witnesses before it can be recorded
Contracts for the Sale of Real Estate: it is usually done by sale, and it
involves a transfer of ownership, often with specific warranties…first the
information of the land sales contract…a title search follows, along with
negotiations to obtain financing for the purchase…unless the buyer pay
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cash for the property, the buyer must obtain financing through a
mortgage loan (a loan made by and individual or institution, such as
banking institution or trust company, for which the property is given as
security)…then the buyer normally has the premises inspected for
physical or mechanical defects and for insect infestation…the final step
is closing…deposits toward the purchase price are normally held in a
special account. Called an “Escrow Account” until all the conditions of
the sale are met and the closing takes place at which time the money is
transferred to the seller
Warranty of Habitability: the common law rule of “Caveat Emptor”
(“let the buyer beware”) was specifically included in the deed or contract
of sale…now there is a strong favor of an “Implied Warranty of
Habitability” …which is the law in the majority of states, the seller of a
house warrants that it will be fit for human habitation regardless of
whether any such warranty is included in the deed or contract of sale
Seller’s Duty to Disclose: in most jurisdictions, courts have placed on
sellers a duty to disclose any known defect that materially affects the
value of the property and that the buyer could not reasonably discover
Transfer by Inheritance: if the owner dies with a will, that the land
passes according to the terms of the will…if the owner dies without a
will, state statues prescribe how and to whom the property will pass
Adverse Possession: is a means of obtaining title to land without
delivery of a deed…essentially, when one person possesses the property
and another for a certain statutory period of time (3 to 30 years with 10
years being most common), that person, called the “Adverse Possessor,”
acquires title to the land and cannot be removed from it by the original
owner…For property to be held adversely, four elements must be
satisfied:
1. Possession must actual an exclusive; that is, the possessor must
take sole physical occupancy of the property
2. The possession must be open, visible, and notorious, not secret or
clandestine. The possessor must occupy the land for all the world
to see
3. Possession must be continuous and peaceable for the required
period of time. This requirement means that the possessor must
not be interrupted in the occupancy by the true owner or by the
courts
4. Possession must be hostile and adverse. In other words, the
possessor must claim the property as against the whole world.
He/She cannot be living on the property with the permission of
the owner
Limitations on the Rights of Property Owners: No ownership rights in real property
can ever be absolute; that is, an owner or real property cannot always do whatever he/she
wishes on or with the property
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Eminent Domain: in the United States the government has ultimate
ownership rights in all land…this right is called eminent domain; and it
allows the government to take land from a small parcel of property to a
large tract of land, for public use…it can be taken for only public use not
private benefit…this power is often referred to as “Condemnation
power” of the government…after the government decides what land
needs to be taken it brings judicial proceedings to obtain title to the
land…then in another proceeding the court determines a “fair value” of
the land…when the government takes land owned by a private party it is
referred to as a “taking” and the government must compensate the
private party