Spring Semester Biology Review 2014 Cell Cycle – Consists of three phases. Interphase (think DNA replication), Mitosis (division of the nucleus), and Cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm). Functions in Growth and Repair. Uncontrollable growth of cells Cancer occurs in somatic cells (body cells). Mitosis – A phase in the cell cycle has four stages: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase. Number of chromsomes remains constant Humans have 46 chromosomes each daughter cell has 46 chromosomesthe way that diploid cells produce more diploid cells. Binary Fission is asexual reproduction in bacteria and other unicellular organisms which results in two cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell cloning. Meiosis how gametes (sperm and ova [eggs]) are made; chromosoel number is one half of somatic cell– human diploid (2N) number is 46, haploid (n) number is 2 the way that diploid cells produce haploid cells. Karyotype – used to detect abnormalities in chromosome number – trisomy 21 Down Syndrome Two types of chromsomes – Sex (1pair) XX or XY and Autosomes (22 pairs) T G A C Sugar Phosphate Nucleotide: Sugar, Phosphate and Nitrogen base DNA – Double Helix – Nitrogen Bases Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), Thymine (T), Adenine (A). Hydrogen Bonds are located between the nitrogen bases (A=T) & (G = C). The sequence of bases determines specific the traits. Replication – results in two identical DNA strands. Three steps: 1. The two original DNA strands separate using DNA helicase. 2. DNA polymerase adds complementary nucleotides to each strand. 3. Two DNA DNA polymerase molecules form that are identical to the opens the DNA original DNA molecule. Transcription – takes the information found in a gene in the DNA and transfers it to a molecule of mRNA in the nucleus. (DNA makes RNA) Translation – mRNA molecule binds to a ribosome, and tRNAs carry amino acids to the ribosome to make a protein. 1 Mutation – change in DNA. Mutations can involve a change in a single nucleotide or an entire gene. Genetic Variation – Meiosis and the combination of genes from two organisms in sexual reproduction increase the level of variation. Pedigree – demonstrates how a trait is inherited over several generations. Male Carrier Female - noncarrier Offspring Generations Mating Evolution – change in a population over time – individuals do not undergo evolution. Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection. Four major points: 1. Varaition exists within the genes of every population. 2. Some individuals in a population are better suited to survive. 3. More offspring are produced than the environment can support. 4. Limited resources are available in the environment. Homozygous Dominant (TT) Homozygous Recessive (tt) Heterozygous (Tt) Phenotype – Physical Characteristics Genotype – Genetic Make up Gregor Mendel – Father of Genetics Punnet Square – shows proabability of offspring Phenotype: 3 Dominant : 1 Recessive Genotype: 1 Homo. Dom: 2 Hetero Dom: 1 Recessive Evidence of change in species: 1. Fossils; 2. DNA sequence; 3. Anatomical structure; 4. Physiological similarities; 5. Embryology. B is extinct Speciation - formation of a new species due to Divergence. Phylogenetic Trees demonstrate relationships including common ancestors and close relationships based on criteria. Looking at the phylogentic tree E and F are closely related the following information can be understood Adaptations aid in the survival of organisms. Adaptations are due to variations in the population of all organisms. Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria are bacteria that survive repeated usage of antibiotics due to mutation in their DNA. Other types of adaptations include catcus with spines for protection and the closing of the stomata for prevention of water loss. Animals that are camouflaged or mimic other animals are also examples of adaptations. Dichotomous Keys can be used for identification of organisms using opposing statements. In each pair of statements only one will be correct and will direct you to the next Statement until you reach the statement that identifies the organism. Taxonomic levels or categories become more specific as you move down the categories. A is the common ancestor PHYLOGENETIC TREE 2 Scientific Name for an organism includes the genus and species. The scientific name for humans is Homo sapiens. The more categories organisms share in common, the more closely related they are. Linnaeus used structural similarities in developing the first system of Taxonomy. Currently we use biochemical similarities (think DNA and amino acid sequence). Translated this means that the more amino acid sequences we share the closer we are related and will be placed in similar taxonomic categories. Nutriti on Tissue Type Examples Archebacte ria Proka ryotic Both Single celled/live in colonies Bacteria that live in extremely salty or hot conditions Eubacteria Proka ryotic Both General bacteria, E.coli, Rhizobium Protista Eukar yotic Both Single celled/live in colonies Some single celled, some multicellular Fungus Eukar yotic Hetero trophic Multicellular, nonmotile Yeast, mushrooms, molds Plantae (Plants) Eukar yotic Autotr ophic Multicellular, nonmotile Moss, ferns, pine trees, flowers Animalia (animals) Eukar yotic Hetero trophic Multicellular, mostly motile Jellyfish, worms, insects, lizards, sheep Levels of Organization Cell type TISSUES SYSTEMS Phylum Class Family Amoebas, Paramecium, algae ORGANS Kingdom Order Kingdom CELLS Domain Characterisitcs of the 6Kingdom system. Be sure to know the terms: heterotrophic, autotrophic, prokaryotic, eukaryotic, unicellular, multicellular, flagella, and cilia. ORGANISM SYSTEMS: A group of organs working together to perform a particular function. There are eleven systems in the human body. The interrelationship of the systems working together maintains homeostasis. Skeletal system: Bones are for: – Support & structure – Production of blood cells Red and White Blood Cells – Allowing movement – Muscle attachments – Holding joints together (ligaments) Earthworms: Hydroskeleton Grasshopper: Exoskeleton Frogs and Humans: Endoskeleton Nervous System: Informs organism about environment Consists of brain and spinal cord Voluntary—you choose and control Involuntary— heart and lungs Nerve cells send and receive information using neutrotransmitters Nervous system receives stimuli from the environment, intergration occurs in the brain, and the response is sent to target areas. Earthworms: Dorsal and Ventral Nerve Cords Frogs, Humans: Dorsal Nervous System Muscular system: Muscles • Allow for movement • Are attached to bones by tendons above and below joints Endocrine System: Produces hormones that circulate in the blood stream and tell other systems what to do. Humans: Adrenal, Thyroid, Pancreas (insulin). Circulatory System: Transports materials throughout body Every cell must touch a blood vessel to take in what it needs and get rid of wastes. Arteries carry blood away from the heart Veins carry blood back to the heart. The heart pumps the blood Closed system: blood stays within vessels – Earthworm, Frog, Humans Open system: blood is in direct contact with structures - Grasshopper 3 Immune System: Protects body from pathogens (bacteria, protozoan, and viruses). Skin and tears are non-specific or passive structures of the system. Vaccination artificially forces the body to produce antibodies against specific pathogens (viruses). HIV infects T-cells which weakens the immune system. Digestive: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, SI, LI, liver, pancreas: Uses enzymes to break down food into its building blocks and transport it to the blood stream, then removes the wastes. Earthworm: Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop, stomach, intestines, anus. Grasshopper: Mouth, esophagus, crop, stomach, intestines, rectum, anus Frog: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestines, large intestine, cloaca. Humans: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestines, large intestines, anus. Mouth, stomach, and small intestine chemical digestion Absoption: small intestines (nutrients) and large intestines (water). Respiratory System: Brings O2 to circulatory system and Excretory: Takes nitrogenous waste from the blood stream for removal from the body. Earthworm: Nephria(two per segment) removes CO2. Eartworm: Skin diffusion Grasshopper: Malpighian tubules Arthropods: Spider (book lungs), Crayfish (gills), Frog Frogs and Humans: Kidney, ureter, bladder (gills, then lungs) Grasshooper ( spiracles and tracheal tubes). Effect of Exercise on the Human Body: benefits the muscular (muscle), skeletal ( bones), cardiovascular (heart) systems. Digestive system breaks down food into usable biomolecules using enzymes and the nutrients are circulated in the body using the circulatory system. Plant Body of Flowering Plant A. B. C. D. Leaves—chief centers of photosynthesis; exchange gases (including water vapor) with atmosphere through stomata Stems—produce leaves; conduct food and water; may store food Roots—anchor plant; absorb water and minerals; may store food Flowers—specialized organs for reproduction Tissues of Flowering Plants A. Ground Tissues—“building” tissues from which all parts of organism are made B. Vascular Tissues—conducting tissue; moves food and water throughout the plant 1. Xylem—conducts water and minerals 2. Phloem—conducts food C. Dermal tissues—form outside covering of plants Epidermis—outer layer of cells; protects plant, reduces water loss (cuticle), aids in gas exchange. Openings in the epidermis are called stomata that regulate the passage of gases (CO2 and O2) into and out of the plant along with water in transpiration. Root Systems : 1. taproot system—plant has one long, large root (usually develops from the primary root) called a taproot; ideal for anchorage and reaching water deep underground. Examples: carrot, radish 2. fibrous root system—plant has a mass of slender roots that branch and rebranch; remain near the top of the soil spreading out and anchoring the plant. Example: grasses Stem Function Flowers: Organ of reproduction in plants. 1. 2. 3. pollination is the transferring of pollen (containing sperm) between the anther (stamen--male) & stigma (pistil-female). Fruit develops from flowers and contains seeds. Transportation of food Transportation of water and minerals Storage of food a. tubers—white potatoes b. bulbs—onion, lily, tulip . 4 The organization of live is Biosphere, Ecosystems, Communities, Populations, and Organisms Ecology- The study of interactions between organisms and their environment Biosphere-Life supporting layer of Earth Biotic Factors- All living things. EX Animals and Plants Abiotic Factors- All nonliving things in the environment. EX Rocks, Dirt, Air RULE of 10- Only 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next Autotrophs- Make their own food. They are photosynthetic. All plants; some bacteria and protists. Heterotrophs- Get their food from other plants and animals. Carnivores- Meat Eaters. EX Lions and Tigers. Omnivores-Meat and Plant Eaters. EX Humans and Bears. Herbivores- Plant Eaters. EX Cows and Deer. Decomposers- Natures RECYCLERS/DECOMPOSERS. EX Fungus and Bacteria. EX GrassCarterpillarHawkWolfMushroom/Bacteria ProducerPrimary Consumer Secondary ConsumerTeritary ConsumerQuaternary ConsumerDecomposer. Living things all start with the SUN and end with DECOMPOSERS!! CIRCLE of LIFE!!! -Producers- All plants. Harness sunlight and make sugars/glucose for all of us -Primary consumers- Herbivores eat the plants -Secondary consumers-Usually smaller carnivores that eat smaller primary consumers. -Tertiary consumers- Medium sized carnivores that eat primary consumers and secondary consumers -Quaternary consumers- Apex predators. They eat everything underneath them on the food chain/web 5 Meiosis involves two successive divisions of a diploid (2N) eukaryotic cell of a sexually reproducing organism that result in four haploid (N) progeny cells, each with half of the genetic material of the original cell. Through the mechanisms by which paternal and maternal chromosomes segregate, and the process of crossing-over, genetic variation is produced in the haploid cells. • Meiosis occurs in diploid cells. The chromosomes duplicate once, and through two successive divisions, four haploid cells are produced, each with half the chromosome number of the parental cell. • Meiosis occurs only in sexually reproducing organisms. Depending on the organism, it may produce haploid gametes, which do not divide further but instead fuse to produce a diploid zygote; or it may produce haploid spores, which divide by mitotic cell cycles and produce unicellular or multicellular organisms. • In animals, where the somatic (body) cells are diploid, the products of meiosis are the gametes. • In many fungi and some algae, meiosis occurs immediately after two haploid cells fuse, and mitosis then produces a haploid multicellular "adult" organism (e.g., filamentous fungi, algae) or haploid unicellular organisms (e.g., yeast, unicellular algae). • Plants and some algae have both haploid and diploid multicellular stages. The multicellular diploid stage is the sporophyte. Meiosis in a sporophyte produces haploid spores. These spores alone are capable of generating a haploid multicellular stage called a gametophyte. The gametophyte produces gametes by mitotic cell cycles. Meiosis information retrieved from Pearson website: http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/biocoach/meiosis/overview.html 6