Occupational Knowledge International
220 Montgomery street, Suite 1027 • San Francisco, CA 94104
Review of Environmental
and Occupational Impacts of
Lead-Acid Battery Manufacturing
Perry Gottesfeld
March 2003
Review of Environmental and Occupational Impacts of
Lead-Acid Battery Manufacturing
Introduction
Lead poisoning is one of the most ubiquitous environmental health threats to children and
a significant contributor to occupational disease. Lead causes a range of symptoms
ranging from the loss of neurological function to death depending upon the extent and
duration of exposure. In children, moderate lead exposure is responsible for a significant
decrease in school performance, lower standardized test scores (including IQ test scores),
and is linked with hyperactive and violent behavior. Both children and adults can suffer
from a range of illnesses including effects on the central nervous system, kidneys,
gastrointestinal tract, anemia, and the reproductive system in both men and women.
Eliminating childhood lead poisoning would be both socially and economically
beneficial. A study by Schwartz et al. estimates a reduction of one quarter IQ point for
every additional 1 microgram per deciliter of blood lead, and Salkever has found that for
every IQ point deficit, a child loses 2.39% of lifetime earnings.1 Lifetime reductions in
earnings are based on calculations of decreased ability and earning power, as well as, a
loss in hours worked, and a diminished labor force due to dropouts. One group of
researchers considered the economic benefits of the reduction in blood lead levels
observed in children in the US from the 1970s through the 1990s. Their study found that
the present value of those gained earnings, resulting from a 12 microgram per deciliter
blood lead level reduction, is an estimated $110 billion dollars. Another study had more
general results; a one point increase in the average IQ for an age group (i.e. between 0-5
years) translates into a present value gain of $43.4 billion for the group.2 These results are
significant especially since the true costs of lead exposure are likely to be greater than
these estimates and thus more costly to society.
The Lead Battery Industry
Despite the potentially harmful effects of lead, it continues to be used in a wide variety of
industries in the manufacture of thousands of products. These uses include plastics, TV
and computer screens, soundproofing, ceramics, specialized chemicals, and crystal
glasses, just to name a few. In the past, lead was used extensively as an additive to
automotive fuel but now this use represents less than one percent of the total world
consumption.3 As lead has been banned from gasoline in most large countries and is
being phased out in many others, this use is likely to decline sharply over the next
decade. Even in African and Middle Eastern countries where leaded gasoline is still
widely used, the concentration of tetraethyl lead in fuels has been gradually reduced.
1
See Landrigan, Philip J, et.al.Environmental Pollutants and Disease in American Children: Estimates of
Morbidity, Mortality, and Costs for Lead Poisoning, Asthma, Cancer, and Developmental Disabilities,
Environmental Health Perspectives, July 2002.
2
Ibid.
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The battery industry is by far the principle consumer of lead, using an estimated 76% of
annual primary and secondary lead (mined and recycled metallic lead) production.3 Leadacid batteries are primarily used in automobiles for starting, lighting and ignition
purposes (SLI), but are also used as back-up power supplies. Battery composition by
weight is composed as follows: 50% lead salts and oxides, 24% acid, 17% metallic lead,
5% plastics, and 4% ebonite and separators.4
In 1999 the worldwide market for lead automotive batteries was estimated as up to $10
billion, and batteries for other back-up power supplies represented an additional $2.85
billion. 5 Recent estimates by the lead industry are that between 60,000 and 70,000 people
are employed in lead battery manufacturing, in addition to a similar number estimated to
be working in mining, smelting and refining. 6 Thousands more are employed in
industries using smaller amounts of lead and in lead-related construction.
A slow but steady growth in the world car market, especially in Asia, is expected to
underpin the growth in demand for lead-acid batteries. Ironically, as more electric
vehicles and hybrid cars come on the market, there is an increase in demand for larger
and more powerful lead batteries. The United States – the largest market for lead batteries
– purchased 17,177,445 cars and light trucks containing lead-acid batteries in 2001.
Furthermore, an estimated 216,682,936 vehicles are currently in use in the US, and from
time-to- time7 require a replacement battery.8 It is estimated that replacement batteries
will total in excess of 56.1 million units just for automobiles in the US.9 Along with lead
batteries used for other purposes (i.e. forklifts, generators), the total demand in the United
States alone exceeds 100 million lead-acid battery units per annum.
The world wide automotive industry sold 57,509,117 cars and trucks in 2001.10 Although
no definite figure exists, it is estimated that over 290 million batteries are produced each
year to meet world demand.11 There are 500 manufacturers of lead-acid batteries with
several multinational companies operating in many countries. 12
The volume of lead required to produce this growing demand for batteries is staggering,
accounting for most of the 5.82 million tons of lead produced each year.13 Moreover,
approximately 48% of the lead produced in the world is from recycled metal which
3
See U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, Jan. 2001.
Basal Convention: Technical Guidelines for the Environmentally Sound Management of Lead-Acid
battery Wastes, 19th TWG Session Draft.
5
IC Consultants Ltd, “Lead: the facts”, p. 49, December 2001.
6
Ibid, p. 49, December 2001.
7
It is worth noting that as the average battery life has increased, future growth in the battery sector will
be tied to growth in the market for new automobiles.
8
Automotive News, 2002 Market Data Book
9
Battery Council International
10
Automotive News, 2002 Market Data Book
4
11
Basal Convention: Technical Guidelines for the Environmentally Sound Management of Lead-Acid
battery Wastes, 19th TWG Session Draft
12
IC Consultants Ltd, “Lead: the facts”, p. 65, December 2001.
13
Ibid.
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comes mostly from spent lead-acid batteries. 14 In the United States, 61% of the total lead
used comes from recycled batteries.15
Lead Emission Controls
In the United States, those who work in the lead manufacturing industry, including leadacid battery workers, are subject to comprehensive health and safety regulations. The
U.S. Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) has primary regulatory
responsibility for addressing exposures in the industry. The Permissible Exposure Limit
(PEL) to airborne lead is 50 µg/m3, and the Action Level (when certain requirements
come into effect) is 30 µg/m3 over an 8-hour time-weighted average.16 If necessary,
employers must use engineering controls and assign respirators to minimize occupational
exposures under these regulations which became effective in 1979.
In addition, medical removal in the US is required when a worker’s blood lead level is
above 50 µg/dl. Workers may not return to work involving lead exposures until their
blood lead level drops below 40 µg/dl. 17 The American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) recommends a Biological Exposure Index (BEI) for lead
of 30 µg/dl and the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
recommends 25 µg/dl as an occupational exposure goal. 18
Emissions to the environment are regulated by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) under the National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants
(NESHPs). This standard of 1.5 µg/m3 applies to ambient outdoor air averaged over a
calendar quarter. 19 Several state and local governments have imposed stricter ambient
air standards.
Exposures From Lead Battery Manufacturing and Recycling Plants
We reviewed the published literature on exposures from lead-acid battery manufacturing
and recycling plants in developing countries. Studies included in the review reported
blood lead levels from exposed workers, and in some cases airborne lead levels inside
and outside these plants. The review was limited to studies published since 1993 and
excluded facilities in developed countries including the United States, Canada, European
Union, Japan, Australia and New Zealand. A total of 22 studies were identified as
meeting our criteria including reports of mean or median blood lead levels in workers at
the study site.
Table I lists the 14 studies representing data from 11 countries. Blood lead levels for a
IC Consultants Ltd, “Lead: the facts”, p. 60, December 2001.
See U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, Jan. 2001.
16
U.S. OSHA lead standard in 29 CFR 1910.1025.
17
U.S. OSHA lead standard in 29 CFR 1910.1025.
18
ACGIH, Documentation of the Biological Exposure Indicies, 7 th Edition, 2001 and NIOSH Alert
“Preventing Lead Poisoning in Construction Workers”, 91-116a, 1992.
19
U.S. EPA, NESHAPs, 40 CFR 50.12.
14
15
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total of 1,694 workers are reported in these studies. Average levels ranged from 23.9 to
98.5 µg/dl with an overall mean blood lead levels from the studies reviewed of 48.65
µg/dl. Two additional studies reported geometric mean blood lead levels. Table II
summarizes these reports of 510 workers which have a geometric mean exposure of 36.0
µg/dl. Four studies reported blood lead levels among workers in lead acid battery
recycling and repair plants. Table III shows the mean blood lead levels from a total of
234 workers in these facilities is 66.09 µg/dl.
Table I: Mean Blood Levels from Workers in Lead-Acid Battery Manufacturing Plants
Year
1994
1994
1997
1998
1999
1999
1998
2000
2002
1995
1993
2000
2000
2001
Author
Country
Ibiebele, DD, et.al.
Barbados
Makino, S, et.al.
Philippines
Lai, Jum-Shoung, et.al.
Taiwan
HO S.F., et.al.
Singapore
Chuang, Hung-Yi, et.al.
Taiwan
Froom, Paul, et.al.
Isreal
Ehrlich, R., et. al.
South Africa
Young-Man, Roh, et.al.
Korea
Hwang, Y., et.al.
Taiwan
Kim, Yangho, et.al.
Korea
Ho, S.F. et. al.
Singapore
Groot de Restrepo, H., et.al. Colombia
Basaran, N., et.al.
Turkey
Duydu, Y. , et.al.
Turkey
Total/Average
Blood Lead
Level (µg/dl)
35.32
64.50
56.90
32.51
23.90
38.10
53.50
42.60
29.60
45.70
48.90
98.5
74.80
36.31
48.65
n
20
199
219
50
395
94
382
49
96
66
25
43
25
31
1694
Table II: Median Blood Levels from Workers in Lead-Acid Battery Manufacturing Plants
Year
1997
1998
Author
Chia,Sin-Eng, et.al.
Jakubowski,M., et.al.
Country
Singapore
Poland
Total/Average
n
50
460
510
Blood Lead
Level (µg/dl)
37.10
34.91
36.01
Table III: Mean Blood Levels from Workers in Lead-Acid Battery Recycling Plants
Year
1998
2000
2002
2001
Author
Wang, Jung-Der, et.al.
Suplido, M., et.al.
Country
Taiwan
Philippines
Kumar, P., et.al.
India
Cardenas-Bustamante, O. et.al. Colombia
Total/Average
n
64
40
36
94
234
Blood Lead
Level (µg/dl)
66.48
54.23
55.63
88.00
66.09
Six of the studies discussed above provided data on average ambient lead levels in the
factories. Average airborne lead levels ranged from 27.7 to 190.0 µg/ m3 with both the
lowest and highest average levels reported from studies conducted in Taiwan as indicated
in Table IV. The average of the reported mean levels is 108.4 µg/m3.
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Table IV: Average Airborne Lead Levels in Lead-Acid Battery Manufacturing Plants
Average Airborne
Year
Author
Country
Lead Level (µg/m3)
1993
Ibiebele, D.D.
Barbados
92.0
1996
Lai, Jum-Shoung, et.al.
Taiwan
190.0
1998
Ehrlich, R., et. al.
South Africa
145.0
1998
HO, S.F., et.al.
Singapore
88.6
2000
Hwang, Yaw-Huci, et.al.
Taiwan
107.0
2002
Hwang, Y., et.al.
Taiwan
27.7
Total/Average
108.4
In addition, we reviewed the published literature on environmental exposures in and
around lead-acid battery manufacturing and recycling plants in developing countries.
The search criteria utilized the same search criteria as indicated for the exposure level
studies and also excluded studies published before 1993. Table V summarizes four
studies from four different countries with reported mean blood lead levels for children
residing in proximity to these manufacturing and recycling plants. Average levels ranged
from 17.21 to 71.0 µg/dl with the overall mean blood lead levels among 417 children
(ranging up to age 15) reported in the studies reviewed being 39.3 µg/dl.
Table V: Blood Lead Levels Reported in Children Residing in Proximity to Lead-Acid Battery
Manufacturing and Recycling Facilities
Blood Lead
Year
Author
Country
N
Level (µg/dl)
Age Range
1998
Bonilla, C. M., et. al.
Nicaragua
97
17.2
6 Mo. - 13 Years
1999
Kaul, B., et. al.
Dominican Republic
116
71.0
6 Mo. - 10 years
1999
Saraci, M., et. al.
Suplido, M., et. al.
Albania
194
19.3
10 - 15 years
Philippines
10
49.9
6 Mo. - 12 years
Total/Average
417
39.3
2000
In contrast, occupational exposures to lead from lead battery manufacturing facilities are
known to be significantly lower in the United States. Although no occupational lead
registry exists, several states have compiled extensive data on blood lead levels from
workers in these jobs through laboratory reporting requirements and other sources. In
California blood lead levels above 25 µg/dl are required to be reported to the state and
most blood lead test results (at all levels) are voluntarily reported from the industry.
From 1995 through 1999 (the most recent data available) only one worker exceeded 60
µg/dl (in 1995) and less than one-half of one percent (40 workers) exceeded 50 µg/dl
from a total of 8,285 reports from this industry. 20 Similarly, in Washington State, only
five workers from the lead battery manufacturing industry exceeded 60 µg/dl from the
1993 through 2001 reporting period. 21
20
California Department of Health Services, Blood Lead Levels in California Workers 1995-1999, April,
2002.
21
Washington Department of Labor and Industries, Surveillance for Occupational Lead Poisoning, 19932001, December, 2001.
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Conclusion
The lead-acid battery manufacturing industry is the largest consumer of lead – dwarfing
all other uses. This trend is likely to increase as the demand for automobiles increases in
developing countries and substitutes are found for many of the other uses. In addition,
the demand for lead is expected to continue to grow as new automotive technologies,
including hybrid vehicles, require larger lead batteries.
Published studies conducted in developing countries during the past ten years show a
consistent pattern of highly exposed lead battery workers and surrounding communities
with elevated levels of exposure. Average exposure levels in children residing near
battery plants in developing countries are four times the current level of concern
established by the US Center for Disease Control (CDC) and the average worker blood
lead levels in these plants is twice the recommended level at which workers should be
removed from working around lead according to the US National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Airborne exposures in these plants averages
twice the Permissible Exposure Level established by US OSHA in 1979.
The manufacture and recycling of lead batteries are responsible for the highest
documented occupational exposures. As other uses of lead decline, these industries are
also becoming the most significant contributor to environmental lead contamination. The
burden of lead exposures is not evenly distributed, as significantly higher levels from
these sources have been documented in developing countries than in the United States or
Western Europe.
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