High Empire. 97BCE-192 CE
The period when the Roman Empire was at its peak. The patronage of the
various emperors led to the building of some of Rome’s grandest public
structures, including Trajan and his arch and column and the justly famous
domed Pantheon and Villa built on orders from Hadrian. The Pantheon is
famous for its Architecture of Space. The equestrian statue of Marcus
Arelius is the first of a long line of “man on horseback” statues that students
will find in art history.
Key Vocabulary for High Empire Art.
Arch of Trajan
Trajan’s column
Hadrian’s Villa
Ostia
equestrian statue
mummy portrait
Pantheon
apotheosis
High Empire
Background
a. Under Trajan, Hadrian, and Antonine emperors,
the Roman Empire reaches its peak size
b. Rome was recognized as the sole power of
Western Europe although Germanic tribes in
Central Europe, Berbers in North Africa,
Parthians (in modern Iran) and Persians in the
Middle East were always a threat
A. Trajan
1. Background
a. First non-Italian Roman emperor – born in
Spain
b. Domitian was assassinated in 96 AD
c. The aged Nerva took over and died after 16
months. Before his death, he adopted Trajan,
who became his successor
d. A capable and successful leader – expanded the
empire and created social programs to help the
people
e. Trajan was given the title Optimus – greatest (a
title that he shared with Jupiter). Trajan and
Augustus were the emperors to whom all later
emperors would compare themselves.
2. Founded Timgad, colony for army veterans. Started
out with Hippodamian plan. More chaotic outside of
original city boundaries as it grew.
3. Trajan’s Forum
a. Fora (plural of forum) were civic centers of
Roman cities.
b. Fora usually included government buildings
such as a basilica, temples to gods, and a market
place.
c. The Republican Forum was the original forum
in Rome, but famous Roman leaders beginning
with Julius Caesar added their own additions.
Trajan’s Forum was the largest.
d. Key facts:
i. The architect of Trajan’s Forum was
APOLLODORUS of Damascus – famous
architect who worked for Trajan, built a
bridge over the Danube River
ii. Trajan’s Forum included the Basilica
Ulpia (Trajan’s family name was Ulpius),
a temple for Trajan after he died and was
promoted to be a god, libraries, and a
theater.
iii. Trajan’s Forum also included the first
mall – a marketplace that sold all types of
goods from all over the Roman Empire.
APOLLODORUS designed the markets
of Trajan as well.
iv. The design of Trajan’s Marketplace
makes extensive use of concrete groin
vaults.
4. Trajan’s Column (dedicated 112 CE)
a. An amazing monument – 128 feet tall and once
topped with a heroic nude statue of Trajan
(today, a statue of Saint Peter decorates the top)
b. Apollodorus probably conceived of this
monument
c. Part of his forum located between the Basilica
Ulpia and Temple of Trajan
d. Celebrated his two successful military campaigns
against the Dacians
e. A 625 foot frieze decorated with 150 different
scenes of about 2,500 figures. At one point, the
scenes were colored.
f. Shows various different aspects of a Roman
military campaign including transporting troops
and building camps. Only about ¼ of the scenes
show actual fighting.
g. Scenes show Trajan commanding and
addressing his troops and sacrificing to the gods.
h. The square base of Trajan’s Column serves as
his tomb. His and his wife Plotina’s ashes are
stored inside the base. The base is decorated with
captured Dacian arms and armor.
5. Arch of Trajan, ca. 114-118 CE
a. Trajan opened a new road in southern Italy
called the Via Traiana in 109 CE.
b. Years later, an arch was erected in his honor.
c. The arch is similar to the Arch of Titus but is
covered in exterior reliefs advertising Trajan’s
great achievements
i. He gives extra food to needy children
ii. He opened a new port at Ostia, Rome’s
harbor at the mouth of Tiber River.
iii. He founded a colony for army veterans.
iv. The emperor was “all things to all
people.”
v. The attic of the arch shows a relief of
Jupiter handing Trajan a lightning bolt,
granting him dominion over the universe.
6. Circus Maximus
a. Trajan rebuilt the Circus Maximus which was
the venue for chariot races.
b. Funerary relief of a circus official, Ostia,
20”high; early example of a continuous narration
(compare with Trajan’s column); non-elite style
(for freedmen & working class), i.e. disregard for
illusionism of early empire. Shakes hands with
statue of wife means she’s dead and he’ll be with
her in the afterlife.
B. Hadrian
1. Background
a. A fellow Spaniard, adopted by Trajan to succeed
him
b. Admirer of Greek culture, loved the arts,
architecture, and literature
c. Wore a beard to imitate the appearance of Greek
philosophers
d. Amateur architect
e. Had Apollodorus of Damascus assassinated for
disrespecting him and being overly critical of his
architectural designs.
2. Portrait Bust of Hadrian
a. Hadrian took the throne at the age of 41. He
reigned for two decades.
b. He is also depicted as a mature adult who never
ages.
c. Hadrian’s bearded appearance set a trend for
future emperors.
d. Resembles Kresilas’ portrait of Pericles, the
great Athenian leader
3. Pantheon
a. Built in Rome between 118-125 CE during
Hadrian’s reign
b. Portico
i. Porch-like entrance into the building
ii. 16 columns each weighing 60 tons
iii. Resembles a Greek temple (Corinthian
columns, entablature with post and lintel
support, pediment)
c. Rotunda
i. A huge dome resting on a drum
ii. Influenced by Greek tholos
iii. Dome is 142 feet high with a diameter of
142 feet
iv. A perfect hemisphere
v. Dome includes COFFERS – recessed
panels which decorate the dome and
relieve weight from the dome. The coffers
decrease in size from the base of the dome
to the oculus to give the illusion of greater
height.
d. Oculus
i. Circular opening 30 feet in diameter
located at the apex of the dome
ii. Only source of light
e. What does it all symbolize?
i. The interior could be imagined as the orb
of the earth
ii. The dome is the vault of the heavens
iii. The ceiling was once covered with gilded
bronze rosettes which enhanced the
dome’s symbolism as the starry heavens
iv. As the sun passes through the sky, a
natural spotlight is cast into the rotunda,
progressively illuminating the interior. To
the Romans, the sun symbolized the eye of
Jupiter, and its penetrating presence
inside the temple seemed to make the
deity manifest.
v. 7 shrines representing 5 planets and 2
luminaries (sun and moon)
f. How was the Pantheon constructed?
i. Illustrates the uses and importance of
CONCRETE
ii. Began with a concrete foundation – a ring
of concrete 15 feet deep and 24 feet wide
iii. 8 enormous concrete piers spaced to
create 7 recesses
iv. 6 different mixtures of concrete used from
base of drum to the top of the dome –
heavier mixture with more stone toward
the bottom, lighter mixture with fine
pumice toward the top
v. Dome’s thickness decreases as it nears the
oculus
vi. Dome’s weight was lessened without
weakening its strength through the use of
COFFERS.
vii. Rain was drained off by small
inconspicuous openings in the floor which
slopes slightly toward the center of the
building.
g. Importance
i. One of the most influential designs in
architectural history
ii. Influenced Palladio’s Villa Rotunda
iii. Influenced designs by Thomas Jefferson
such as his home Monticello.
4. Hadrian’s Villa, Canopus and Serapeum , Tivoli, 125 –
128 CE. Designed at least partially by Hadrian.
Inspired by trip to Egypt, but very original design
a. Canopus = pond
b. Serapeum = grotto (a small cave or cavern, or a
structure designed to look like one).
c. Arcuated lintel! Both respect for Greek design
and willingness to break the rules.
5. Al-Khazneh (“Treasury”), Petra, Jordan 2nd C. CE.
a. Cut into living rock
b. Tomb facade
c. Roman “baroque”
d. Count the ways liberties were taken with Greek
formulae.
6. Insula, Ostia (Rome’s harbor)
a. Over 90% of Rome’s and Ostia’s inhabitants
lived in insulas (apartments) made out of brick.
b. Brick was not covered. Was considered
attractive. Made brick classical motifs such as
pilasters and engaged columns for decoration
c. Very little light and air from courtyards. Thus
focus was outside in insulas: windows.
d. Modest inside decoration. Finer apartments had
mosaic floors and frescoed ceilings. Mosaics
usually B&W.
7. Ostia funerary art
a. For working class.
b. Painted terracotta plaques showing the deceased
doing his/her occupation
C. The Antonines (138 – 192 CE)
i. History/Background: Hadrian adopted 51 year-old Antonius
Pius as his son and successor and required Antonius to adopt
Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. Hadrian dies later that
year and was declared a god. Antonius Pius ruled for thirteen
years.
1. On A.P.’s death M.A. and L.V. erected a memorial to
him. On pedestal one side has inscription, one side has
Apotheosis, and two sides have identical versions of the
decursio (ritual circling of the imperial funerary pyre).
a. Slide: Apotheosis (ascent to heaven) of Antonius
Pius and Faustina, relief on pedestal of the
column of A.P. ,Rome, ca. 161 CE.
i. Elegant, classical proportions
ii. Single ground plane
iii. Campus Martius (Field of Mars, island in
Tiber river) personified by youth with
obelisk
iv. Rome personified by Roma leaning on
shield with Rom. and Remus being
suckled by she-wolf.
v. A.P. and Faustina being elevated to realm
of gods on a winged personification of
unknown ID.
vi. Faustina had been dead for 20 years when
A.P. died. Conflated (mixed) different
times. New to classical repertoire (stock
of things available). Implies A.P. was
faithful husband after wife’s death.
b. Decursio: Break with classical tradition
i. Figures stockier
ii. Not a window onto the world
iii. Ground plane is entire surface (looking
down on action, sort of)
iv. Horses and riders on patches of floating
earth
v. DISSATISFIED WITH OLD MANNER,
started using conventions of art made for
“freedmen.” See Amiternum funerary
relief.
vi. What is a contemporary version of this
co-opting (appropriate, take over) of the
art of the lower classes by the upper
classes?
2. Marcus Aurelius
a. Last of “Good Emperors”
b. Seen in the movie “Gladiator”
c. Known as a philosophical man
d. Author of the Meditations – a series of writings
composed during his military campaigns – an
important work of Stoic philosophy
e. Spent many years on military campaigns to
defend the northeastern frontier of the Roman
Empire from Germanic tribes (opening scene of
Gladiator)
f. Portraits of Marcus Aurelius depict him as a
aged, wise man – first portraits of an emperor
that give human qualities of the man – sets a
trend for later portraits
3. Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius
a. Only equestrian statue to survive. Saved because
Christians mistakenly thought it was
Constantine, the first Christian emperor.
b. Trajan’s equestrian statue was not found.
c. Has traces of original gilding (gold foil).
d. Power is emphasized by his control over his
lively and rather nervous horse
e. His right hand is extended in a gesture of power
and clemency for an enemy
f. Originally, a figure of a defeated enemy was
shown crouching beneath the horse’s upraised
hoof
g. During the 17th century, the statue was placed in
the center of the Campidoglio (Capitoline Hill)
which was renovated by Michelangelo.
h. Today, the statue is in the Capitoline Museum
and a replica stands in the center of the
Campidoglio plaza.
i. What does it convey?
i. M.A. is oversized for his horse.
Commanding a frisky animal. M.A. very
much in charge…over whole world.
ii. Portrait head shows cares. See Portrait
head of M.A. ca. 175 – 180 CE. Beyond
republican verism: Weary, sad, worried?
See his inner life?
ii. Portrait of Marcus Aurelius and challenge to classical style in
reliefs is beginning of end of hegemony (leadership or
dominance) of Classical art in Greco-Roman World
D. Funerary Practices
i. Private citizens started to favor inhumation (burial) over
cremation (burning). Need bigger container for body vs. ashes.
ii. Sarcophogi (stone coffins)
1. Portraits of deceased sometimes portrayed and
masqueraded like heroes and heroines (copy idea from
emperors)
2. Often were produced in workshops from pattern books.
3. Often showed scenes from Greek mythology
4. Note chunkier bodies
5. Reclining woman: Etruscan influence
6. Faiyum encaustic portrait: Romans in Egypt adopted
mummification. Portrait mask (relief) was replaced by
painted portrait. Probably painted from life.