ABSTRACT
This paper is an analysis of the characteristics of media references
and their function in everyday conversation. I have compiled a collection of
media references which fall into one of two categories; there are direct
quotations of media segments, which tend to have a more fluid transition,
and are marked by the speaker assuming the role of the figure they are
"performing," in a sense temporarily "becoming" that figure. The second type
of media reference that I observed consists of the speaker's isolation of a
specific media segment followed by an open attribution or description as to
why the reference is necessary or relevant to the conversation. I will
demonstrate the differences between these two categories and explain how
they function in communicative practices.
INTRODUCTION
Upon conversational referencing of media, or anything for that matter,
the speaker's ability to successfully communicate his/her intentions is
dependent upon many assumptions. As Mikhail Bakhtin explains, "The word in
language is half someone else's. It becomes "one's own" only when the
speaker populates it with his own intention, his own accent, when he
appropriates the word, adapting it to his own semantic and expressive
intention...Language is not a neutral medium that passes freely and easily
into the private property for the speaker's intentions; it is populatedoverpopulated with the intentions of others.." Bakhtin's analysis
demonstrates that this use of others' words connects the speaker to cultural
and historical worlds, so that the amount of comprehension of the
recontextualization which occurs is relative to each speaker's background.
It also sheds light on the importance of context; meaning is constantly
created and recreated by the inclusion of references by specific people at
specific points in conversation. Related to this is the act of "embedding,"
or the borrowing of concrete forms from a different time and placing them in
the present, thus employing the essence of the form as an attribution to a
present subject of conversation. The act of "embedding" takes place when a
person performs an action or part of speech that has been performed many
times in the past, and holds a specific function in communication, which can
then be reused by any speaker in their present communicative act to display
that concrete function (Goffman 147).
METHODS
I chose to use a video camera to capture footage for analysis. I
recorded three friends and myself engaged in conversation while
simultaneously watching an episode of South Park. During this thirty five
minute-long period, I recorded eleven direct quotation references and four
indirect references. Initially I was concerned that we would be too
engrossed in the act of watching TV to create any analytically interesting
interaction, but this proved to be far from the reality of the situation.
The fact that I collected footage on videotape was useful in analyzing those
examples of references which included the speaker pointing to a physical
occurrence. I also spent time recording interviews on the subject with a
non-participant in the initial footage as well as with a participant.
DATA
Direct Quotation References:
I have observed two particularly prominent forms of media references.
The first type, direct quotation references, includes the utilization of a
direct quotation of a media segment to temporarily perform as another
figure. The direct quotation references which I documented were all
references to pop-culture. Simpson (1996) argued that pop-culture references
lead to a sense of identification with others through a shared "common popculture landscape." McLeod (2001) similarly argues that not only does making
pop-culture references allow people to connect and make meanings, but also
reinforces our existence as consumers and a part of the "commodity system"
of which these references are a part (Scollo Sawyer Dissertation).
Upon using this type of reference, the speaker risks the possibility of
his/her audience being unaware of the segment's origin, which would then in
turn rid the reference of it's contextual meaning and cause the segment to
be reduced simply to an out-of-place interjection within the conversation.
For a successful direct quotation reference to be made, not only must the
audience recognize the origin but also why it is contextually relevant. When
direct quotation references are understood by the audience, often a
participant will respond by adding another direct quotation from the same
media being referenced. As Albaba and Godbold (2001) found, media-derived
personal idioms, or MPDI's, often occur structurally as full interactions
that contain several exchanges of different lines between the partners
(Scollo Swayer Dissertation).
In the following example, the initial speaker has completed her
individual process of grinding up marijuana for a joint, and comments on
this with a "Borat" expression while playing his part. Another participant
performs a second "Borat" phrase in response. This example is somewhat
unique because after the first reference the speaker refers back again to an
earlier time and explains the fitting nature of the phrase.
E: Okie-dokie, we got the weed...."GREATTT SUCCESSSS!"
A: "Heppy Times!"
E: I wanted to say that to you earlier...when we finally got that money..I
wanted to be like.."Great success!"
Although "E" does not mention the fact that this reference comes from
Borat, the audience has clearly understood its origin regardless, judging by
"A"'s interaction marked by a different Borat line in response. Goodwin
(2003) established the concept of "unattributed imported speech," which
occurs when "talk from another scene is used to make coherent moves within
the current line of talk," although the source is not explicitly identified
(Scollow Sawyer Dissertation). By seconding "E"'s quote with another
positive-reaction Borat quote, "A" is demonstrating that she recognizes the
initial quote and that she seconds "E"'s positive reaction to her comment
"we got the weed." While the first two comments have the function of joking,
due to a common comedic attitude towards Borat, they also function as
comments on the positivity of "E"s exclamation about the weed. In contrast,
the third comment represents a change in footing; "E" has stepped out of
Borat character and refers back to herself as a mere utilizer of Borat's
words to serve her own communicative purpose.
The next media reference is an example of how directly quoted media
references often provoke further referencing by a participant or the
repetition of a reference. These cooperative instances of referencing have
the effect of creating a unifying thread between people and demonstrating
relative familiarity. By adding to the reference or repeating it in the
"true" manner, the participant reveals to the other speech partner(s) that
either he/she has knowledge of the same media (which serves to make
connections) or that he/she has very similar thoughts about what is
appropriate, relevant or funny. Ott and Walter (2000) argue that this
repetition functions to "foster community and a sense of self-satisfaction
for audiences who can correctly identify them" (Scollo Sawyer Dissertation).
Judging by the full recitation by a different participant, it is clear that
the reference was understood; judging by the laughter, it is apparently
found to be dually funny.
("J", the only participant who has seen this episode before, while watching
it, says:)
J.A: This part's hilarious...
A: "NICK CANNON's hilarious!"
(quoted from Chappelle's Show)
((laughter))
J.S: "Daddy, Nick Cannon's hilarioussss!"
quote)
(the full
This example is somewhat complicated to explain out of context. Because
of the close personal relationship of the speakers involved, and the many
times which the referenced episode of Chappelle Show has been watched
together by the speakers, the word "hilarious" evokes the same memory of the
Chappelle Show quote for "A" and "J.S." The subject of the reference, Nick
Cannon, in fact has nothing to do with the current episode of South Park
being watched. The single reason why the reference was made was because it
was triggered by "J.A"'s use of the word "hilarious." In Chappelle Show,
this quote is uttered with great emphasis of each word. By emphasizing the
name Nick Cannon and not the word "hilarious," "A" is in a sense straddling
the fine line between exact performance of direct quotation and her own
commentary. "A" is effectively stating "No, this part isn't hilarious, NICK
CANNON is hilarious." By laughing at and restating this quote, "J.S" is
displaying not only his knowledge of the quote but also that he finds this
reference to be pleasing as well in this context.
Indirect References:
The second type of media reference which I observed is the inclusion of
an indirect (insofar as there is no direct quotation) reference pointing to
a larger media frame, such as a whole film or work of art, within a comment
or claim being made by the speaker. This type of media reference differs
from direct quotation references in that there is no "performance" of a
media character, therefore there is no marked change in footing by the
speaker. Indirect media reference serve as additional "layering" of meaning
in a statement. Using indirect reference within one's comment allows the
speaker to communicate their point of view in a deeper sense by using the
reference as a frame for creating meaning.
In the first example, "E" uses an indirect reference to joke about the
ridiculousness of "J" 's actions.
(to a kitten, while holding out his hat:)
J: Get in the hat...
E: Uhh, John? "The Cat In The Hat" is actually fictional...it's not based on
a true story.
In this example, "E" creates layers of meaning through her reference to
"The Cat In The Hat." As opposed to simply stating that "J"'s attempt to get
the cat in his hat is ridiculous, "E" creates a playful frame for her
comment. She does not explicitly say that "J"'s actions are ridiculous or
childlike, but by using the voice of a teacher or parent she automatically
attributes to "J" the role of a child who must be taught the difference
between fact and fiction. The reference to "The Cat In The Hat" therefore
carries into her comment the essence of childhood media as a method of
joking about "J."
The second example illustrates the use of indirect reference as a method
of attributing to a present person/thing the essential qualities of a past,
recognized person/thing. By giving "J" this referenced title, "A" is
effectively giving "J" all of the title's attributes simply by referring to
the title. This media reference to "The Godfather" is significant because
there is a mutual knowledge of the godfather's personality traits as well as
"J"'s personality traits. The meaning in this example is derived from this
common understanding. The godfather's character is strong, authoritative,
brave and sly. While "J" has these same positive personality traits, it is
also understood by the audience (since they too know "J,") that by using
this title "A" is also excluding all of the negative godfather traits from
her analysis of "J." "Albada and Godbold (2001) examined media-derived
personal idioms (MPDI's)- references to media that take on special meaning
in close personal relationships- and found that relationship members played
with appropriated media discourse to fit their relationship and situation
and that MPDI's primarily served pleasure and affection functions in those
relationships" (Scollo Sawyer Dissertation). As demonstrated by Albada and
Godbold's work, "J"'s chuckle in response to "A"'s comment shows pleasure on
the recipient's side as well as affection on "A"'s side by attributing the
godfather's positive traits to "J."
A: Julian would be more of, uh.."The Godfather."
J: ((chuckles))
Communicating References:
The use of references can have the effect of creating a sense of
commonality and togetherness among media users. As Debra Spitulnik suggests
in "Social Circulation of Media Discourse", "...the repeating, recycling,
and recontextualizing of media discourse is an important component in the
formation of community in a kind of subterranean way, because it establishes
an indirect connectivity or intertextuality across media consumers and
across instances of media consumption." Instances of media referencing are
so significant to the building and maintenance of relationships because they
reiterate the commonality of a place in society (such as age, race, class) ,
a similar frame of mind, an affectionate relationship, etc. The interviews
which I conducted demonstrate the same opinions among college-age Americans.
A: What function do references have for you in conversation?
E: References are a way to connect with your friends, especially friends who
have seen or heard what you're referring to. If you see a movie or a show or
hear a song with your friend, it becomes like an inside joke, like a shared
understanding of what you saw and the comical value of it.
____________________________________________________________________
A: Do you think there are different types of references?
J: Like if we just read the same book or saw the same film I might make a
reference to that either in a humorous way or in a serious way just like to
reassert the fact that we have that in common and it almost brings us closer
together in a way.
What these interviews suggest is that references are a common way for
people to create connections between themselves and their audience
(specifically those who have undoubtedly experienced the same media). These
connections do not usually occur spontaneously, they are normally utilized
by the speaker with the knowledge that the media reference will reassert
closeness or affection in the relationship. As Albada and Godbold's research
suggests, pleasure (54%) and affection (28%) are the primary functions of
media references in all types of relationships studied (Scollo Sawyer
Dissertation). The trend of media referencing with college-age people seems
to function mostly as the creation of "inside jokes" between people, and are
used mostly with people in close relationships rather than strangers or mere
acquaintances.
While successfully communicated references can act as a unifying force,
references can easily be misunderstood by the audience. "Particular kinds of
social situations and social institutions have greater weight than others in
establishing the sociolinguistic significance of certain linguistic forms
(Bourdieu 1991; Gal 1989; Gumperz 1971; Irvine 1987; Kroskrity 1992)"
(Spitulnik 162). Spitulnik explains, "For example, in some societies, the
dominant site for producing normative standards for linguistic usage might
be political oratory, while in other societies it might be television
newscasting" (Spitulnik 163). Upon interviewing my subjects, I found that
there are in fact many considerations to be made about the type of audience
a referencer has. The commonly used media of the audience is important in
deciding whether or not to attempt to communicate a reference, as well as
the relative age or background of the audience.
The following interviews were conducted again with college-age people.
They serve to explain that there are very specific instances in which one
might attempt to communicate a media reference. These instances are
particularly dependent on the age and background of the audience.
A: When would you tend to use references and when would you refrain from
using them?
J: Uh, well I definitely use them only when I'm with my friends..the people
that I'm either absolutely sure or fairly certain that they'll get the
reference. Like there's no point in making a reference if it's just gonna go
over someone's head, so if I'm with a group of friends and we all understand
the reference then I'll use it, but if I'm with my parents maybe and they
don't have that same common source as me and my friends have, I wouldn't use
the same reference, maybe I'd reference something else.
____________________________________________________________________
A: How do you know when it's appropriate to reference something?
E: Well I think it's appropriate to reference something when the person you
are talking to is close to the target audience of whatever you're
referencing, and also if it's not too vulgar or offensive to whoever you're
speaking with. Some references are just too obscure to use. But some
references are common enough so you can say them to people of any age group
or background, like, "hasta la vista baby" or something like that, but other
ones that are more current and aimed at people our age only make sense to
us.
As demonstrated in the earlier examples of references such as the
quoting of "Borat" and Chappelle's Show, or the mention of "The Godfather"
and "The Cat In The Hat," the speaker's knowledge of the target audience is
extremely important in the successful communication of a reference and its
value. A reference to the TV shows Ali G (Borat) and Chapelle's Show, which
are widely viewed mostly by teens and young adults, would likely be
misunderstood by the elderly or at least not viewed with the same humor as
its common audience. Aside from the miscommunication which would occur, the
personal value of the media reference would become useless. In other words,
the speaker of a media reference does so in order to position themselves as
a knowledgeable media consumer, a creative comic or an affectionate friend.
The latter examples are more unique. Not only would someone above or below
the age span of the audience misunderstand these references, but also anyone
outside the specific situation in which these references occurred would fail
to recognize the significance or relevance of the reference due to inability
to view/know the person/thing which the reference is being tied to.
CONCLUSIONS
Media references have many useful effects within everyday conversation.
A reference that is understood by the audience can demonstrate closeness,
familiarity and commonality. References can also add layers of meaning to a
simple statement by reiterating the attributes of a given reference. Words
are reassigned meaning and recycled all the time to serve the purposes of
the referencer. The relevance of each and every reference greatly depends on
the context of the situation and the audience's ability to understand it.
WORKS CITED
Goffman, Erving. "Footing." Forms of Talk: 1981, Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania Press
Scollo Sawyer Dissertation: Chapter 1
Honeycutt, Lee. "Chapter 2-Bakhtin and His World." 10 November 1994.
http://www.public.iastate.edu/~honeyl/bakhtin/chap2b.html
Spitulnik, Debra. "The Social Circulation of Media Discourse and the
Mediation of Communities." Journal of Linguistic Anthropology: 1997,
American Anthropological Association