Unit 3: Academic Style 1 – Conventions
and Characteristics
When writing in an academic context you need to use a style which is appropriate to
the subject under consideration and appropriate for the intended audience. The
following is intended to help guide you with regard to what is appropriate.
General features
1. Contractions
Contractions (e.g. shouldn’t, isn’t, there’s, haven’t) should be avoided in formal
academic writing. Use the full forms (e.g. should not, is not, there is, have not). For
example, avoid the kind of contraction in the sentence below:
There’s no substitute for the individual tutorial. Its function is not to instruct: it’s to
set the student the task of expressing his thought articulately and then to assist him in
subjecting his creation to critical examination. It’s a great pity that many students
don’t experience this.
This is not acceptable in academic style.
You should write:
There is no substitute for the individual tutorial. Its function is not to instruct: it is to
set the student the task of expressing his thought articulately and then to assist him in
subjecting his creation to critical examination. It is a great pity that many students do
not experience this.
2. Abbreviations
Abbreviations, unless they are widely known (e.g. UK, US), should be explained the
first time they are used. Write the words in full and put the abbreviation after this in
brackets.
Example:
The Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC) funds research and postgraduate
study within UK higher education institutions. AHRC supports research within a
huge subject domain from traditional humanities subjects to creative and performing
arts.
Note that it is only necessary to write the full form the first time the term is
introduced. For each subsequent use, it is sufficient to use the abbreviation. However,
you should not abbreviate a phrase which is only used a few times in your writing.
Unit 3: Page 1 of 5
3. Familiar language/Informal language/Slang
Many academics think that informal verbs, such as ‘put off’, ‘came up with’, ‘come
across’, ‘put up with’ ‘go up/down’ ‘got’, should be avoided. You can nearly always
find a more formal alternative. However, ‘set up’ and ‘carry out’ are generally
acceptable.
Examples:
According to Statistics Finland, seasonally adjusted industrial output went up by 1.5
per cent in July 2006.
This would be better written as:
According to Statistics Finland, seasonally adjusted industrial output rose/increased
by 1.5 per cent in July 2006.
One advantage of the survey method of research is that useful data can be got from a
large number of people in a fairly short time.
This would be better written as:
One advantage of the survey method of research is that useful data can be
obtained/collected from a large number of people in a fairly short time.
You should also avoid colloquial language or overused expressions. In general, you
should not write as if you were speaking.
A few examples are:
‘besides’, choose ‘in addition’
‘in this day and age’, choose ‘now’ or ‘today’.
‘brought to an end’, choose ‘ended’.
‘came to nothing’, choose ‘failed’.
Do not use words like ‘good’, ‘bad’ or ‘very’ as they are imprecise and can be
emotive.
Instead of ‘good’ you could choose:
successful, rigorous, original, elegant, comprehensive, thorough, etc.
Instead of ‘bad’ you could choose:
limited, flawed, small-scale, etc.
Do not overuse jargon (specialised or technical language). Many words or phrases
have a special meaning within a particular academic field, but may not be clear to a
wider, multi-disciplinary audience. If you have to use highly specialised jargon or
technical terms, you may need to explain what the words mean if the reader is likely
to be unfamiliar with them.
Unit 3: Page 2 of 5
4. ‘Wordy’ expressions
Although you should avoid informal language you should not go to the opposite
extreme and use expressions which are too ‘wordy’. When you come to write your
first paper, you will usually find that you will have written significantly more than the
allowed word count. One way to reduce the number of words is to remove all the
unnecessary ones.
Examples:
Consider the following:
A considerable number of – choose ‘many’.
A decreased number of – choose ‘fewer’.
Accounted for by the fact that– choose ‘because’.
Are of the same opinion – choose ‘agree’.
Despite the fact that – choose ‘although’.
Give an account of – choose ‘describe’.
Has been engaged in a study of – choose ‘has studied’.
In a number of cases – choose ‘some’.
In light of the fact that – choose ‘because’.
In spite of the fact that – choose ‘though/although’.
More often than not – choose ‘usually’.
Owing to the fact that – choose ‘since/because/as’.
Regardless of the fact that – choose ‘even though’.
Should it prove the case that – choose ‘if’.
The question as to whether – choose ‘whether’.
Under circumstances in which – choose ‘when’.
Was of the opinion that – choose ‘believed’.
With the possible exception of – choose ‘except’.
Owing to the fact that geography varies widely in Islamic regions, not all cities
developed along the same patterns.
This would be better written as:
Because geography varies widely in Islamic regions, not all cities developed along
the same patterns.
You should also consider the following:
Other factors can be seen to have a definite influence on international students’
selection of preferred country study destination.
This is too ‘wordy’ and unclear. Although you understand what you mean (because
you wrote it), it is likely to confuse your readers, particularly any non-native speakers
who are reading your paper in an international journal.
Instead you could write.
Other factors influence international students’ choice of country in which to study.
This is a much clearer and precise use of language.
5. Indicating caution/lack of certainty (hedging/down-toning)
Academic writers usually need to tone down their statements, comments and opinions
in order to make them academically defensible. This means academic writers should
not make statements which cannot be supported. Also, it is important to indicate the
Unit 3: Page 3 of 5
level of certainty in statements and conclusions. This can be done by using a weaker
verb such as ‘suggests’ or by adding modal verbs such as ‘may/might/could’ before a
verb.
Examples:
These findings show that academic awareness programmes will change the lives of
many students who have not previously considered university an option.
There is insufficient caution here.
These findings show that academic awareness programmes may/are likely to change
the lives of many students who have not previously considered university an option.
This expresses more caution and so is academically defensible.
Poverty is the cause of juvenile delinquency.
This is too strong and also inaccurate since other factors may be involved.
Poverty has contributed to juvenile delinquency.
This uses a weaker verb and is also more accurate.
The lack of statistical significance is a result of weaknesses in questionnaire design.
This statement indicates that there is no doubt in the writer’s mind about why there is
a lack of statistical significance.
The lack of statistical significance is probably a result of weaknesses in questionnaire
design.
Here the writer reduces the strength of the statement by inserting ‘probably’.
6. Pompous or unfamiliar words
A pompous morpheme is inclined to obfuscate the purport of the scribe.
Furthermore, to compound the aforementioned enigma, an undetermined slew
of scriveners are wont to utilise a multifarious and loquacious lexicon which
befuddles their scholastic contemporaries on a quotidian basis.
Writers should aim to use words which their audience will understand. However,
some academic writers prefer to try to impress their audience by unnecessarily using
words which are only understood by a small minority. Wherever possible you should
choose a simpler, yet equally precise, word (if one exists). It is often preferable to use
simple, concrete words rather than ‘pretentious’, abstract ones (unless these are
clearly required in the context). You should remember that when you publish an
article it is likely that the journal will be available as an e-journal and so it will be
accessible to an international audience.
Using words that few people will fully understand helps the writer to hide what is
being said or to appear to be saying more than is really the case. This is only useful if
you have nothing much to say!
Remember:
•Shorter words have fewer syllables. This helps reduce the heaviness of the writing.
•Familiar words cause you, the reader, no hesitation, whereas unfamiliar words cause
Unit 3: Page 4 of 5
a momentary pause as you work out their meaning. These pauses have a cumulative
effect.
•Choosing words which are longer or less familiar than they need to be results in a
text which seems inflated and pretentious.
A few examples are:
accentuate - stress
ameliorate – improve/help
circumvent – avoid
cognisant - aware
commencement – start, beginning
effectuate - cause
elucidate - explain, clarify
enumerate - list
envisage – expect, imagine
in lieu of – in place of/instead of
materialise – happen, occur
notwithstanding - even if, despite, still, yet
occasioned by – caused by, because of
optimal – best, ideal
paradigm – model/example
reiterate – repeat, restate
terminate - end
utilise - use
vis-à-vis – in relation to/compared with
Unit 3: Page 5 of 5