A2 Religious Ethics Applied Ethics: Sexual Ethics G582: A2 Religious Ethics Applied Ethics The ethical theories: Natural Law; Kantian Ethics; Utilitarianism; Religious Ethics; Virtue Ethics as applied to the applied ethics topic listed below. Sexual ethics Candidates should be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of: the issues surrounding sexual ethics – premarital and extramarital sex, contraception, homosexuality; the application and the different approaches of the ethical theories listed above to sexual ethics. Candidates should be able to discuss these areas critically. 1 A2 Religious Ethics Applied Ethics: Sexual Ethics G582: A2 Religious Ethics Applied Ethics: Sexual ethics Candidates should be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the issues surrounding sexual ethics – premarital and extramarital sex, contraception, homosexuality; Premarital sex Problem of promiscuity What is sex for? Enjoyment? Procreation? To express love? To bring people closer together? Should sex be reserved for married couples? Is there anything wrong with premarital sex in a loving relationship? Extramarital sex Sex with someone other than your marriage partner Problem of deception – unfair on the other person Is sex a private matter? Contraception Is contraception morally acceptable? Does sex have a function? What is sex for? Homosexuality Is there anything wrong with members of the same gender have a sexual relationship? What is the purpose of sex? Should gay people remain celibate? 2 A2 Religious Ethics Applied Ethics: Sexual Ethics Utilitarianism No overall/absolute/categorical view No essential difference between homosexuality and heterosexuality Act Utilitarianism: Hedonic Calculus Rule Utilitarianism: General rule of thumb against adultery Preference Utilitarianism: Relationships should maximise people’s desires/ preferences Jeremy Bentham: negative views on homosexuality are based in superstition (ie religion) – pleasure is the only thing that matters. Mill: Harm Principle Key points Act-Utilitarianism (Jeremy Bentham) (1) A relativist theory (2) Only consequences matter (consequentialism) (3) Only pleasure/happiness is morally valuable (4) Intentions are irrelevant (5) Apply the Hedonic Calculus to each situation (6) No rules to help decide if it is right or wrong except greatest happiness principle (7) Something is right if it creates the most amount of happiness (8) Human rights are ‘nonsense on stilts’ (9) Nothing is intrinsically right or wrong (10) Everyone counts equally Rule-Utilitarianism (J.S. Mill) (1) Obey the rules that tend to create the most happiness unless breaking the rule will definitely cause more happiness (2) These are the rules that most of us would agree – but they are only rules of thumb. (3) Only higher pleasure is morally valuable (4) Harm Principle: I can only cause John harm if it is to prevent John causing a greater harm Preference-Utilitarianism (Singer) (1) Something is right if maximises satisfied desires/preferences. 3 A2 Religious Ethics Applied Ethics: Sexual Ethics Kant’s Deontological Moral Theory Sexual relations, to be valid must: o Be entered into freely (result from free-choice) o Be based on equality o Be based on mutual consent o Not come from mere lust Partners must not treat the other merely as a means to their own end (pleasure) Adultery is wrong (cannot be universalised as the institution of marriage would break down – society would be the worse for this) Prostitution is wrong – sex not based on mutual respect – and you cannot use yourself for the sexual gratification of someone else Kant himself was against homosexual sex, but a Kantian could argue that homosexual sex is valid if it satisfies the above conditions. Key points (1) An absolutist theory – if something is wrong, it is always wrong (2) Consequences are irrelevant to something being right/wrong (3) Something is right only if it is done out of a duty to the moral law (4) Apply the Categorical Imperative i. Can the principle be universalised? ii. Are we treating people as ends in themselves rather than as a mere means to an end? iii. Would you want the principle to be a law in an ideal world (Kingdom of Ends)? (5) If it would harm society, then it is wrong (6) If something would harm you, then it is irrational and morally wrong (7) Something is wrong if it is done for selfish reasons (8) You shouldn’t allow emotions to get in the way of making a moral decision 4 A2 Religious Ethics Applied Ethics: Sexual Ethics Natural Moral Law (Aquinas) Purpose of humans is to ‘glorify God’ This is achieved by behaving in ways that are natural – acting on our natural inclinations (summarised in the Primary Precepts) We can do this by: o Forming monogamous relationships (being faithful to one partner) o Having heterosexual relationships o Having sex to procreate (purpose of sex is to create life) o Artificial contraception prevents this o Raising children in a family Homosexuality Gay sex goes against the function of the sexual organs (e.g., anal sex – the anus is for getting rid of waste) Homosexuals should remain celibate to avoid misusing their sexual organs (this would prevent them from fulfilling their purpose – to glorify God). Issues Could the purpose of sex not be to express love? Then gay sex could be purposive. Aquinas is arguing against any sex that does not lead to procreation – this could be heterosexual oral or anal sex. What about lesbian sex – as this is not penetrative in the same way as heterosexual sex, what would Aquinas say about it? Science does not describe homosexuals as unnatural (in the same way as being left-handed is not unnatural). We should be careful to not misunderstand heterosexual sex is ‘normal’ it does not mean that it is the ‘correct’ form of sex, but rather that it is the ‘most common’ form of sex Pittenger: gay sex in a loving relationship can lead to a person fulfilling their potential and satisfying their purpose. 5 A2 Religious Ethics Applied Ethics: Sexual Ethics Natural Moral Law (Aquinas) (1) Something is right if it obeys natural law (2) 5 primary precepts – important ones include a. Preserve life/defend the innocent b. Live peacefully c. Reproduce (3) Secondary precepts are worked out with reason to be more specific (4) Reason (conscience) tells us if something is right (5) We should pursue real goods (primary precepts) (6) Apparent goods should not be pursued (7) Doctrine of Double effect: as long as the intention is good, even if there are bad consequences, you have done the right thing (8) You should act to demonstrate your love of God Homosexuality Homosexuality was understood as a sin because no life came as a result of a homosexual relationship and because it is not possible to be within wedlock Human purpose (telos) is to pro create in order to flourish and be god-like Telos of sex is to create life Sexual organ of men and women are naturally designed to fit together for reproduction 6 A2 Religious Ethics Applied Ethics: Sexual Ethics Christian Ethics Homosexuality Roman Catholic view: homosexuality is not wrong (God loves everyone), but homosexual sex is wrong – gays should remain celibate Liberal Protestants: homosexual relationships can be as loving and fulfilling as heterosexual ones o Jesus taught ‘love’ o Sodom was destroyed for a range of wickedness (lots of rape going on) Conservative/evangelical Protestants: homosexuality is wrong: o Leviticus 18:22 o Sodom was destroyed o St Paul: homosexuals cannot reach the Kingdom of God Old Testament God created man and woman not man and man, in Genesis Marriage between man and woman - Sex between married couples is a unification process and makes them "one flesh" Punishment on Canaan because Ham "entered into the tent" of his father this suggest homosexual incest. Lot in Sodom and Gomorrah - Lot gave up his virgin daughters to be raped by the angry crowd instead of the convict men the crowds were demanding from this we can infer that the teachings in the O.T. place homosexuality at the pinnacle of "wrong-doing". (Concubine was raped instead.) Moses said - "sex with man is detestable". Moses also interestingly uses the word "abomination" when describing homosexuality. Homosexuality is condemned in Judges. New Testament Homosexuals will not gain access to God's kingdom according to Paul - 1 Corinthians 6:9 "Homosexual offenders will not inherit the kingdom of god." Romans 1 - Paul also condemns homosexuality here Jesus taught that love is the most important thing - we can infer from this that if there is a stable loving relationship between two homosexuals then it is acceptable. 7 A2 Religious Ethics Applied Ethics: Sexual Ethics Roman Catholic teachings The Roman Catechism effectively teaches that if one is homosexual then they must remain celibate in accordance with God's will Sex is for procreation only - sexual relations must be also be open to the transmission of new life. The Roman Catholic Church states in the declaration on sexual ethics that: 'In sacred scripture homosexual acts are condemned as a serious depravity and presented as a sad consequence of rejecting God'. Homosexuality is a disorder from which Christians can seek deliverance through celibacy. Homosexual relationships should be celibate Evangelical Protestant teachings Homosexuality is wrong. Prayer meetings to "pray the gay away" Liberal Protestant teachings Being homosexual is part of God's purpose for you and so it is acceptable. We are all in God's image. Lesbians and gay Christian Movement maintains that: 'human sexuality in all its riches is a gift from God gladly to be accepted, enjoyed and honoured'. Methodist Christians declare: 'for homosexual men and women, permanent relationships characterized by love can be an appropriate and a Christian way of expressing their sexuality'. The Church should fully accept homosexual partnerships and welcome homosexuals into the priesthood 1998 Lambeth Conference of the Church of England Homosexuality is a disorder from which the Christian can seek deliverance Homosexual relationships should be celibate While exclusive homosexual relationships fall short of God's best for man, they are preferred over promiscuous ones The Church should fully accept homosexual partnerships and welcome homosexuals into the priesthood Heterosexual issues Marriage is good Marriage reflects the God-human relationship Divorce is wrong (Mark) Divorce is wrong – apart from when there has been adultery (Matthew) 8 A2 Religious Ethics Applied Ethics: Sexual Ethics Natural Moral Law (see above) Situation Ethics (Fletcher) (The Ethics of Love) (1) Act to cause the most loving consequences (consequentialism) (2) Based on agape (selfless love) (3) Based on Jesus’ teachings – Love God, love your neighbour (4) Relativistic theory (no rules, other than ‘do the most loving thing’) (5) Justice is when love is spread around Ethics of Obedience (1) Be obedient to God’s laws (e.g., the Bible) (2) Bible is literally true (3) 10 Commandments 9 A2 Religious Ethics Applied Ethics: Sexual Ethics Virtue Ethics Focus should be on the kind of person, rather than the outcomes of sex (Utilitarianism) or the act itself (Kant) Someone is virtuous if they do not want to harm the other, and want good for the other. The virtues can be seen to make sense in terms of ‘friendship’ – and one way of promoting this is through marriage. Homosexuality no different from heterosexuality – Think of the close relationship between David and Jonathan Key points (1) Aristotle is not interested in right/wrong, but rather what makes you a good person (2) Use role models (archetypes) to work out what kind of a person to be (3) A good human is one that flourishes in society (4) Anything that harms society will stop you from flourishing (reaching eudaimonia (5) Doctrine of the Mean – find the virtue that exists between doing too much and doing too little. A virtuous person wouldn’t kill as their reason would tell them this is wrong. For a virtuous person, not-killing is part of their second nature (habit). (6) How should we act? We should act in courageous, honest, friendly etc ways. We need to reflect on our actions to know what to do in a situation. 10