From: http://www.efl.arts.gla.ac.uk/writing/repverbs.html
Reporting Verbs
When you use information from books you have read you need to choose a suitable
reporting verb to introduce it. This choice will depend on why you are using the
information. What role in supporting your argument does it have?
There are three basic reasons for using a reporting verb:



to present the aim of the study you are summarizing/quoting, e.g.
'Smith (1999) examines the relationship between diabetes and heart disease.'
to talk about the results that the author you are summarizing/quoting has found,
e.g.
'Al-Mawali (2002) shows that deaths per capita in car accidents are particularly
high in developing countries.'
to give the opinion of the author you are summarizing/quoting, e.g.
'Marklin (1998:76) argues that 'the adoption of just-in-time delivery systems was
the decisive factor for Japanese economic success in the 1980's.'
The following table summarizes some of the most common reporting verbs.
N.B. some verbs (marked *) can be used to introduce either Results or Opinion,
depending on the context/grammar.
For a sample sentence illustrating usage/strength of claim, click on a reporting verb.
Aim of Study
Results
Opinion
investigate
show (that)
state (that)
examine
suggest (that)*
believe (that)
analyze
find (that)
argue (that)
look at
indicate (that)
note (that)*
focus on
identify (x) as
point out (that)*
consider
reveal (that)
observe (that)*
identify
establish (that)
consider (that)
report (on)
confirm (that)
hold (that)
be concerned with
conclude (that)*
claim (that)
demonstrate (that)
emphasize/stress
You may want to add a comment after the paraphrase/quotation to make its significance
clear to the reader:
'This means that ...'
'This shows that ...'
Verb tense
The tense most commonly used for reporting verbs is the present simple (see
examples above). However, other tenses are also important:
The past simple: of course, it can be used to show that something happened /
was written a long time ago, e.g. 'This was demonstrated in the 1984 WHO
report.' But it is also used in two other ways:

to increase the 'distance' between you, and what you are referring to, e.g.
'Lefevbre (2002) identified (x) as the main cause of (y) (but you think he
may be wrong).
in scientific writing, to present methodology/results of one specific piece of
research, e.g. 'Data was obtained, and was cross-checked by .../ Brown found
that .... The results were consistent with ...'.
(N.B. when you move from 'results' to 'discussion/conclusion', it is usual to
move from past simple to present simple, e.g. 'Therefore, the findings indicate
that ...'. At this point, you are moving from describing what happened in one
piece of research, to what may always/frequently happen, i.e. you are
generalizing.)
The present perfect is used to introduce a topic by talking about general
research in the area, e.g. 'Various studies have looked at ...', or 'Few
researchers have investigated ...'
SUMMARY OF REPORTING VERBS: Note that some reporting verbs may appear in more than
one of the following groups.
1. Verbs followed by 'if' or 'whether' + clause:
ask
know
remember
say
see
2. Verbs followed by a that-clause:
add
admit
agree
announce
answer
argue
boast
claim
comment
complain
confirm
consider
deny
doubt
estimate
explain
fear
feel
insist
mention
observe
persuade
propose
remark
remember
repeat
reply
report
reveal
say
state
suggest
suppose
tell
think
understand
warn
3. Verbs followed by either a that-clause or a to-infinitive:
decide
expect
guarantee
hope
promise
swear
threaten
4. Verbs followed by a that-clause containing should
(but note that it may be omitted, leaving a subject + zero-infinitive):
advise
beg
demand
insist
prefer
propose
recommend
request
suggest
5. Verbs followed by a clause starting with a question word:
decide
describe
discover
discuss
explain
forget
guess
imagine
know
learn
realize
remember
reveal
say
see
suggest
teach
tell
think
understand
wonder
6. Verbs followed by object + to-infinitive
advise
ask
beg
command
forbid
instruct
invite
teach
tell
warn
http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/reporting.html
You can indicate your attitude to the sources you cite by choosing specific verbs to refer
to them. Don’t just keep repeating “Smith says.” There is a wide choice of such verbs in
English – and you can use the dictionary to check that you have chosen a verb with the
‘nuance’ you intend.
Here are some grammatical patterns to follow in using these verbs:
Pattern 1: reporting verb + that + subject + verb
acknowledge
assert
consider
discover
hypothesize
object
say
admit
assume
decide
doubt
imply
observe
show
agree
believe
demonstrate
emphasize
indicate
point out
state
allege
claim
deny
explain
infer
prove
suggest
argue
conclude
determine
find
note
reveal
think
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Da Souza argues that previous researchers have misinterpreted the data.
Researchers have demonstrated that the procedure is harmful.
Positivists find that social disorders are exacerbated by class factors.
Singh infers that both states are essential.
Note that these verbs all differ in meaning-they cannot be used interchangeably.
For example, the verb argue in sample sentence (a) indicates your judgment that the
author's conclusion is based on evidence and reasoning, but that other conclusions might
be possible.
The verb demonstrate in sentence (b) indicates your judgment that the researchers'
evidence and reasoning are so convincing that no other conclusion is possible.
Beware of using the verbs discuss or express followed by that. For example, it is
incorrect to write, "The reviewer expressed that the movie is not worth seeing." You can,
however, write the following: "The reviewer expressed the view that the movie is not
worth seeing."
N.B.: Verbs in this category may also appear in a subordinate clause beginning with As:
(e) As Da Souza argues, misinterpretations by previous researchers need to be corrected.
(f) As researchers have demonstrated, the procedure is harmful.
Pattern 2: reporting verb + somebody/something + for + noun/gerund
applaud
fault
blame
praise
censure
ridicule
criticize
single out
disparage
thank
(a) Smith criticized Jones for his use of incomplete data (OR for using incomplete data).
(b) Both Smith and Jones condemn previous researchers for distorting the data.
(c) Banting thanked Best for his contribution to the discovery of insulin.
Pattern 3: reporting verb + somebody/something + as + noun/gerund/adjective
appraise
define
interpret
assess
depict
portray
characterize
describe
present
class
evaluate
refer
classify
identify
view
(a) Jones describes the findings as resting on irrefutable evidence.
(b) Smith identifies the open window as a source of contamination.
(c) Smith and Jones both present their data as conclusive.
Written by Martine Johnson, Coordinator, English Programme, International Student Centre, and revised
by Rebecca Smollett, Margaret Procter, and Jerry Plotnick.
Copyright 2006. All rights reserved.
Reporting verbs
http://www.gcal.ac.uk/student/coursework/writing/reporting.html
When introducing references into the text (citing) you should choose suitable 'reporting'
verbs as these can:


strengthen the arguments you are presenting
help the reader understand why the source is relevant.
Some verbs are neutral:
Smith (2004) describes...
Jones (1999, p 3) states...
Green (2002) defines...
Some verbs draw attention to the author's viewpoint:
Harris (2001) argues...
O'Neill (1997) disputed...
Jackson (2003) conceded...
Some verbs give information about the author's work:
Holmes (2000) investigated...
Church (1998) evaluated...
McColl (2002) estimated...
Some verbs highlight the author's viewpoint:
Brown (2001) believes...
McAllister (1996) recognised...
Smith (2004) predicted...
Other useful reporting verbs (use present or past
tense as appropriate)
analyse/analysed
compares/compared
comments/commented
concludes/concluded
criticises/criticized
demonstrates/demonstrated
discusses/discussed
illustrates/illustrated
indicates/indicated
notes/noted
observes/observed
points out/pointed out
reports/reported
shows/showed
suggests/suggested
validates/validated
verifies/verified
Plagiarism
Four students read the following text and used it in their essays in slightly different
ways. Which would count as plagiarism?
Elaine Tyler May's (1997, ‘Barren in the Promised Land : Childless Americans and the
Pursuit of Happiness’ Harvard University Press
‘Because women's wages often continue to reflect the fiction that men earn the
family wage, single mothers rarely earn enough to support themselves and their
children adequately. And because work is still organized around the assumption
that mothers stay home with children, even though few mothers can afford to do so,
child-care facilities in the United States remain woefully inadequate’
Student A wrote:
Verdict: Plagiarism.
Since women's wages often continue to
reflect the mistaken notion that men are the
main wage earners in the family, single
mothers rarely make enough to support
themselves and their children very well.
Also, because work is still based on the
assumption that mothers stay home with
children, facilities for child care remain
woefully inadequate in the United States.
There is too much direct borrowing of
sentence structure and wording. The writer
changes some words, drops one phrase, and
adds some new language, but the whole text
closely resembles May's. There is no
acknowledgment (citation) of May’s work.
Even if May were acknowledged this is still
plagiarising because the lack of quotation
marks indicates that it has been put into the
students's own words.
Student B wrote:
Verdict: Plagiarism.
By and large, our economy still operates on
the mistaken notion that men are the main
breadwinners in the family. Thus, women
continue to earn lower wages than men.
This means, in effect, that many single
mothers cannot earn a decent living.
Furthermore, adequate day care is not
available in the USA because of the
mistaken assumption that mothers remain at
home with their children.
It shows good paraphrasing of wording and
sentence structure, but does not
acknowledge May's original ideas. Some of
May's points are common knowledge
(women earn less than men, many single
mothers live in poverty), but May uses this
to make a specific and original point.
Student C wrote:
Verdict: Borderline plagiarism.
As Elaine Tyler May (1997, p.588) points Although the writer now cites May, this still
out, ‘women's wages often continue to
borrows too much language.
reflect the fiction that men earn the family
wage’. Thus many single mothers cannot
support themselves and their children
adequately. Furthermore, since work is
based on the assumption that mothers stay
home with children, facilities for day care in
this country are still ‘woefully inadequate.’
Student D wrote:
Verdict: No plagiarism.
Women today still earn less than men — so
much less that many single mothers and
their children live near or below the poverty
line. Elaine Tyler May (1997, p.588) argues
that this situation stems in part from ‘the
fiction that men earn the family wage’ May
further suggests that the American
workplace still operates on the assumption
that mothers with children stay home to care
for them.
The writer makes use of the common
knowledge in May's work, but
acknowledges May's original conclusion
and does not try to pass it off as his or her
own. The quotation is properly cited, as is a
later paraphrase of another of May's ideas.