WORKBOOK ANSWERS
Edexcel A2 Government &
Politics Unit 3C
Representative Processes in the USA
This Answers document provides suggestions for some of the answers that might be given for
the questions asked in the workbook. They are not exhaustive and other answers may be
acceptable, but they are intended as a guide to give teachers and students feedback.
Overall, answers should look to immediately address the question, avoiding longwinded and
descriptive introductions. The focus should be on fully developing three to four points, in
separate paragraphs, that address the question.
Guide to grade boundaries for 15-mark exam questions
Level 3
(11–15
marks)
Comprehensive knowledge (breadth) and understanding (depth)
shown.
A (13–15 marks)
B (11–12 marks)
Applies relevant and accurate knowledge to answer the question.
Accurate evidence and up-to-date examples to support points.
Clearly analyses and assesses the question with a clear line of
argument.
Logical and organised sequence of points.
Level 2
Some knowledge and understanding, relevant to the question.
C (9–10 marks)
(7–10
marks)
Clear evidence backed up by sound examples.
D (7–8 marks)
Sound evaluation of the question and attempt to reach a
conclusion.
Some order and sequence to points with most points clearly
explained.
Level 1
Limited understanding and outline knowledge shown.
E (5–6 marks)
(0–6
Possibly includes some outline examples.
U (0–4 marks)
marks)
Simple or unreliable evaluation of arguments.
Little order and sequence to points, with some large elements of
description or irrelevance.
Guide to grade boundaries for 45-mark exam questions
Level 3
(34–45
marks)
Comprehensive knowledge (breadth) and understanding (depth)
shown.
A (38–45 marks)
B (34–37 marks)
Applies relevant and accurate knowledge to answer the question.
Accurate evidence and up-to-date examples to support points.
Clearly analyses and assesses the question with a clear line of
argument.
Logical and organised sequence of points.
Edexcel A2 Government & Politics Unit 3C Representative Processes in the USA
© Tremaine Baker
Philip Allan, an imprint of Hodder Education
1
TOPIC 1
Elections and voting
Clear identification of a range of different viewpoints and
interpretations on the question.
Full recognition of the nature and extent of different views and how
these lead to rival conclusions.
Level 2
Some knowledge and understanding, relevant to the question.
C (24–33 marks)
(18–33
marks)
Clear evidence backed up by sound examples.
D (18–23 marks)
Sound evaluation of the question and attempt to reach a
conclusion.
Some order and sequence to points, with most points clearly
explained.
Some identification of the major viewpoints and interpretations on
the question.
Recognition of different views and how these give rise to rival
conclusions.
Level 1
Limited understanding and outline knowledge shown.
E (14–17 marks)
(0–17
Possibly includes some outline examples.
U (0–13 marks)
marks)
Simple or unreliable evaluation of arguments.
Little order and sequence to points, with some large elements of
description or irrelevance.
Limited identification of the viewpoints on the question.
One-sided appreciation of the question.
Simple awareness of different views and rival conclusions.
Topic 1
Elections and voting
Congressional elections
1 Representatives serve for 2-year terms and represent smaller districts, while senators
serve for 6-year terms and represent state-wide constituencies.
2 Due to their exclusive constitutional powers to initiate money bills, the Founding Fathers
introduced a 2-year fixed-term electoral cycle for all members of the House of
Representatives. This was intended to create a chamber closely aligned to current public
opinion, with smaller district boundaries within each state that could be tightly scrutinised
and regularly held to account.
Edexcel A2 Government & Politics Unit 3C Representative Processes in the USA
© Tremaine Baker
Philip Allan, an imprint of Hodder Education
2
TOPIC 1
Elections and voting
Elections to the Senate are state-wide, with individual senators serving for 6-year terms.
This was designed to protect the interests of smaller states and uphold the federalist
nature of the constitution, whereby each state receives two senators regardless of size. Its
larger constituencies and longer terms make the Senate a more contemplative body that is
cushioned from the vagaries of public opinion.
These differences create a system of checks and balances in which the larger (435 seats),
more electorally proportional, House will act to counter the smaller (100 seats), state-wide
interests of the Senate. The state-wide nature of Senate elections and their 6-year terms
give senators a broader, national outlook to law-making in contrast to the local interests
represented in the House.
3 This is where congressmen and women look to funnel government funds into their home
state or district in an attempt to secure favourable electoral support based on the federal
spending projects they have secured for the districts they represent.
4 Incumbency advantage is the electoral benefit gained from being an existing senator or
congressman/congresswoman. Possible reasons for its occurrence might include:

Incumbents benefit from name recognition, and are also able to point towards a
proven track record in benefiting their constituents.

Pork barrel politics mean incumbents are able to gain support from key voting groups
that may have benefited from the federal funding that has been secured for a state or
district.

Because of the connections they gain while in office, they often enjoy a huge funding
advantage over challengers.

Increasingly, state legislatures have redrawn political boundaries to gain a political
advantage in elections. This means that most seats are safe and very few are
genuinely competitive.
Exam-style question
5 Higher level 1 answers (5–6 marks) should at least identify and briefly explain one criticism
of the frequency of congressional elections.
Level 2 answers (7–8 marks) should at least show some understanding of two criticisms
while supporting their points with some limited knowledge and use of examples.
Level 3 answers (11–12 marks) should at least show a clear understanding of three
criticisms and be supported by accurate knowledge to exemplify these criticisms.
Points for this question could include:
Edexcel A2 Government & Politics Unit 3C Representative Processes in the USA
© Tremaine Baker
Philip Allan, an imprint of Hodder Education
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TOPIC 1

Elections and voting
Congress is too focused on re-election, and has become dominated by special
interest groups and lobbyists. Members are criticised for focusing on gaining funding
for their re-election campaigns at the expense of their representative functions.

Some claim that the spiralling cost of congressional elections mean that they are
open to the ‘highest bidder’ rather than being a genuine contest on political issues.

Congress is criticised for being reluctant to make difficult and unpopular decisions for
fear of the electoral outcomes. The frequency of elections mean that any short-term
electorally unpopular decisions such as raising taxes, even if they would have longterm gains, are not supported by Congress.

The focus on local issues with congressional pork barrel politics, and earmarks, has
contributed to spiralling federal debt. Criticism is laid that the frequent congressional
elections encourage congressmen to grease the wheels of congress with pork and
‘bring home the bacon’, meaning that federal spending is uncontrolled.

There is the argument that this causes election overload, meaning voters become
apathetic, which contributes to the low voter turnout at many congressional elections.
6
Year
House of Representatives
Senate
2012
90%
91%
2010
85%
84%
7 These are the congressional elections that occur between presidential election years and
which have increasingly been dominated by national issues, with many being seen as a
referendum on the President.
8 A range of issues dominated the 2010 midterms but the main issues included:

Tea Party tidal wave. The Tea Party agenda of fiscal conservatism and limited
government not only dominated the polls but also saw a number of victories in the
Republican primaries prior to the election. Republican Tea Party candidates secured
a number of victories, such as Marco Rubio (Florida Senate) and Rand Paul
(Kentucky Senate), showing this was a central issue. Although the six Senate seats
were not enough to gain a majority for the Republicans, they did pick up 63 House
seats.

Referendum on the President. There appeared to be a type of ‘negative coattails’
effect in which discontent over the introduction of Obamacare and the economic
stimulus plan led to poor results for the Democrats. As well as the vocal criticism
among conservatives, and the rise of the grass roots Tea Party, this was perhaps
exacerbated by the growing disillusionment among progressive Democrats who felt
the Obama administration had not gone far enough and had significantly watered
down his proposals.
Edexcel A2 Government & Politics Unit 3C Representative Processes in the USA
© Tremaine Baker
Philip Allan, an imprint of Hodder Education
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TOPIC 1

Elections and voting
Disillusionment over the economy. High unemployment and debt seemed to be the
overriding issues among the electorate. Unemployment stood at around 10%, which
was laid at the incumbent’s doorstep and was exacerbated by high levels of
manufacturing unemployment. In addition, many fiscal conservatives, and most
especially members of the Tea Party, criticised the growing national debt and called
for a Congress that would implement swingeing budget cuts.
Process for nominating presidential
candidates
9 In an open primary, the voters of a state can participate in either the Republican or
Democrat primary, but not both, regardless of their party affiliation. In a closed primary,
only voters who have declared an affiliation to a party can participate in that party’s
primary. Closed primaries, because they are open only to registered party voters, tend to
be dominated by party loyalists and voters tend to select very partisan candidates, while
open primaries may allow for less-partisan candidates to succeed, given the broader
nature of the electorate.
10 Super Tuesday is the day in the primary process on which the greatest number of states
hold their primaries. Reasons for its significance, to candidate campaigns or to states,
could include:

The collection of state primaries on Super Tuesday increases the profile and
importance of those states involved. As a result, they can guarantee a greater degree
of primary election coverage, candidate visits and campaign funding.

It has had a significant impact on the compression of the nomination process, as
states compete to be in the early ‘make or break’ rounds before, or immediately after,
Super Tuesday.

Super Tuesday, and frontloading in general, has added to the importance of raising
funds during the invisible primary, which has also further lengthened the nomination
process by forcing candidates to announce their candidacy earlier.

Successful candidates can gain huge momentum, as more delegates can be won on
Super Tuesday than on any other single day.

The corollary is that unsuccessful candidates may be forced to withdraw from the
nomination process as they find themselves too far behind competitors.
Exam-style question
11 Higher level 1 answers (5–6 marks) should at least identify and briefly explain one role of
the national party conventions, such as selecting a presidential nominee for the party.
Edexcel A2 Government & Politics Unit 3C Representative Processes in the USA
© Tremaine Baker
Philip Allan, an imprint of Hodder Education
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TOPIC 1
Elections and voting
Level 2 answers (7–8 marks) should at least show some understanding of two roles of the
national party conventions while supporting their points with some limited knowledge and
use of examples.
Level 3 answers (11–12 marks) should at least show a clear understanding of three
functions of major party conventions and will be supported by accurate knowledge of both
the formal and informal functions of national party conventions.
Points for this question could include:

The formal role of conventions to select a presidential candidate is increasingly
meaningless as the primary process now means the party candidate is known in
advance.

The formal role of creating a party platform, and engaging in genuine policy debate,
has been sidelined to avoid appearances that the party is ideologically divided or
fractured. In addition, the party platform can be seen as meaningless because it is not
binding on the President or party members.

The vice presidential candidate is now chosen and announced by the presidential
candidate in advance of the convention.

Conventions still play a meaningful role in uniting the party, especially following the
previous inter-party fighting. They thus play the informal role of healing party wounds
following the deeply divisive primary season.
Edexcel A2 Government & Politics Unit 3C Representative Processes in the USA
© Tremaine Baker
Philip Allan, an imprint of Hodder Education
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TOPIC 1

Elections and voting
They can give the party a post-convention ‘bounce’ in the polls and are an opportunity
to engage the electorate in the run-up to the presidential election.

They can galvanise the grass roots of the party, who will provide important support in
the forthcoming election battle.
Process for electing the president
12
ECV won
State contests
Popular vote
(total 538)
won (total 51)
(%)
Mitt Romney
206
24
47.2%
Barack Obama
332
27
51.1%
2012
Name
Republican candidate
Democrat candidate
13 This refers to the negative and harmful impact that a presidential candidate, usually in
presidential election years, can have on other party members standing for office. It would
usually result in a poor showing in the polls for the party of the unpopular presidential
candidate.
14 Swing states have no clear or consistent support for either the Republicans or the
Democrats while a safe state is one that has shown clear and consistent support for one of
the parties. These battleground, or ‘purple’, states thus exert significant influence on
presidential elections when compared to the largely neglected Red Republican and Blue
Democrat states. In particular, swing states receive much higher levels of campaign
finance, candidate footfall, and media coverage during the presidential elections.
15 Under the Electoral College System each state, plus Washington DC, is allocated a
number of Electoral College voters, equivalent to its total congressional representation.
The Electoral College voters are then pledged to vote for a candidate depending on the
results in their state. Possible advantages might include:

It upholds the values of federalism and protects the interests of small states, which
are over-represented with three electors.

The first-past-the-post electoral system encourages a two-horse race, which usually
provides a clear winner with a secure mandate to govern.

It ensures candidates have both the depth and breadth of support in order to win.
Possible disadvantages might include:

It is undemocratic because candidates can win without securing a majority of the
popular vote, as shown by Bush’s victory in 2000.

The existence of faithless electors, who ignore the popular vote in their home state.
Edexcel A2 Government & Politics Unit 3C Representative Processes in the USA
© Tremaine Baker
Philip Allan, an imprint of Hodder Education
7
TOPIC 1

Elections and voting
The over-representation of small states, and under-representation of large states,
means that votes in less-populated states are worth significantly more than those in
higher-populated states.

The election becomes dominated by swing states, which exert a disproportionate
influence on the final outcome.

It significantly disadvantages minor-party candidates and contributes to the failure of
third parties in the USA.

The existence of safe states such as Republican Georgia or Democratic California
can further encourage low turnout and voter apathy.
16 These are members of the Electoral College who do not vote for the candidate they are
expected to support, and are ‘faithless’ because they break the pledge to vote for the
winner in their home state.
Exam-style question
17 Higher level 1 answers (14–17 marks) should at least identify and briefly explain some of
the arguments in favour of retaining or replacing the Electoral College.
Level 2 answers (18–23 marks) should at least show some understanding of both the
Electoral College and the national popular vote. They will also show limited knowledge and
ability to explain the arguments in favour of retaining the Electoral College and replacing
the Electoral College with a national vote.
Level 3 answers (34–37 marks) should at least show a clear understanding of both the
Electoral College and the national popular vote. Furthermore, they will be supported by
accurate and detailed knowledge and show an ability to explain the arguments in favour of
retaining the Electoral College and replacing the Electoral College with a national vote.
Arguments that the Electoral College should be replaced by a national popular vote
include:

It causes huge disparities in the level of representation between states, meaning
larger states are under-represented. Thus, if California were represented on an equal
scale to Wyoming, it would have 205, rather than 55, electors.

It can be undemocratic, as the winner can, in the worst cases, lose the popular vote
and thereby lack democratic legitimacy. Similarly it allows for faithless electors who
can ignore the democratic wishes of their states.

It is an anachronism, and arguments about the need to indirectly elect the president
have no relevance to contemporary America.

The Electoral College gives undue influence to swing states and leads to candidates
neglecting safe states.
Edexcel A2 Government & Politics Unit 3C Representative Processes in the USA
© Tremaine Baker
Philip Allan, an imprint of Hodder Education
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TOPIC 1

Elections and voting
It disadvantages minor-party candidates, as most markedly seen with Ross Perot’s
failure in 1992 to gain any Electoral College votes despite polling 18.9% of the
popular vote.

The winning margin in the Electoral College is often exaggerated when compared to
the winner’s share of the national popular vote, which gives the winner an artificially
strong mandate.
Edexcel A2 Government & Politics Unit 3C Representative Processes in the USA
© Tremaine Baker
Philip Allan, an imprint of Hodder Education
9
TOPIC 1
Elections and voting
Arguments that the Electoral College should be retained and not replaced by the national
popular vote could include:

It protects the federal character of the USA, ensuring small states are not ignored,
because they are over-represented with three electors. Thus, the Electoral College
means candidates must achieve success across all states. In contrast, a national
popular vote would see campaigns ignoring less-populous, rural states and instead
concentrating on large urban areas.

The first-past-the-post electoral system encourages a two-horse race that suits the
selection of one individual for the post of president, giving the winner a secure
mandate to govern. The national popular vote could lead to unclear mandates, or with
a successful third-party challenger. The splitting of the vote could lead to winners
achieving significantly less than 50% of the popular vote.

Arguments that third parties are disadvantaged are irrelevant for the election of one
president. Indeed, Perot could not have been 18.9% of a president.

Faithless electors are extremely rare, have never had an impact on the outcome, and
the issue could be resolved by the introduction of the Automatic plan instead.
Direct democracy
18 These are a state-based initiative by which voters can force a public vote on an issue.
They are a form of direct democracy that engages the electorate and allows them to
propose state legislation.
Exam-style question
19 Higher level 1 answers (5–6 marks) should at least define a proposition and briefly explain
one advantage or disadvantage.
Level 2 answers (7–8 marks) should show some understanding of the nature of
propositions and be able to explain at least two advantages or disadvantages while
supporting their points with some limited knowledge and use of examples.
Level 3 answers (11–12 marks) should show a clear understanding of the nature of
propositions and be able to explain more than two advantages and disadvantages while
supporting points with accurate knowledge and examples.
Possible advantages might include:

They allow for controversial subjects to be voted on, such as legalisation regarding
marijuana or same-sex marriage, which state legislatures may be reluctant to tackle.
Edexcel A2 Government & Politics Unit 3C Representative Processes in the USA
© Tremaine Baker
Philip Allan, an imprint of Hodder Education
10
TOPIC 1

Elections and voting
They can increase the accountability of politicians and force them to be responsive to
voter demands.

They can increase participation and turnout.
Edexcel A2 Government & Politics Unit 3C Representative Processes in the USA
© Tremaine Baker
Philip Allan, an imprint of Hodder Education
11
TOPIC 1

Elections and voting
They can shape the political discussion in a state, indirectly shifting the agenda of
state politicians.

They engage the electorate, who become better informed and more encouraged to
join pressure groups in response.
Possible disadvantages might include:

They undermine the principles of a representative democracy and can be inflexible,
tying the hands of state legislatures with unworkable laws.

Campaigns for ballot propositions can be dominated by wealthy pressure groups,
which use them to suit their own agenda.

They can lead to a tyranny of the majority as the popular vote leads to ballot
measures that disadvantage minority groups.
Campaign finance
20 Hard money includes those funds given directly to a campaign while soft money funds are
used to support a campaign indirectly. Hard money donations are limited to $2,000 under
the BCRA, whereas soft money donations are unregulated and include funds given to
national political parties or unregulated independent organisations that are not directly
linked to candidate campaigns, such as 527s or Super PACs.
21
Case
Decision
Impact
Buckley v
Valeo 1976
It struck down any limits on the use of a
candidate’s personal wealth for campaign
expenditure but also, more broadly, some
of the limits on spending by independent
groups that are not directly part of an
election campaign. Restrictions remained
only for those accepting public financing.
Saw the rise of Political Action
Committees who, independently of
candidates, collect contributions
that they use to support favorable
candidates indirectly.
Citizens
United v FEC
2010
Overturned advertising restrictions, allowing
corporations and unions to promote a
candidate. Effectively prohibited the
government from restricting the political
expenditure of independent groups at
election time.
This saw the rise of Super PACs
with unrestricted spending. It
contributed to the spiralling
spending by so-called
‘independent’ groups in recent
elections.
Arizona Free
Enterprise
Club PAC v
Bennett 2011
Blocked an Arizona matching funds
scheme that would have provided
additional government finance to
candidates accepting public funding and
running against candidates with significant
private or independently provided funds.
Alongside the Citizens United
ruling, this was a further setback
for attempts to regulate campaign
finance and efforts to reduce the
spiralling cost of elections.
Edexcel A2 Government & Politics Unit 3C Representative Processes in the USA
© Tremaine Baker
Philip Allan, an imprint of Hodder Education
12
TOPIC 1
Elections and voting
Criticisms of the electoral system
22 This refers to an adversarial political system in which parties compete for power and hold
sharply differing ideologies. In the USA this has been seen with the clear divisions
between the Republican and the Democratic parties, with politicians from both parties
holding sharply contrasting ideologies and being reluctant to work together to find any
‘common ground’.
23 Given the federalist nature of the USA each individual state has a system of government
which mirrors that in Washington DC. Thereby each state will have its own legislature,
which retains the law-making powers within the state, as well as an executive branch,
vested in a state governor, and a judicial branch, headed by the state Supreme Court.
24 Gerrymandering is the process of redrawing political boundaries to gain a political
advantage for a particular group or party. Possible explanations:

Maryland 3rd district is widely spread out, to the extent that it was referred to as a
‘crazy-quilt’ in the Washington Post. It is one of the least compact districts in the USA
and snakes through Baltimore and its surrounding suburbs.

Illinois 4th district was created to combine two Latino areas of the state. It is widely
referred to as the ‘earmuff’ district because a narrow stretch of interstate 294
connects the two distinct Latino areas.
25 Possible criticisms might include:

Undemocratic aspects: turnout at primaries is often below 10% and the primary
electorate is often unrepresentative of the wider population. Additionally, voters are
able to ‘raid’ opposition primaries and vote for weaker candidates.

Frontloading: primaries are increasingly compressed as states move their primaries
forward in the election calendar.

Undermines party control: the lack of party control over the selection process can
lead to ill-qualified candidates achieving the nomination, due to a lack of peer review.
Similarly, the primary process is also deeply divisive, causing a great deal of interparty rivalry.

Financing focus: The primary process favours those who have raised the biggest
‘war chest’ in the invisible primary, giving too much weight to money and image.
26 Possible explanations might include:

Given the huge incumbency advantage, many commentators have argued that US
politics is dominated by a few political insiders who are constantly re-elected. Not only
is this seen as damaging to the notion of accountability, as it is very hard to unseat an
incumbent, but it has also created a system in which politicians are more focused on
re-election than the good of the nation. This has meant that politicians engage in pork
Edexcel A2 Government & Politics Unit 3C Representative Processes in the USA
© Tremaine Baker
Philip Allan, an imprint of Hodder Education
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TOPIC 1
Elections and voting
barrel politics and develop unhealthy relations with key donors while in office. Some
groups have called for congressional term limits, similar to the presidency.

As most state legislatures are responsible for redrawing political boundaries, many
claim that this has led to partisan gerrymandering, in which electoral districts have
been redrawn to suit one party and disadvantage another. This has led to calls for the
appointment of independent commissioners or bipartisan redistricting committees to
take over the role instead.

Turnout in US elections is among the lowest in the west, with turnout for midterms
rarely rising above 50%. This is due to a range of factors such as: the existence of
safe seats, the first-past-the-post electoral system and the use of gerrymandering; the
frequency, extent and increasing length of elections in the USA, which can lead to
voter apathy; the complicated registration procedures in some states, which are a
further barrier to voting; and the perceptions of the electorate that the system is
dominated by a wealthy elite, with little hope for ordinary voters to change the system.
Edexcel A2 Government & Politics Unit 3C Representative Processes in the USA
© Tremaine Baker
Philip Allan, an imprint of Hodder Education
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TOPIC 2
Political parties
Topic 2
Political parties
Historical context
1 These are parties with a broad range of ideologies and groups within them and which are
very loosely united under the banner of one party. In the USA, they arise from the
decentralised political system that has led to weak party structures.
2 The USA’s federal structure has meant that parties are much more state-based
organisations, with power being significantly more decentralised than in a unitary state
such as the UK. The regional diversity of the USA has meant that within each party
individuals represent a range of states and districts, each with different interests and
electoral mandates. Given that electoral success, for both Congress and the presidency,
requires parties to win seats across a range of states, party members end up representing
a broad ideological spectrum of opinion, whether from the ‘Bible belt’ southern states or
the more urban and liberal states of the north-east.
Party realignment
3 The voting coalition formed in the 1930s following the establishment of the Democratic
Party’s New Deal. It widened its supporter base to include a number of new groups,
including blue-collar workers, who benefited from the federally-funded programmes, and
protections extended to trade unions, and minority groups, who benefited from the New
Deal programme.
4 This refers to the ending of Democratic dominance in southern US states, which had dated
back to the Democratic Party’s original support for slavery. Following the passage of civil
rights legislation in the 1960s, and Republican tactics to take advantage of discontent
among many white voters in the South, the Republican Party broke the Democratic
electoral grip over southern America.
5 Prior to these events, the Republican Party had become largely defined by the events of
the US civil war and its decision to abolish slavery. In addition, the two main parties were
ideologically broad-church organisations that encompassed a range of political opinions
and interests. These events were important in establishing the ideological positions that
the two parties seem to adopt today. They led to the Republican Party becoming an
increasingly conservative party that dominated the South and represented the ‘Haves’ in
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© Tremaine Baker
Philip Allan, an imprint of Hodder Education
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TOPIC 2
Political parties
society. In contrast, the Democrats became the more liberal party, achieving success in
urban areas and one that represented the ‘Have-nots’ – those who are the poorest in
society, including various minority groups across the USA.
Republican party ideology
6 A faction is a group of individuals within a political party who share common political goals
and have similar ideological positions. Each of the two main parties has a range of factions
that usually cover a wide range of ideological opinion, such as conservative Blue Dog
Democrats or the more liberal Republican Tuesday Group.
7 Libertarian Republicans see their overarching goal as the upholding of individual and
political liberty. In particular, they favour minimal federal government intervention into
people’s lives, and advocate the right of states or individuals to be given greater freedoms.
Economically, they are conservative, advocating a laissez-faire approach, while socially
they are liberal, advocating individual liberty and choice. In foreign policy matters they tend
to be non-interventionist.
8 Fiscal conservatism is focused on economic issues and advocates free market economics,
a minimalist governmental approach to the economy and a balanced federal budget.
Social conservatism is focused on social issues such as its opposition to abortion and
same-sex marriage. Fiscal conservatives focus on monetary matters and look to promote
growth by a mixture of reducing taxation, cutting government expenditure and limiting the
regulation of businesses. In contrast, social conservatives are driven by their largely
religious moral compass, and look to pass deeply conservative social policies that are
shaped by a focus on the family and the church.
9 Despite the considerable debate among political commentators about the extent to which
individuals can be seen as either liberal or conservative, the positions of the 2012
presidential candidates on certain issues do point towards their differing ideological
positions:

Mitt Romney: Seen as a fiscal conservative, who had previously held some
moderate positions on social issues, he called for a reduction in the national debt and
a cap on federal spending, which should not exceed 20% of America’s GDP (the
annual value of a nation’s economy). He also advocated fiscally conservative policies
to generate growth in the economy, including lower taxation, with a cut in corporation
tax rate to 25%, and less regulation, such as the repeal of the regulations regarding
the financial industry.

Rick Santorum: Although an advocate of fiscal conservatism, he ran on a particularly
socially conservative platform, stating his support for a constitutional ban on samesex marriage and favouring a complete ban on abortions, even in cases of rape.
Edexcel A2 Government & Politics Unit 3C Representative Processes in the USA
© Tremaine Baker
Philip Allan, an imprint of Hodder Education
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TOPIC 2

Political parties
Ron Paul: His libertarian views saw him advocate sweeping cutbacks in both the size
and cost of federal government, such as calls to cut spending in half and abolish a
number of federal departments. He called for increasing powers to be given to states
over social issues such as abortion and same-sex marriage, while advocating a recall
of virtually all US troops from abroad.

Jon Huntsman: Although he opposed abortion and advocated a similar approach to
the US economy as the other candidates, he was arguably the most moderate
nominee of 2012 and was the only one to endorse the deal preventing the USA from
defaulting on its debt repayments. He supported same-sex civil unions, giving such
couples many of the rights of marriage.
Exam-style question
10 Higher level 1 answers (5–6 marks) should at least define one aim of social conservatives
in the USA.
Level 2 answers (7–8 marks) should show some understanding of at least two aims of
social conservatives and be able to explain, and briefly support, some limited ways in
which they have or have not been achieved.
Level 3 answers (11–12 marks) should show a clear understanding of the aims of social
conservatives and be able to explain fully, using accurate knowledge and examples, the
ways in which they have and have not been achieved.
Points for this question could include:

Aim to ban same-sex marriage, either through federal legislation or a constitutional
amendment. Students might refer to their failure to achieve this, and their success or
failure with state propositions or amendments to state constitutions.

Aim to ban abortion, through the Supreme Court or a constitutional amendment, or at
least restrict its availability and allow states to decide their own policy. Students might
refer to their overall failure or success in limiting abortion coverage in some states, or
through federal legislation and Supreme Court decisions on ‘partial-birth’ abortion
bans (Gonzalez v Carhart).

Aims to introduce school prayer, and shape school curriculums to reflect religious
beliefs. Students might refer to the Supreme Court’s decisions to uphold the
separation of church and state (Engel v Vitale) or success in widening school voucher
programmes to choose religious schools.

Aims to maintain a tough stance on crime and drug use. Students might refer to the
continued use of capital punishment and the introduction of the ‘three-strikes’ law in
some US states, giving a minimum 25-year sentence for criminals committing three
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serious crimes. They could also point towards the legalisation of marijuana through
some propositions.
Democratic Party ideology
11 This is the term for a number of southern US states, such as Georgia and Alabama, with
very high levels of church attendance. The evangelical church movement is strong in
these states and they tend to be both culturally and politically dominated by socially
conservative Christian beliefs.
12 The ACU issues ratings every year, which are based on the voting records of members of
Congress (http://conservative.org/). According to its ratings, ‘the most conservative
Democrats were John Barrow (GA), Dan Boren (OK) and Mike McIntyre (NC) all at 60%’.
13 Progressive Democrats are the party’s most liberal members and are committed to
measures to safeguard the poorest and most vulnerable in society. Many support wider
healthcare provision, as well as upholding a range of rights for minority groups such as
gays, lesbians and racial minorities. They support measures such as abortion and samesex marriage while being more supportive of federal intervention to establish equality of
outcome for all groups in society.
Moderate Democrats adopt a more pragmatic approach to policy development, which is
ideologically centrist. They support measures that appeal to both the conservative
heartland of America and the more progressive elements of society. Some members
advocate fiscally conservative measures such as a balanced budget, and emphasise
common-sense measures such as a moderate approach to immigration reform.
Conservative Democrats are the most right-wing faction within the party who, although
encompassing a broad set of ideologies, are mainly in favour of a fiscally conservative
approach to the economy. In addition, many adopt a conservative position on social
policies that respect traditional Christian values in areas such as abortion and same-sex
marriage.
Growing partisanship
14 This is a process by which party ideologies and political opinion have become increasingly
divided, where the views of moderates are overshadowed by the more extreme views and
factions in a political party. Thus the rise of the fiscally conservative Tea Party
Republicans has arguably shifted the Republican Party further to the right of the political
spectrum while the Democrats have become pushed to the left by progressive liberals.
15 Hyperpartisanship is the idea that the two main US political parties are deeply polarised
and in continual conflict. It is seen in the intense disagreements between Democrats and
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Republicans, and the adversarial and combative language they use in the media.
Bipartisanship is where the two main parties seek to negotiate and are willing to concede
their political positions in order to reach a shared agreement on policy matters.
Whereas bipartisanship looks for the main parties to compromise, and govern through
cooperation, hyperpartisanship encourages opposition and adversity. Evidence for
hyperpartisanship in the USA can be seen in the inability of the main parties to negotiate
and arrive at a consensus on issues such as the Federal budget, whereas bipartisanship
can be seen with groups such as ‘No Labels’, who are looking to find common ground
between the two main parties.
16 Differences have been seen in the heated negotiations between Republicans and
Democrats over the 2013 fiscal cliff, which would have seen budget sequestration (farreaching automatic spending cuts) and wide-ranging tax increases come into place in
January 2014.
Whereas Republicans have adopted an uncompromising approach towards dealing with
the deficit (calling for large-scale reductions in federal spending, while being unwilling to
raise taxes), the Democrats have made continual calls for tax rises on individuals earning
over $200,000. Indeed, Obama’s 2014 Budget proposals would see the rich pay no less
than 30% of their income in taxes.
17 The Tea Party movement began as a grassroots movement in 2009, over criticism of
President Obama’s economic policies, healthcare plans and ‘big government’ initiatives.
Since then it has looked to inject its fiscally conservative agenda into the Republican
Party. It clearly dominated the 2010 midterms, with notable victories including Marco
Rubio in Florida. More recently, Tea Party-backed candidates have secured victories in
Republican primaries.
18 The K Street Project was launched in 1995 by Republican Party whip Tom ‘The Hammer’
DeLay and Republican strategist Grover Norquist. It attempted to increase the number of
conservative PACs and lobbyists in Washington.
The Contract with America was a nationally-agreed manifesto, established in the run-up to
the 1994 midterms, that committed Republican Party members to vote on a series of
conservative issues such as cutting taxes and balancing the budget.
19 This was the Republican Party’s commitment to legislative priorities that they aimed to
tackle upon assuming office in 2011. Unveiled by House Leader John Boehner in
September 2010, this was an ideologically conservative platform. For example, it
committed the party to:

Repealing ‘President Obama’s Job Destroying Health Care Law’.
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
Low taxation, including ‘permanently stopping all tax increases’.

Reducing the size of government and establishing ‘a smaller, less costly, and more
accountable government’.

Introducing significant cuts that will ‘curb Washington’s spending habits and promote
job creation, bring down the deficit, and build long-term fiscal stability’.
Exam-style question
20 Higher level 1 answers (5–6 marks) should at least be clear on the aims of moderates and
briefly explain one way they do or do not enjoy influence.
Level 2 answers (7–8 marks) should show some understanding of the aims of moderates
and be able to explain at least two ways that they do or do not enjoy influence.
Level 3 answers (11–12 marks) should show a clear understanding of the aims of
moderates and be able to explain fully, using accurate knowledge and examples, the ways
in which they do and do not enjoy influence. Points to show their lack of influence could
be:

The era of George W. Bush’s social conservatism, in which he restricted access to
federally-funded abortion services and blocked attempts to introduce stem cell
research in the USA.

Republicans have been dominated by fiscal conservatism in recent times, as shown
by their deep reluctance to support any attempts to raise taxes or raise the US debt
ceiling.

Opposition to the Healthcare Act was almost universal among Republicans.

Well-funded and well-organised conservatives have mounted successful campaigns
against a number of moderates in Republican primaries, especially the success of
Tea Party-backed candidates in 2010.
Arguments that they retain influence could include:

Arguably, the last two presidential candidates have been relatively moderate, or at
least more moderate than others they faced in the presidential primaries.

The more moderate Republican Tuesday Group, with 45 members in the113th
Congress, has a similar number of members to the House Tea Party Caucus.

The heavy defeat in the 2012 presidential election among Latino voters has seen the
party look to make compromises over immigration reform, with presidential hopeful
Marco Rubio calling for a more balanced and bipartisan approach.
21 A collection of more-conservative-minded Democrats who, in particular, see themselves
as fiscally conservative. Following their reduction from 54 to 26 members in the aftermath
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of the 2010 midterms, their numbers again shrank after the 2012 elections, leaving them
with just 14 members.
22 This is a liberal party platform, agreed by leading members of the Democratic Party, upon
which the 2006 midterms were fought. In this agreement, the Democrats committed
themselves to providing real security, better jobs, and access to college, energy
independence, affordable healthcare and retirement security.
23 Possible measures include:

The 2009 economic stimulus plan, which the Democrats passed on largely partisan
lines, with only 11 House Democrats voting against it.

The passage of the March 2010 Patient Protection and Affordable Healthcare Act
was part of the liberal health care reform agenda of the 111th congress.

In December 2010, the Democrat-controlled Congress repealed the controversial
‘Don’t Ask Don’t Tell’ policy, which prohibited openly gay persons from serving in the
military.

They have consistently called for increased taxes on the most wealthy in order to pay
off the national debt while ensuring federal entitlement programmes are not cut out of
the budget.

They have supported a range of bailout, fiscal stimulus, and job creation measures,
including the Auto bailout for car manufacturers and Obama’s 2011 job creation plan.
There have also been more recent attempts at gun control and calls for immigration reform
along the lines of the previously defeated DREAM Act, all of which suggest the party
remains liberally minded.
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Exam-style question
24 Higher level 1 answers (5–6 marks) should at least be clear on the aims of conservative
Democrats and briefly explain one way that they can or cannot be seen as a ‘dying breed’.
Level 2 answers (7–8 marks) should show some understanding of the aims of
conservative Democrats and be able to explain at least two ways that these factions can
or cannot be seen as a ‘dying breed’.
Level 3 answers (11–12 marks) should show a clear understanding of the aims of
conservative Democrats and be able to explain fully, using accurate knowledge and
examples, the ways in which these factions can and cannot be seen as a ‘dying breed’.
Points to show they are a ‘dying breed’ could be:

The party is now clearly progressively liberal (see possible points in question 20),
especially following the success of the ‘6 for 06’ campaign and the subsequent
passage of a raft of liberal legislation following their victory in the 2006 midterms.

The number of Blue Dog Democrats is in serious decline, with just 14 members, after
the 2012 elections.

Blue Dog Democrats have faced challenges by more liberal opponents in their
primary elections, such as the recent defeat of Pennsylvanian representatives Jason
Altmire and Tim Holden.

A number of longstanding members of the Blue Dog Coalition resigned in the run-up
to the 2012 election, such as Ben Nelson of Nebraska, one of its most conservative
members.
Points to show they are not a ‘dying breed’ could be:

Blue Dogs were instrumental in forcing Obama to water down his original healthcare
proposals. The unsuccessful Stupak–Pitts amendment did lead to Obama’s
agreement to introduce an executive order removing federal funding for abortions
from the healthcare package.

There remain a number of high-profile conservatives within the party such as West
Virginia’s Joe Manchin or Georgian representative John Barrow.

Conservatives have been and will remain important members of the party in seeking
compromises with Republicans over controversial legislation, especially in the highly
partisan Washington environment. Thus they have played a role in negotiations over
gun control, immigration reform and tackling the debt problem.
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Party decline or party renewal?
25 This means a decline in voter party affiliation and loyalty. It refers to the increase in voters
considering themselves independent, or swing voters, as loyalty to the two main parties is
replaced by issue-centred politics, candidate loyalty or voting for minor parties.
26 Due to the open nature of US primaries, a series of Tea Party-backed candidates have
been able to unseat Republican incumbents or defeat party favourites in the most recent
primary elections. In this way, Charlie Crist lost the primary to Tea Party insurgent Marco
Rubio in 2010, while in 2012 Richard Mourdock — who was heavily endorsed by the Tea
Party — defeated the six-term Senator Richard Lugar in the Indiana Republican primary.
27 A range of factors has undermined the traditional roles of US parties in selecting
candidates, fundraising, communicating with the electorate, and developing policy. These
include:

The increasing use of primaries in selecting candidates has meant candidates are
more concerned with direct appeals to the electorate and the party leadership is given
less power to choose candidates and shape the direction of the party.

Primaries are by their nature deeply divisive and encourage rifts to form between
individuals and factions within the party.

Campaign finance reforms such as the 2002 BCRA have placed limits on party
fundraising and expenditure while Supreme Court decisions such as the Citizens
United case have increased the power of pressure groups to fund the campaigns of
individual candidates.

Pressure groups have replaced parties in communicating with the electorate,
mobilising voters and developing policy.

The media allows for more candidate-centred politics that focuses on individual media
personalities. Similarly, the rise of new media and social networking sites has
provided a vehicle through which individual candidates can reach out to the electorate
or raise funds directly.
Exam-style question
28 Higher level 1 answers (14–17 marks) should at least identify and briefly explain some of
the arguments in favour of party renewal or those that suggest party decline.
Level 2 answers (18–23 marks) should at least show some understanding of the debate
surrounding the importance of US parties. They will also show a limited knowledge and
ability to outline the arguments that there has been a renewal and those that suggest that
parties remain in decline.
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Level 3 answers (34–37 marks) should at least show a clear understanding of the debate
surrounding the importance of US parties. They will be supported by accurate and detailed
knowledge and show an ability to explain the arguments that there has been a renewal
and those that suggest that parties remain in decline.
Arguments that there has been a resurgence of parties in recent years could include:

The increased party control over the agenda and direction of parties. Some
newspapers referred to Boehner’s ‘purge’ from key committee posts of Republicans
who had failed to support his conservative position on the fiscal cliff.

Evidence of partisanship and the increasing polarisation of the parties in recent years.
With the media’s focus on the deeply partisan approach by both parties to key issues
such as the economy, it is clear that parties are still dominant in the USA. There is
clear evidence of adversarial and partisan politics in the USA with the Republicans
being largely ideologically conservative while their Democratic counterparts have
adopted a more liberally progressive agenda.

Parties still play an important role in funding and organising electoral campaigns,
despite the decline in soft money, that is centred on both the Democratic and
Republican National Committees.

Congressional elections have become increasingly focused on parties and dominated
by national issues such as the 1994 Contract with America, the Democrats’ ‘6 for ‘06’
commitments and the most recent Republican Pledge to America, in 2010.

The introduction of unpledged superdelegates and party control over the timetabling
and nomination procedures has allowed them to try to recapture the presidential
nomination process.
Arguments that there has not been a resurgence of parties in recent years, and that they
remain in decline, could include:

Parties have lost control of the candidate selection process, with the increasing use of
primaries. This has reduced the power of party leaders to shape the direction of the
party and allowed external groups, such as the Tea Party, successfully to challenge
candidates who are favoured by the party leadership.

Primaries are divisive, and encourage inter-party rivalry, as seen by the battles within
the Republican Party in 2012.

Having unpledged superdelegates has been futile, and has not allowed parties to
claw back power over the presidential selection process. In reality, they are neither
willing, nor able, to overturn the outcome of the democratically elected primary
results.
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Political parties
The rise of Super PACs and wider pressure-group activity have largely replaced
parties in communicating with the electorate, mobilising voters, developing policies,
and fundraising.

The ability of parties to fundraise and campaign for candidates has also been
restricted by recent campaign finance laws, such as the 2002 BCRA, which banned
soft money from being raised and spent by parties.

Evidence of bipartisanship and the existence of factions within each party might
suggest that party loyalties and control are not as extensive as might be imagined.
Party support
29 Increasingly, immigration is becoming a critical issue, especially given the growing
importance of the Latino vote in many states along the Mexican border.
The problem for the Republican Party, as highlighted in 2012, was that it has a falling
share of this rapidly rising demographic. Electorally, it achieved less than 30% of the
Latino vote and this was an important voting group in swing states such as Florida and
Nevada.
The gender gap refers to different levels of women and men who are inclined to vote for
either party, and 2012 marked a huge difference between the parties. According to Gallup,
the 2012 presidential election saw the largest gender gap since it began compiling its
results. This election saw a 20-point gender gap with Barack Obama winning the female
vote by 12 points (56% to 44%) while his Republican challenger Mitt Romney won among
men by eight points (54% to 46%).
30 Data from the last presidential election suggest the following groups tend to vote for the
Republican Party (including % vote according to the NBC News exit poll of the 2012
presidential election).
Group
Reasons for support
High-income business
professionals, with family
income over $250,000 (55%)
These are drawn to the Republicans’ fiscal conservatism, in
particular the Republican opposition to tax rises and its support for
extending the Bush era tax cuts.
White Southerners
Historically drawn to Republicans following the breaking of the
Democrat Solid South and the success of the Republican southern
strategy, which targeted disaffected white Southerners. This area
also contains a number of ‘Bible belt’ states with voters drawn to
their social conservatism.
Rural voters (61%)
These voters favour the limited government regulation supported by
the Republicans and especially their general opposition to gun
control.
Protestant Christians (57%)
They support the Republicans’ stance on social issues and the
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traditional moral values espoused by social conservatives within the
party. In particular, they are drawn to their opposition to abortion and
same-sex marriage.
White males (62%)
White males in particular tend to prefer the Republicans’ more
conservative position on social policies and also their opposition to
affirmative action. In addition, they are drawn to the Republicans’
strong stance on defence, National Security, and immigration.
Exam-style question
31 Higher level 1 answers (5–6 marks) should at least be clear on one Democrat voting group
and outline, or implicitly state, a reason why they vote Democrat.
Level 2 answers (7–8 marks) should show some understanding of at least two voting
groups and be able to explain briefly some reasons why they vote Democrat.
Level 3 answers (11–12 marks) should show a clear understanding of at least three voting
groups and be able to explain fully, using accurate knowledge and examples, the reasons
why they vote Democrat.
Data from the last presidential election suggest the following groups tend to vote for the
Democratic Party (including % vote according to the NBC News exit poll of the 2012
presidential election):

Low-income working class, with family income under $30,000 (63%): Many are
members of unions who favour their more interventionist approach, such as the Auto
bailout. They also favour the Democrats’ support for raising the federal minimum
wage and their protection of federal entitlement programmes.

Gay and lesbian (76%): Favour the Democrats’ more liberal stance on social
policies, and general commitment to gay rights.

Latino (71%): They are particularly drawn to Democrats’ less hostile views on
immigration, and support for a path to citizenship for illegal immigrants. Many also
criticise the Republicans’ harsh stance on immigration, such as calls for ‘self
deportation’.

Unmarried women (67%): Many favour the party’s more pro-choice stance on
abortion and are critical of what some have called the Republican House’s ‘war on
women’.

African Americans (93%): Historically the most loyal voting group, following their
position on upholding civil rights and their more interventionist approach to
government.
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Minor parties
32 This is a system in which two major parties secure the vast majority of the vote during
public elections and thus dominate nearly every elected post. In the USA, the political
landscape has come to be dominated by the Republicans and the Democrats who,
between them, control both the legislature and executive branch of government.
33 Despite the failure to achieve significant electoral successes, minor parties can still have
an indirect impact on the US political system. They can:

Achieve success at a local level, securing victory in local or even state-based
elections.

Shape the political agenda with their national success, and media profile, pushing
certain issues towards the forefront of elections, as with Ross Perot in 1992.

Have an indirect impact on the eventual outcome of the election, thereby taking votes
away from either of the main two parties, which could shape the outcome of the
election, as with Ralph Nader in 2000.
Exam-style question
34 Higher level 1 answers (5–6 marks) should at least be clear on what is meant by minor
parties and briefly explain one difficulty they face.
Level 2 answers (7–8 marks) should show some understanding of the difficulties faced by
minor parties and be able to explain at least two difficulties they face.
Level 3 answers (11–12 marks) should show a clear understanding of the difficulties faced
by minor parties and be able to explain fully, using accurate knowledge and examples, at
least three difficulties they face in achieving electoral success.
Points for this question could include:

The range of factions within the major parties, and their broad ideological coverage
that leaves little room on the political spectrum for minor parties.

The first-past-the-post electoral system means that minor parties do not have the
depth or breadth of support to win elections.

The ballot access laws in a number of states make it difficult and costly for minor
parties to even get on the ballot at elections.

Party primaries reduce the need to electorally challenge the main parties as they are
a tool to infiltrate the two main parties with favourable candidates.

Minor-party candidates often lack the funding of main-party candidates, while the
restrictions on federal matching funds mean that this source of funding is not really
accessible to minor parties.
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
Political parties
The major parties often act as ‘sponge parties’ and absorb the successful policies of
minor-party candidates, thus nullifying their electoral success.

They lack serious media coverage and very few have ever been invited to participate
in the presidential debates.
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Pressure groups
Topic 3
Pressure groups
Access points
1 This is a term for the openings in the US political system through which pressure groups
look to try to advance their aims. The creation of a federal system especially means that
there is a range of these gaps available to pressure groups, including those within the
executive, legislative and judicial branches at both federal and state levels.
2 Insider groups are those groups that have very close links and access to the government
of the time, whereas outsider groups do not enjoy these connections with government and
are largely excluded from political discussions. While insider groups enjoy the ‘ear of
government’ and are able to work to influence Congress or the President through lobbying
and insider means, outsider groups do not have the same political muscle, and may
instead choose to use more direct forms of extra-congressional pressure.
3 Public interest groups are those groups that are usually more open to the general public
and aim to promote issues of public interest, for example, environmental protection groups
such as the Sierra Club. Private interest groups represent the narrow interests of their
members and aim to shape public policy for their own benefit, such as the US chamber of
commerce, which represents around 300,000 trade and business groups.
4 A range of factors accounts for the proliferation of US pressure groups. These include:

The range of access points means that groups are able, and encouraged, to reach
the various branches of government at both the national and state levels, as well as
challenging decisions in the courts or passing direct ballot initiatives.

The increasing level of partisanship in the USA has also, arguably, encouraged the
formation of ideological and issue-based pressure groups.

As the size of federal government has increased, so too has the number of groups
that aim to advance their own interests and shape the policy framework to their
advantage.

Disillusionment with politics and distrust of politicians have also led to the growth of
public interest groups that aim to improve political scrutiny. Similarly, there has been
a rise in issue-centred groups looking to inform the electorate about the voting
records and policy positions of politicians.
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Pressure group methods
5 These are the activities undertaken by ordinary members of pressure groups, which are
seen to be free of party political control. The rise of the US Tea Party movement is an
example of a group that arose from local community-based activism to criticise the
government’s healthcare plans.
6 Pressure groups might support the use of ballot initiatives in the following ways:

They can, especially given the strict conditions for placing a measure on the ballot in
some states, use their resources to gather the signatures required, as well as
promoting the initiative, to get it placed on the ballot.

They can use their resources to coordinate the campaign for a proposition by
employing full-time staff, such as PR firms, and establishing campaign offices.

Given the cost of trying to pass a state-wide ballot initiative, they can fund campaigns
by running advertisements and producing promotional material.

They can staff campaigns by providing the workers and volunteers needed to
generate support for a proposition.
Exam-style question
7 Higher level 1 answers (5–6 marks) should at least be clear on what electioneering tactics
pressure groups use.
Level 2 answers (7–8 marks) should show some understanding of at least two
electioneering tactics and be able to explain how they are used by pressure groups.
Level 3 answers (11–12 marks) should show a clear understanding of the electioneering
tactics used by pressure groups and be able to explain fully, using accurate knowledge
and examples, reasons why they have increased in recent years.
Electioneering activities could include:

Funding: They have used a range of funding vehicles to support candidate
campaigns financially, such as PACs, 527s or Super PACs.

Voter mobilisation: They can lead drives to encourage people to register and vote.

Advertising: This can be used to support a candidate directly or indirectly. Although
this might take the form of championing a candidate’s record, it is also used to attack
the record and positions of rival candidates, through negative advertising.

Endorsement: They can mobilise their members to support a particular candidate.
Reasons why they have increased could include:
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
Pressure groups
The increasing level of partisanship has encouraged the formation of ideological and
issue-based pressure groups.

The failure of campaign finance laws has meant pressure groups have found
loopholes that have allowed them to circumvent restrictions, as seen with the rise of
PACs and Super PACs.

Successful legal challenges about the constitutionality of restrictions on
electioneering, endorsements and funding have opened the system and have
especially allowed a number of wealthy and proactive funding vehicles to become
established across the USA.

The deregulation of media in the 1990s, leading to the explosion of cable channels,
and the more recent rise of new media, have both given pressure groups a range of
channels to reach the electorate and influence voters.
Pressure group impact
8 The main factors include:

The fact that Congress is a bicameral institution means it is possible for pressure
groups to lobby both chambers. This gives them a broader range of possibilities to
influence and shape legislation as it passes through either chamber.

There is a tendency for divided government in the USA, in which each chamber of
Congress is held by different parties. This gives pressure groups a greater chance to
water down or add amendments to legislation.

The power of congressional committees, as the ‘gate-keepers’ to legislation, provides
further opportunities for pressure groups to shape legislation before it arrives on the
floor of Congress, or to have unfavourable legislation pigeonholed.
Exam-style question
9 Higher level 1 answers (5–6 marks) should at least be clear on why pressure groups seek
to influence their legislative role.
Level 2 answers (7–8 marks) should show some understanding, and ability to explain
briefly, at least two reasons why pressure groups seek to influence the Senate.
Level 3 answers (11–12 marks) should show a clear understanding of, and ability to
explain fully, at least three reasons why pressure groups seek to influence the Senate, and
use accurate knowledge and examples to support these reasons.
As well as the legislative role of the Senate, in which pressure groups look to shape the
outcome of elections, answers could refer to the exclusive powers of the Senate that make
it a target for pressure group activity, such as:
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
Pressure groups
Their control over foreign policy issues, especially in ratifying treaties, making them a
target for those groups wishing to shape America’s foreign policy position or in
blocking international agreements that might have an impact on domestic affairs.

Their power to confirm presidential appointments for positions in the executive branch
and, more important, to all posts in the federal judiciary. This is particularly attractive
as it will enable pressure groups to shape the political make-up and, thereby, future
decisions of the Supreme Court.

Individual senators have the right to unlimited debate, meaning that even pressure
groups without widespread congressional support can exert real power through the
filibuster or the mere threat of a filibuster.
10 Access to the President can let pressure groups take advantage of their power to propose
legislation to Congress. This is seen through the annual State of the Union address in
which the President, before a joint session of Congress, is able to lay out what he or she
sees as the legislative priorities of the USA. In addition, the office of the presidency
arguably has important powers in being able to persuade Congress, or influencing
members through the bully pulpit. If nothing else, Presidents can use their media presence
and hold over large television audiences to press the claims for certain legislative change.
11 Possible ways to influence the executive:

Through electioneering and supporting a presidential bid for office, which might allow
a pressure group to gain insider status should the candidate achieve victory.

Lobbying members of the executive branch to push for certain legislative proposals or
encouraging the President to pass beneficial executive orders.

Even outsider groups could gain influence through their relations with the federal
bureaucracy and the development of long-term iron triangles that could thwart even
the President’s will.

Pressure groups could look to secure favourable relations with the relevant regulatory
body that is scrutinising its members, ensuring some form of regulatory capture.
12 This term, which means ‘friend of the court’, is the right of an individual or group to present
information to the court in order to help them make a ruling. It is usually a legal briefing
that summarises a pressure group’s standpoint on the legal issue being considered.
Exam-style question
13 Higher level 1 answers (5–6 marks) should at least be clear on how legal challenges seek
to use the Supreme Court’s power of judicial review and how this leads to legal
challenges.
Level 2 answers (7–8 marks) should show some understanding of the Supreme Court’s
power of judicial review and be able to explain two methods used by pressure groups.
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Level 3 answers (11–12 marks) should show a clear understanding of the methods used
by pressure groups in targeting the Supreme Court and be able to explain fully, using
accurate knowledge and examples, reasons why they look to influence them.
The ways they influence could include:

Impacting the nomination and appointment process by electioneering for a
presidential candidate who can shape the Supreme Court to the benefit of a pressure
group. Alternatively, they can look to influence the Senate’s scrutiny of nominees at
committee stage or on the final vote on the Senate floor.

Use litigation to fund or pursue cases through to the Supreme Court.

Submitting amicus curiae briefs to try to persuade justices of their legal arguments in
relation to a case.
The reasons why could include:

Their power of judicial review, allowing them to interpret the constitutionality of
legislation and effectively strike down federal or state-based laws.

The power, particularly of judicially active courts, to make decisions on controversial
areas. These ‘judge-made’ laws can cover issues such as abortion or gun control.

They uphold and protect civil liberties, especially in rulings relevant to the Bill of
Rights.

They are a way in which outsider, minority or less wealthy groups can have a
significant impact.
Pluralism and pressure group activity
14 This means that dominant majority groups in society can disadvantage minority groups. It
mostly occurs due to the existence of majoritarian voting systems, in elections or ballot
initiatives, that significantly disadvantage minority groups, which can see their interests
sidelined by the will of the majority population.
15 Brown v Board of Education was sponsored by the NAACP, and was part of an attempt by
this civil rights pressure group to use litigation to challenge the constitutionality of
segregation in many southern states. It led to the ruling that segregation in schools was
‘inherently unequal’, thereby paving the way for desegregation in the South.
The Lawrence v Texas ruling was funded by Lamda Legal, an advocacy group for lesbians
and gays. This challenged the constitutionality of Texas sodomy laws, which were
declared unconstitutional to effectively safeguard an individual’s right to a same-sex
relationship.
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16 This is the money supplied to candidates from the federal government purse. In the USA,
federal ‘matching funds’ for the primaries match donations made by individual contributors
dollar for dollar up to a maximum of $250. Major-party candidates may also be eligible to
receive a federal grant to help fight the general election.
17
Key terms
Restrictions
Federal Election
Campaigns Act
1974
Donation limit of $1,000 per individual, to
a single electoral campaign.
PAC donations limited to $5,000 per
candidate.
Limited individual candidate expenditure
in primaries and elections.
Provided federal ‘matching funds.’
Restricted the influence of
wealth by setting limits for
individual donations and
establishing a system of federal
funding for major-party
candidates.
Lobbying
Disclosure Act
1995
Widened the definition of a pressure
group, requiring more groups to register
their activities.
Banned gifts to congressmen, including
‘wining and dining’.
Tightened up the requirements
for lobbyists to register their
activities while also banning the
giving of gifts.
Bipartisan
Campaign
Reform Act 2002
Ban on ‘soft money’ and increased ‘hard
money’ limits.
Restricted the timing and direct funding of
pressure group ‘issue’-based adverts.
Tightened the restrictions from
the previous Act by regulating
soft money and introducing
advertising restrictions.
Honest
Leadership and
Open
Government Act
2007
Two-year ‘cooling off’ period before
senators can undertake lobbying.
Almost complete ban on gifts from
lobbyists.
Requires a full disclosure of lobbying
activities.
Attempted to close the revolving
door by introducing a ‘cooling off’
period after leaving office while
also extending the ban on gifts,
and requirements for full
disclosure of lobbying activities.
Elitism and pressure group activity
18 This is the theory that political power is concentrated in a small group, or elite. In the USA,
it refers to the idea that certain pressure groups dominate the political process, due to their
wealth or status.
19 The US Chamber of Commerce, which represents the interests of its 300,000 businesses
and trade groups such as Texaco and Goldman Sachs, spent over $136 million. The
second-biggest spender was the National Association of Realtors, representing those
involved in property and real estate, which spent nearly $41.5 million.
20

The revolving-door syndrome arises from the fact that a significant number of
lobbyists have come from the ranks of former politicians, or staff members, leading to
the claim that US politics is dominated by an insider elite that is able to influence the
political system. Because many lobbyists are former politicians, or their aides, the
view stands that the same people remain in the political world to control policy.
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Pressure groups
An iron triangle is the strong relationship that can be formed between pressure
groups, the relevant congressional committees and the relevant government
department or agency in an attempt to guarantee the policy outcomes to the benefit
of all three groups. This effectively gives them an iron grip on public policy, meaning
they are able to thwart the will of Congress or the President.

Regulatory capture is the close relationship between regulatory agencies and the
bodies they are supposed to be overseeing. The idea is that commercial pressure
group activity can turn these government watchdog agencies into mere lapdogs.
Exam-style question
21 Higher level 1 answers (14–17 marks) should at least identify and briefly explain some of
the reasons why US pressure group activity is a positive or negative thing.
Level 2 answers (18–23 marks) should at least show some understanding of the elitist and
pluralist debate. They will also show a limited knowledge and ability to explain briefly the
arguments that US pressure group activity is and isn’t ‘undemocratic and elitist’.
Level 3 answers (34–37 marks) should at least show a clear understanding of the debate
between elitists and pluralists in the USA. They should also show an ability to explain the
arguments that pressure group activity is and isn’t ‘undemocratic and elitist’, which will be
supported by accurate and detailed knowledge.
Arguments that pressure group activity is ‘undemocratic and elitist’ could include:

The insider status and rise in lobbying activities that give some groups preferential
access to government: in particular, the need to ‘pay to play’ in the corridors of
Washington DC benefits rich and elite pressure groups.

The revolving-door syndrome in which many former politicians or staff members are
able to take up lucrative jobs in the lobbying industry, keeping political power in the
hands of an unelected elite.

Iron triangles, which allow pressure groups to develop an iron grip on public policy,
are seen as particularly undemocratic, especially when elected politicians have their
democratic will thwarted.

Regulatory capture, in which the close relationship between regulatory agencies and
the bodies that they are supposed to be overseeing can mean that their ability to
scrutinise the actions of commercial groups is limited.
Arguments that pressure group activity is not ‘undemocratic and elitist’ could include:
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Pressure groups
Their protection of minority groups who might expect to be excluded from an elitist
system. They use a range of tactics, but especially their use of litigation to prevent a
‘tyranny of the majority’.

There exists a clear legal framework to prevent pressure group activity from being
damaging to democracy. The system of legal regulations thereby constrains pressure
group activity.

They play a number of democratic roles such as representing a range of viewpoints,
educating the electorate, encouraging political activism, and scrutinising politicians by
holding them to account for their actions.
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TOPIC 4
Racial and ethnic politics
Topic 4
Racial and ethnic politics
1 In many southern states, even following the Civil War and the passage of the13th
Amendment, which banned slavery, African Americans continued to face discrimination.
They were required to use segregated facilities and this was given constitutional protection
in the 1896 Plessy v Ferguson case, which ruled in favour of these ‘separate but equal’
facilities.
2 This constitutional amendment effectively gave equality to all racial groups by stating that
all those born and naturalised in the USA were citizens. It also offered protection for this
racial equality by stating that ‘No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge
the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States’.
3 This verdict ignited the black civil rights campaign in the USA and led to a series of legal
challenges of other state-based segregation laws, which effectively led to the end of
segregation across the USA. It stimulated a growing demand for wider political and
economic equality, among black people, which saw the passage of the Civil Rights Act
(1964) and the Voting Rights Act (1965). Furthermore, it led to the rise of Black
Nationalism, which called for the greater political and economic empowerment of black
people, built upon racial pride and independence for black people.
Extent of racial equality in the USA
4 This is the theory that race is no longer an issue in American society and that there no
longer exists any form of racial discrimination or prejudice in the USA, arising from the
success of the civil rights movement and the achievement of genuine racial equality.
5
Number of epresentatives
Number of senators
African Americans
41
2
Latino Americans
34
4
(February 2013, CRS Report for Congress)
Exam-style question
6 Higher level 1 answers (5–6 marks) should at least identify and briefly explain one
advancement in recent years.
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Level 2 answers (7–8 marks) should at least show some understanding of two
advancements in recent years, while supporting their points with some limited knowledge
and use of examples.
Level 3 answers (11–12 marks) should at least show a clear understanding of three
advancements in recent years and will be supported by accurate knowledge and detailed
examples.
Points for this question could include:

Legal equality achieved through a range of civil rights legislation and Supreme Court
cases.

Evidence of the growing minority political representation across America at both a
national and local level, particularly Obama’s successful bid for the presidency.

The success of a range of what have been termed model minorities, such as Asian
Americans, and the increasing numbers of high-school and college graduates from
minority groups.

The existence of an increasingly affluent black middle class, as well the success of
many other minority groups, is evidence that there are no longer any barriers to
economic achievement.
7 This is indirect discrimination against racial minorities and the idea that, despite the lack of
overt racism, there remain barriers to their social, political and economic advancement
because of inbuilt prejudices in the system.
8 This report found that there was a growing wealth gap between white and AfricanAmerican families that nearly tripled between 1984 and 2009 from $85,000 to $236,500. In
particular, it found that the reasons are because of the continuing barriers to opportunity
from ‘deeply entrenched racial dynamics in how wealth is accumulated’.
They found that the reasons for this racial wealth gap are caused by different levels of:

Home ownership, and limited access to assets among blacks

Income levels, and the ability of blacks to make savings

Inherited wealth

Education, and the claim that ‘achievement and college completion gaps are growing’
It found that, despite income gains for both groups, these factors led to unequal wealth
rewards, with whites benefitting more than African Americans.
9 A detailed look at the racial makeup of the 113th Congress shows:

Despite a Latino population of nearly 17%, Latinios constitute only 8% of the House.
Likewise the African American population of 13% is not reflected in its 9% of
representatives.
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Racial and ethnic politics
In the Senate, the situation is even more imbalanced with just 2% being African
American and only 4% being of Latino origin.
Affirmative action
10 Affirmative action generally means giving preferential treatment to minorities in admissions
to universities or employment opportunities for government and private businesses.
11 He points out the need to correct past historical injustices, alluding to the issue of slavery
in which African Americans were ‘hobbled by chains’. This has made it hard for minorities
to compete fairly. Despite gaining legal equality, which has opened ‘the gates of
opportunity’, minorities still need a helping hand to take advantage of those opportunities.
In particular, he wants equality in practice not just as a ‘theory’.
12 Some Americans believe that legislation and Supreme Court decisions in the 1950s and
1960s created a legal framework for ‘equality of opportunity’ in that all races were free
from legal discrimination. In particular, conservatives claim that the legal protection given
to all races in the USA ensures de facto equality. This is the essence of the American
Dream, in which there is no longer any legal barrier to opportunity for minority groups.
In contrast ‘equality of outcome’ looks to try to create a level playing field for previously
disadvantaged groups, in order to ensure that the end result is genuine equality between
races. This replaces legal equality with more substantive equality in which advantages are
given to previously discriminated groups in order to ensure that they can, and do, take
advantage of the opportunities available to them.
Affirmative action and the Supreme Court
13 The idea that race-based affirmative action actively disadvantages white people and is
therefore itself actually a form of racist and discriminatory action.
14
Year
Limits to affirmative action
Regents of the
University of
California v Bakke
1978
Decided that race couldn’t be the only factor in university
admissions, although it could still be used if it doesn’t directly
disadvantage other applicants.
Adarand Constructors
v Pena
1995
Confirmed the need for ‘strict scrutiny’ to ensure that federal
affirmative action programmes had a specific purpose and are
‘narrowly tailored’ to specifically target discriminated groups.
Gratz v Bollinger
2003
Decided that the University of Michigan’s admissions system
was unconstitutional as it was ‘too mechanistic’ in awarding
racial minorities extra points towards their admission.
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15 The case revolves around the claim of Abigail Fisher that her entry to the prestigious
University of Texas was blocked by the higher education’s admission policy, which
involves some form of affirmative action in giving preference to racial minorities. Under the
Ten Percent plan, 92% of places were allocated to Texan students who graduated in the
top 10% of their school. The remaining 8% (841 students) were selected based on their
academic profile and a ‘personal achievement index’, of which one element was their race.
The case is thereby important as any move to uphold Fisher’s case against affirmative
action could effectively mean that these racial preference measures are deemed
unconstitutional.
Affirmative action and state-based
propositions
16 State-based propositions banning affirmative action:

Oklahoma State Question 759 (2012)

Arizona Proposition 107 (2010)

Nebraska Initiative 424 (2008)

Michigan Proposal 2 (2006)

Washington Initiative 200 (1998)

California Proposition 209 (1996)
17 Arguments against affirmative action could include:

It is a form of reverse discrimination and can lead to wealthy minorities being given
preference over poor white applicants.

It lowers standards as candidates are not picked on merit and it is demotivating for
racial minorities who don’t have to work as hard.

It means it is impossible to create a truly colour-blind society, as race remains an
issue.

It is demeaning and undermines minority achievement.
Arguments in favour of affirmative action could include:

It promotes social diversity and ensures a range of races achieve success.

It actively levels the playing field and overcomes the ongoing disadvantages of
institutional racism that persist in the USA.

It helps to break down racial stereotypes by giving racial minorities the opportunity to
show they are as capable as whites.

It is a form of compensation for past injustices and discrimination.
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Exam-style question
18 Higher level 1 answers (5–6 marks) should at least be clear on conservative views and
one way they have tried to limit its scope.
Level 2 answers (7–8 marks) should show some understanding of conservative views and
briefly explain two ways they have tried to limit its scope with success or not.
Level 3 answers (11–12 marks) should show a clear understanding of conservative views
and actions against affirmative action and be able to explain fully, using accurate
knowledge and examples, evidence of their success and failure in limiting its scope. Points
might include:

The success of challenges through the Supreme Court to try to have it declared
unconstitutional. This could include the Bollinger cases, which show evidence of
success or failure, as well as the case of Fisher v Texas, which is currently being
considered by the court.

Introduction of state-based propositions to ban the use of affirmative action (as
outlined in question 16). Failures, such as Colorado proposition 46 in 2008, may also
be mentioned as well as those, such as Michigan proposal 2, that have been
overturned by the courts.

Passage of state legislation that bans affirmative action, such as that passed in New
Hampshire in 2011.

Introduction of alternative ‘colour-blind’ measures that do not use race as a factor,
such as the Texas Ten Percent plan, One Florida policy or the California Four
Percent plan.
Immigration controversy
19 This is usually a charge, laid by conservative politicians, against any moves towards giving
illegal immigrants a path towards US citizenship. It is the term for giving an official pardon
for past crimes of illegal immigration.
20 This proposal adopts two main approaches to immigration reform. First, it would create a
pathway to citizenship for illegal immigrants already in the country by allowing those
without a serious criminal conviction to work legally in the country for 10 years once they
pay an initial $500 penalty as well as any outstanding taxes. After this time they are able to
apply for permanent residency status, which could take upwards of three years.
The second element to the bill is one that will toughen border security with money being
funnelled into measures to tighten areas of the USA where law enforcement has had less
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success in sealing the border. The bill sets a goal of preventing more than 90% of illegal
crossings.
21 Conservatives see immigration reform as strictly an issue of controlling immigration and
securing US borders from illegal immigrants. For them, the focus needs to be on sealing
the US border with Mexico, to prevent further illegal immigration, while also adopting a
more proactive approach amongst law enforcement personnel to finding and deporting
undocumented aliens working in the USA.
In contrast, liberals claim that immigrants are people with rights who are essential to a
failing economy, and therefore should be encouraged to integrate with US society through
a nationwide amnesty programme. They support measures, such as the DREAM Act, that
would give these undocumented aliens a pathway to citizenship.
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Immigration reform
22
Summary of reform and outcomes
Criticisms of reform
DREAM Act,
since 2001
Allowed a path to citizenship for illegal
immigrants who have graduated from
high school and lived for 5 years in the
USA having been brought in as minors.
Upon completing two years of military
service, or two years of higher education,
they would be entitled to permanent
residence in the USA.
Introduced at various stages since 2001
but has been unable to overcome
opposition from members of Congress or
Senate filibusters.
Seen as an amnesty that rewarded illegal activity.
Claimed to be a military recruitment tool and a
means to gain cheap labour.
Allowed illegal immigrants to leapfrog the legal
immigration process and obtain subsidised state
college education.
Secure Fences
Act 2006
Aimed to improve border defences by
building a 700-mile fence along the US
border with Mexico, and widening other
security measures.
Signed into law by President Bush in
2006.
A costly measure that did not reduce illegal
immigration.
Harmful to relations with Mexico.
Might encourage seasonal workers to settle
permanently in the US with their families.
Bush ‘guest
worker’ scheme,
2004
Allowed a range of immigrants in
shortage areas to gain temporary work
visas in the USA.
Immigrants seen as cheap labour, and given no
guarantees of future citizenship.
Plan would not give workers protections, and they
could be paid less than minimum wage.
Seen to undercut American labour.
Rewards illegal behaviour and could encourage
future immigration.
Comprehensive
Immigration
Reform Act
2006
Looked to both increase border security
and provide a path to citizenship for longterm illegal immigrants.
Also extended the guest worker scheme,
allowing more workers to gain a
temporary work permit.
Failed to pass: amendments meant that
two very different bills passed the House
and the Senate, which were unable to be
reconciled in a conference committee.
House bill criticised for being solely focused on
border security, law enforcement and strict
penalties.
Senate bill seen as too lenient in allowing a
widespread amnesty.
Growth of the Latino vote
Exam-style question
23 Higher level 1 answers (5–6 marks) should at least be clear on the main parties’ positions
with regards to immigration.
Level 2 answers (7–8 marks) should show some understanding of at least two policies
favoured by either party.
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Level 3 answers (11–12 marks) should show a clear understanding of the immigration
policies favoured by both parties and be able to explain fully, using accurate knowledge
and examples, some divisions within them.
Overall mention could be made of specific reforms (outlined in question 22), but their
policy positions are generally:

Republicans tend to favour stricter laws on immigration, including punishments for
those entering the USA illegally or knowingly hiring an illegal immigrant, as well as
increased border security and blocking attempts at amnesty for undocumented aliens.
The 2012 Republican Party Platform showed this with its claim that ‘State
enforcement efforts in the workplace must be welcomed, not attacked’ showing its
support for a number of harsh state measures to tackle the employment of illegal
immigrants. It also made clear its stance with regards to the citizenship of illegal
immigrants, that ‘we oppose any form of amnesty… Granting amnesty only rewards
and encourages more law breaking’.

Democrats tend to favour a more liberal approach by giving a path to citizenship for
current illegal immigrants, allowing them to integrate with US society through a
nationwide amnesty programme. Their platform of 2012 advocates ‘comprehensive
immigration reform that brings undocumented immigrants out of the shadows…in
order to get on a path to earn citizenship’.
Divisions could include:

The lack of support among conservative Blue Dogs who voted against the December
2010 congressional vote on the DREAM Act, while three moderate Republican
senators voted in favour of the bill.

There is no consensus of opinion among those on the conservative right of the
Republican Party. Texas Governor Rick Perry was criticised by many in his own party
in 2011 for supporting a state policy giving in-state tuition rates to children of illegal
immigrants. The eventual Republican candidate, Mitt Romney, criticised Perry and
instead favoured measures for ‘self-deportation’.

Republican defeat in the 2012 presidential election, which was partly a result of the
Republican failures to secure the Latino vote, has also seen divisions between those
taking a more pragmatic and balanced approach towards immigration reform, and
conservatives in the party who continue to support a hard-line approach. Some
suggest that one faction opposes any form of immigration, a second faction favours
the economic argument for benefitting from cheap labour, while a third faction is
concerned about not alienating the Latino vote.
24
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State
Latino percentage of the state
population
% increase in the state’s Latino
population 2000–2010
Florida
22.5%
57.4%
New Mexico
46.3%
24.6%
Nevada
26.5%
81.9%
Colorado
20.7%
41.2%
25 Latinos now account for nearly two in every five new voters nationally and are the largest
single minority voting group. The 43% increase in the Latino population in America
between 2000 and 2010 shows they are a rising demographic who look set to have an
increasing share of the vote in future years.
They are also an important voting constituency because they made up a growing share of
the population in a number of the swing states in 2012. In Florida, New Mexico, Nevada
and Colorado they constituted between 20% and 46% of potential voters. The fact that
each of these states was won fairly comfortably by Obama in 2012 would suggest that
they are an important group for voters to target and win over in order to secure electoral
victory.
Exam-style question
26 Higher level 1 answers (14–17 marks) should at least identify and briefly explain some of
the arguments that there is racial equality or that there is not racial equality in the USA.
Level 2 answers (18–23 marks) should at least show some understanding of the debate
surrounding racial equality in the USA and show a limited knowledge and ability to explain
the arguments that there is and that there is not racial equality in the USA.
Level 3 answers (34–37 marks) should at least show a clear understanding of the debate
surrounding racial equality in the USA, and will show an ability to explain the arguments
that there is racial equality and that there is not racial equality in at least two of the areas
identified, which will be supported by accurate and detailed knowledge.
Arguments that there is racial equality might include:

Political equality at a national level, which has seen the success of Obama in two
presidential elections and the increasing representation of various minority groups,
especially in the House of Representatives; also the success of racial minorities at a
state or local level, and especially in those states known for their discriminatory
policies.

Social equality with the increasing educational attainment seen among all minority
groups in recent years, and especially among those labelled model minorities.
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Measures to advance racial diversity in education without the use of affirmative action
might show the move towards a colour-blind society.

Economic equality, as seen with the increasing affluence and rising home ownership
of minority groups, as well as the increasing numbers of minorities in white-collar
professions.
Arguments that they there is not racial equality might include:

The persistent political inequality at a national level, with minorities being underrepresented in Congress, markedly so in the Senate. Some might highlight that much
of the minority political representation in America is secured as a result of
gerrymandering congressional districts, rather than the colour-blind voting habits of
the US electorate.

Evidence of ongoing social inequality, including overt and institutional racism in the
USA. Include arguments surrounding continued inequalities in the educational and
criminal justice systems, meaning far fewer minorities are likely to graduate high
school or undertake higher education while far more minorities are likely to be
imprisoned in the USA.

Continuing disparities regarding the economic opportunities, and the wealth gap
between minority groups and white Americans. Include the range of economic data
that points towards barriers to economic opportunity for various minority groups, such
as differences in the unemployment rates, income levels and senior board positions
in the USA.
Edexcel A2 Government & Politics Unit 3C Representative Processes in the USA
© Tremaine Baker
Philip Allan, an imprint of Hodder Education
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