Chapter 2: Studying Human Geography
ⅠLearning Objectives
By reading chapter 2, you should be able to:
1. Identify the philosophical constructs which underpin geographic approaches and
be able to explain how they relate to geographic approaches, concepts, and
methods.
2. Understand how human geographers incorporate Marxism into geographic
approaches.
3. Explain the importance of maps to the study of human geography.
4. Understand how maps are made, know the different types of maps, and some of
their common limitations.
5. Have knowledge of general methods and resources used for qualitative and
quantitative research.
ⅡChapter Summary
Human geography incorporates a variety of philosophical perspectives in its approaches
and analysis. First, there is the broad philosophical debate between determinism and
free will, which, in human geography, is understood as the debate between
environmental determinism (the physical environments effects on human culture) or of
possibilism, the idea that humans make decisions to shape their own actions. Human
geography also incorporates the philosophies of empiricism, positivism, humanism, and
Marxism, and these philosophies affect the choice of concepts and methods
geographers use in their studies.
The key concepts of geography are space, location, place, region, distance, scale,
diffusion, perception, development, discourse, and globalization, and these concepts
underpin how human geographers study the world. All of these concepts relate to the
use of maps and writing.
Empiricism gives priority to factual observations in the belief that knowledge stems
from experience. Positivism incorporates the scientific method of using empirical
evidence to establish theories, test hypotheses, and devise laws. As such, empiricism
and positivism form the basis for the quantitative methods which are used to formally test
hypotheses and contribute to formal theories. Quantitative methods gather data through
questionnaires and sampling, and use models to make sense of this data. Empiricism is
also the basis for the information gathering techniques of cartography, geographic
information systems (GIS), and remote sensing. These techniques typically make use of
the concepts of location, region, distance, and spatial scale.
Humanism, on the other hand, focuses on how humans perceive the world and make
decisions. It employs phenomenology, the idea that knowledge is subjective;
pragmatism, the idea that human actions are structured by subjective interpretations;
and existentialism, a philosophy which stresses individual decision making. Human
geography addresses human landscapes, such as culture, and how people think, feel
and act. Humanists approach the geographic concept of place in three ways: sense of
place, placelessness, and sacred space. They also frequently employ the concept of
perception.
Marxism is an approach which relates the process of social and economic change
through economic structures, such as capitalism through ideas of the forces, relations,
and modes of production. Marx was concerned with the exploitation of workers and this
philosophy related how this exploitation occurred within the capitalist economic system.
Marxist geographers typically address the unevenness of development and question
positivism, thereby using concepts of space, place, distance, development, discourse,
and globalization.
Human geographers also employ qualitative and quantitative approaches to assess
human relationships to their environment. Qualitative approaches include ethnography,
fieldwork, and participant observation, and may also employ resources such as art,
literature, architecture, music, photographs, and conversation. Quantitative geography
approaches include questionnaires, sampling, and the use of models to explain
phenomena.
Human geographers employ a variety of techniques of analysis based on the use of
maps. Cartography is the production and dissemination of maps and communicates a
variety of information spatially. In order to describe different phenomena, maps can be
chloropleths or isopleths and can be viewed at a variety of scales. Scale relates the area
covered in a map. Due to the issue of projecting a sphere on a flat surface, depending on
the projection technique, maps compress some region of the world as compared to the
relative size of another region.
Contemporary human geography has benefited from the information age. A
Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer based tool which is used to store,
display, analyse, and map data that is spatially referenced. Remote sensing is the
process by which data is obtained, and the two main techniques are photographic and
non-photographic sensor systems. Today, much remote sensing information is collected
through satellites and electromagnetic radiation to transfer data.
Ⅲ、the key points of the text
Three different aspects of human geography are considered in this section:
 philosophical

conceptual

analytical
Philosophical Options
Environmental determinism is a part of the larger determinism school of thought (predetermined human
actions). This option was accepted for the following reasons:
 The cause and effect theory was accepted as a scientific explanation that linked it to Darwin’s On
the Origin of Species (1859).

Environmental determinism has been a long recognized theory, beginning with the Greeks.

Any new explanatory approach highlighting the importance of geography to society was
acceptable.

The existence of a specific pattern made the theory attractive.
Possibilism, or the cultural landscape view, is a variant of ‘free will’ (self-determined human choices). It
emerged for two reasons:
 Existing literature on humans and land argued that humans made decisions that were not overtly
influenced by the physical environment.

Existing examples of human landscapes in similar outcomes of individual human
decision-making were already known.
Major Philosophies in Contemporary Geography
Empiricism
The empirical approach is based on factual realities; therefore, the acquisition of knowledge is a necessary
process of verification. Empiricism rejects generalizations and, rejected by other philosophies, forms the
basic framework of positivism. Traditional regional geography was empiricist in nature.
Positivism
Positivism believes that human geography should be objective in nature without the biases of personal
beliefs. As a result, humans and physical objects can be treated similarly.
Positivism was closely associated with quantitative methods and theory development in the 1960s. An
integral part of spatial analysis, positivism developed into a scientific method that studies facts,
conceptualization, hypothetical derivations, and the creation of laws on verification. The roots of
positivism can be traced to the work of Comte, who distinguished between science on one hand and
religion and metaphysics on the other.
Humanism
Humanism developed in the 1970s to challenge positivism. It emphasizes the role of humans as
decision-makers; the way humans perceive their world, land, landscapes, and regions; and subjectivity in
general.
There are several humanistic philosophies: pragmatism, phenomenology, existentialism, and idealism:

Pragmatism believes that every human action is based on human perceptions and practical
experience. It is closely related to empiricism.

Phenomenology believes that knowledge is subjective and an understanding of the individual
human is crucial to it.

Existentialism and idealism have not been very influential in geography.
Marxism
Karl Marx was a revolutionary who tried to understand society and social change by referring to historical
changes in social relations (historical materialism). To trace the history of economic change, he
summarized the following:
 forces of production, e.g. raw materials

relations of production, or the ways in which production process is organized, e.g. ownership and
control

mode of production, or the culmination of forces and relations, e.g. feudalism

‘superstructure’, which refers to the legal and political systems, social consciousness, and the
larger human geographic world

infrastructure, which in this case is the economic structure of the capitalist world that determines
the superstructure of the human geographic world
Marxism maintains that economic processes control human behaviour and focuses on social and
environmental ills. Its long-term goal is to create a transformation from capitalism to socialism.
Human Geographic Concepts
Two basic principles of human geography are
 geographic literacy: to know the facts, to know where places are

geographic knowledge: to explain the facts
The terms discussed below are essential to human geography and facilitate the understanding of how
human behaviour affects the earth’s surface.
Space
Absolute space exists in areal extent. It is objective and forms the basis of map-making, chorology, and
spatial analysis (very similar to the ideas of Kant). Relative space is area as perceived by society that
keeps changing. Human geographers are skeptical of spatial analysis because they believe space itself
does not have any content and its importance lies only in its human context.
Location
Location is a position within space, not necessarily on the earth’s surface. Absolute location identifies a
position with mathematical reference to latitude and longitude and thus does not change. Relative location
identifies a position relative to one or more locations that may change.
A toponym is the place name that also helps identify location.
Place
Place refers to a location with a specific identity, e.g. home. A sense of place is evoked in relation to a
distinctive place with special significance. Sacred space refers to a place that is respected usually for a
religious purpose. Mundane space is occupied by humans but has no particular quality. The concept of
‘placelessness’ refers to landscapes that are relatively similar.
Topophilia refers to the love of a place while topophobia refers to the dislike of a place.
Region
A formal region is an area with one or more common features. Defining formal regions is a subjective
matter.
A functional region is an area with locations related to either each other or to a specific location. With the
increasing use of spatial analysis in the 1960s, the concept of functional regions became more popular.
Distance
Distance is measured in standard units such as kilometres, while human geographers measure distances in
terms of time and cost. Distance may be relative or absolute.
The distribution and pattern of geographic facts is explained with reference to distances. The concept of
distance decay refers to the effect of increasing distance on time and cost.
Accessibility refers to the ease with which a location can be reached. Interaction refers to the movement
between locations.
Agglomeration refers to the close concentration of activities in a particular location while deglomeration
refers to decentralization or movement away from concentrations.
Scale
Scales may be spatial, temporal, or social. Spatial scale may be used in two ways:
 the ratio of the distance on the map to the distance on the ground

different scales exist for different types of area
Temporal scale is important for historical and cultural perspectives. Social scale refers to the individual
scale of analysis in human terms.
Diffusion
Diffusion represents one way in which change occurs in geography. It is the spread of a phenomenon over
space and growth over time, e.g. the migration of people.
Hagerstrand developed several concepts based on diffusion:
 the neighbourhood effect where diffusion spreads from the nearest to the farthest

the hierarchical effect where diffusion moves from larger centres to smaller ones

the S-shaped curve confirming that diffusion starts at a slow pace and then progresses rapidly
Perception
Perception and mental images form an integral part of human geography. Mental images and maps are
important for the following reasons:
 They make people aware of the degree of connectivity in world concerns. Mental maps change
with new circumstances.

Mental maps show that humans have different perceptions of environments. This helps to explain
population movements.

Mental maps of certain individuals, such as decision-makers, are important as they decide where
to locate things.

Distorted mental maps can present serious problems, particularly if one is in an unknown area.
Development
Development refers to the measures of economic growth, social welfare, and modernization. Certain areas
are more developed than others. For example, the highly developed St Lawrence lowlands of Quebec and
Ontario are surrounded by the lesser developed Maritime area and the North.
Discourse
According to Michel Foucault, the history of ideas is a history of changing discourses in which
 there is a relationship between power and knowledge

truth is relative and is based on the power relations within the societies that create it
Globalization
Globalization refers to the increasing interaction and integration of the world, economically, politically,
and culturally. It is both the result and the cause of the increasing interconnections of places and peoples.
It increases the volume of movement and the speed of movement across countries. Components of
globalization include technological advances in communications and
increasing predominance of transnational corporations.
Techniques of Analysis
Cartography
Cartography is the science of map-making. As communication tools, maps describe the location of
geographic facts and as analytical tools they provide answers and directions. Scale, type, and projections
form the basis of map-making.
Map scale refers to the area covered and the details present (large-scale maps and small-scale maps are
examples). Scale may be represented as a fraction, a ratio, a written statement, or a graphic scale.
The type of map depends on the type of information that needs to be presented. A dot map shows
distribution. Each dot represents a specific number of the objects concerned. A choropleth map shows the
subject under study as the average value per unit area within specific boundaries, using colour shadings.
An isopleth map shows a series of lines that join points of the same value.
Projection is the method of representing part or all of the earth’s surface on a flat surface. It is difficult to
map a sphere on a flat surface with complete accuracy; therefore, it is important to select a projection that
best serves the objectives of the map.
Computer-Assisted Cartography
Sometimes called digital mapping, computer-assisted cartography has reduced the need for manual skills:
artistic skills are no longer a requisite. Maps can be amended with the addition of new and revised data
and various versions can be produced.
Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
GIS is a computer-based tool that combines functions such as storage, display, and analysis with the
mapping of spatially referenced data. It translates spatial data in two ways:
 vector approach, where points are defined according to distances along two axes while lines are
described by the shortest distance between two points

raster approach, which represents a mapped area as a series of small rectangular cells called
pixels
GIS systems have varied applications. Two general applications are measuring and analyzing spatially
distributed resources and managing spatially distributed facilities.
Remote Sensing
Remote sensing is a process using both photographic and non-photographic sensor systems to collect
data. Electromagnetic radiation is used to transfer data from the target to the sensor in a variety of
wavelengths. Currently, the emphasis is on satellite imagery, but aerial photography is still used in the
visible and near-infrared spectral regions. Near-infrared spectral regions are particularly important for
obtaining environmental data.
Repeated satellite coverage of an area helps in noting land-use changes. Because the data is in digital
format, quick data transmission and image manipulation are possible. Besides remote sensing, a GPS
(global positioning system) is also used. It uses signals sent out by satellites to calculate location and
elevation.
Qualitative Methods
This term most often refers to social research with an emphasis on attitudes and behaviour.
Fieldwork to obtain primary data and participant observation are popular geographic approaches with
these methods. Problems of ethnocentrism and bias may arise with qualitative procedures.
Quantitative Methods
Quantitative methods are used for a wide variety of purposes, but particularly for analyzing relationships
between spatial patterns and for classifying data. Fieldwork involves the use of a questionnaire that asks
all individuals the same questions in the same way. A proper sampling method, based on statistical
sampling theory, allows the sample to be treated as representative of the population being surveyed.
Positivism and quantitative methods are regarded as dehumanized human geography due to the exclusion
of the human element and the inclusion of such elements as aggregate data. On the other hand, humanism
and qualitative procedures focus on the combination of research with the researched (the people).
Conclusion
Contemporary human geography is a diverse discipline that comprises different philosophies, concepts,
and techniques that balance each other while combining to offer a wide range of procedures.
Ⅳ、Study Questions
1. Describe the role played by the four main philosophies in contemporary human geography.
2. Explain the importance of location, place, region, and distance in human geography.
3. What is the importance of development in change?
4. Discuss the techniques used for data collection and analysis.
Short Answer Questions
1. How does the philosophical debate of determinism versus free will appear in the
discipline of human geography?
Answer: The idea of determinism was incorporated into geography in the form of
environmental determinism, which is the idea that the physical environment
determines human actions and the development of culture and other societal
processes. This approach was commonly incorporated into regional geography until
about the 1950s. The idea of free will appears in humanist geography through the
employment of the philosophy of existentialism, which stresses that people are
responsible for making their own nature and decisions, thereby affecting their
environments and landscapes.
2. How do the philosophical constructs of empiricism and positivism relate to the
concepts used and approaches taken by human geographers?
Answer: Empiricism is the philosophy that knowledge results from experience, and
hence measurement. Empiricism thus relates to approaches such as cartography and
spatially indexed information in remote sensing and GIS. Empiricism also underlies
the human geography concept of location and definitions of site and situation, as well
as the concepts of distance, diffusion.
Positivism is a philosophy which underlies the scientific method. A combination
of empiricism and positivism underlie quantitative approaches and methods.
3. How do the philosophical constructs of humanism and Marxism relate to the concepts
used and approaches taken by human geographers?
Answer: Humanism is the philosophy that knowledge is subjective and shaped by the
individual. Humanists use concepts of place to denote values and feelings associated
with a location. They examine regions through culture and feelings, and also examine
perceptions of environments. Humanist geographers typically employ qualitative
techniques for study.
Marxist geographers understand the process of social and economic change through
economic structures, such as capitalism. Marxism is expressed through geography in
a variety of ways, but tends to be critical of positivist approaches. Marxist geography
addresses concepts such as place, the region, distance, diffusion, perception,
development, discourse, and globalization. Marxist geographers would also typically
employ qualitative techniques for study.
4. Explain how maps can be considered both communication and analytic tools?
Answer: Maps are used to manage spatial data and describe the location of facts.
Hence, maps are communication tools of location, situation, and distance. Maps are
useful as analytical tools through their description of relative locations, and the ability
to use isopleths and chloropleths to interpret similar phenomena or density,
respectively. Maps can also be used as tools to define research questions.
5. What are contemporary techniques used to map phenomena?
Answer: Remote sensing, which is the gathering of spatially referenced data and
geographic information systems (GIS), which stores, displays, analyses, and maps
spatially referenced data, are both contemporary techniques used to map
phenomena.
Research questions
1. How is the social theory of Marxism applied by human geographers? What are some
common contemporary subjects or contexts this area of thought is applied to?
2. What are some major similarities and differences between humanist and Marxist
geographies and how they are applied?
3. What are some contemporary techniques and applications of remote sensing? How
has remote sensing contributed to advancing knowledge about the state of the
environment?
4. Globalization integrates concepts of space, location, place, region, and distance.
What are some human processes or issues positively and negatively affected by
globalization and how?
5. What are some contemporary techniques and applications of geographic information
systems? How has the use of GIS advanced knowledge in an increasingly complex
world?
Links of Interest
Remote Sensing Society of Canada
http://www.casi.ca/canadianremotesensingsociety.aspx
American Society for Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing
(ASPRS)http://www.asprs.org/
Geospatial Information & Technology Association (GITA)
http://www.gita.org/
Urban and Regional Information Systems Association (URISA)
http://www.urisa.org/