Ch. 10 Reform and
Rise of Popular
Religion - Walton
Alexis de Tocqueville
Second Great
Awakening
Cane Ridge, KY 1801
Methodism
“Class”
Eastern Revivals
Charles G. Finney
Unitarians
In America, “spirit of religion and democracy were intimately
united, and that they reigned in common over the same country.”
Religion was “the foremost of the political institutions” of the
U.S. Ministers should preach doctrines that appealed to ordinary
people. Use plain words to move the heart, not theological
complexities. Put individuals in charge of their destiny. Set aside
predestination and “elect.”
Began in CT in 1790s, at first through educated people, but
spread to frontier states like Tennessee and Kentucky – rise of
camp meetings – gigantic revivals of several denominations –
open-air camps for a week – hear about second coming of Christ
Part of larger Great Kentucky Revival of 1800-1801 – used
“exercises” in which men and women rolled around like logs,
jerked body, “the jerks,” grunted – “barking exercise,” – accused
of lustful behavior – “more souls begot than saved.” Ordinary
ministers who had been farmers and artisans
70,000 or less in 1800, By 1844 they were largest Protestant
group, 1,000,000+ members – emphasized religion as a matter of
the heart not head – preferred itinerant circuit rider preachers –
young, unmarried men – on horseback from place to place –
preached in houses and open fields, etc.
Tiny groups of 12 or so members who met weekly to provide
mutual encouragement of religion and morality. Spoke against
drunkenness, fornication, gossiping, and cheating in business.
1820s saw a shift east in revivals. Western NY – Burned Over
District – from so much hellfire and brimstone Lawyer turned preacher – Presbyterian – preached along Erie
Canal – especially Rochester, NY – “father of modern
revivalism” – “anxious seat” – bench for those already wanting
conversion to be prayed for- “protracted meeting” – nightly for
up to a week. Revival was a human creation – sin was a
voluntary act – men and women could will themselves out of
sin! “Perfectionism” Said destiny was in their hands – “selfmade” individualism, saw that women were important in
revivalism – women converts outnumbered men 2 to 1.
Encouraged women to give public testimonials.
Revival critics – basic belief was Jesus Christ was less than fully
divine – religious liberalism – mostly in New England – drew
many from Congregational Churches – saw revivals as uncouth
emotional outbursts – moral goodness came from “character
building” in which you modeled your behavior on Jesus’. But all
believed humans could change for better. William Ellery
Mormons
Joseph Smith
Nauvoo, Illinois
Polygamy 1843
Mormon growth
Brigham Young
Shakers
Reform Age
Temperance
Channing – Unitarian leader 1820s/30s – Church of Jesus Christ of Latterday Saints
Founder of Mormonism – from Palmyra, NY – lived in burned
over district – lots of religious fervor – claimed an angel led him
to a buried book of revelation and to special stones used for
translating it. He came up with Book of Mormon – 1827 – story
of ancient Hebrew prophet, Lehi – descendants came to America
– Jesus had appeared in North American to them – performed
miracles – God cursed some who were quarrelsome with dark
skin = American Indians. Its appeal was America was at center
of Christian history and a new revelation had come.
Mormons moved here to build model city and temple – wanted
to be closer to Indians to convert them and escape persecution.
Smith claimed a new revelation sanctioning multiple wives –
Saw himself as a prophet of the kingdom of God – called a
Second Mohammed – 1844 announced his candidacy for
presidency of US – charged with treason – jailed in Carthage,
ILL. – murdered there along with his brother by a mob in June
1844.
Went from 6,000 in 1840 to 200,000 by 1870. Many in English
factory cities.
New leader, led them to Great Salt Lake Valley of Utah – then
under the control of Mexico. Established an independent
republic – Deseret – they prospered. Industrious, deeply
committed to welfare of other Mormons, public projects like
irrigation to benefit all, appealed to downtrodden and insecure.
Convulsive dance part of their ceremony – Mother Ann Lee –
illiterate daughter of English blacksmith – New Lebanon, NY –
able artisans – famous for beauty and craftsmanship of their
furniture – abstained from sexual intercourse – believed end of
world was imminent, trances, heavenly visions, etc. In Second
Coming, Jesus would take the form of a woman, herself. Shaker
missionaries made converts – 6,000 spread over 8 states. Lived
apart from society.
Large numbers of men and women became active in
improvement organizations. Sometimes allied with political
party of Whigs. Loyalty to causes mostly, not parties. Used
name of God. Intense moralism. Many religious liberals who
were hostile or indifferent to revivals. Borrowed evangelical
language and psychology in calling for moral change. Had a
“dark” side – used coercion – regional – much from New
England – much less so in South.
War on liquor – annual per capita consumption of rum, whiskey,
gin, and brandy exceeded 7 gallons by 1830, nearly 3X today’s
rate. By late 1820s, average adult male drank ½ pint of liquor a
day. Seen as male indulgence that hurt women and children –
Washington
Temperance Societies
School Reform
Horace Mann
1852 – MA – 1st
compulsory school
law
Abolition
David Walker 1829
women were very involved in temperance – Lyman Beecher
(Harriet’s father) – 6 lectures criticizing alcohol – By 1834,
5,000 state and local temperance societies were loosely affiliated
with American Temperance Society. Demanded total abstinence.
Grog on the job came under attack from manufacturers.
Baltimore 1840 – more likely to be mechanics (workingmen)
and laborers. Many were reformed drunks. Had some connection
to revivals – viewed drinking as sinful – had “experience
meetings” in which they sought “salvation” from liquor and
“regeneration” through abstinence “teetotalism.” Wives joined
“Martha Washington” societies – pledged to smell their
husbands breath each night.
Shifted tactics to cities and towns and states banning alcohol –
1838 Mass – prohibited sale of distilled spirits in amounts less
than 15 gallons – 1851 Maine banned manufacture and sale of
all intoxicating beverages – per capita consumption when down
in 1830s. In 1840s, it was less than half that in the 1820s.
One-room log cabin – pupils from 3 to 20 in number, harsh
discipline, primitive conditions. But need to equip children for
emerging competitive and industrial economy.
Massachusetts 1837 – 1st sec. of MA’s newly created board of
education. Financial support from parents to state, classify
students by age and attainment, school term from 2/3 months to
10 months, standardized textbooks, compelling attendance.
Spread uniform cultural values. Learn punctuality. Stimulate
competitiveness, common values – McGuffey Readers – sold 50
million copies between 1836 and 1870 – created a common
curriculum – preached industry, honesty, sobriety, and
patriotism. Few gains in South, most gains in North.
Urban Catholics protested textbooks with anti-Catholic and antiIrish barbs. Laboring poor worried about loss of children
working and income. Urban workingmen’s parties of 1820s
supported it, manufacturers wanted a disciplined work force.
Women supported it through teachings. By 1900, 70% of
nation’s teachers were women.
Used to forge a common American culture in face of massive
immigration. Left out black children, however.
1800 – 1830 – American Colonization Society – founded 1817 –
called for gradual emancipation, compensation of slaveowner –
shipment of freed blacks to Africa. Not enough funds to buy
freedom of more than a fraction of slaves. Between 1820 and
1830, only 1,400 blacks migrated to Liberia and most were
already free. American slave population (natural increase) rose
from 1,191,000 in 1810 to 2,000,000+ in 1830.
Most blacks did not want to go to Africa. America was home.
Appeal – Boston free black – called for black rebellion to crush
Benjamin Lundy
1821
William Lloyd
Garrison 1831
Frederick Douglass
Elijah Lovejoy
Lane Theological
Seminary
American AntiSlavery Society 1833
Liberty Party 1840
Abolition
Divisiveness
Angelina and Sarah
Grimke
slavery
Quaker – “Genius of Universal Emancipation” – put forth
proposals that no new slave states be admitted, internal slave
trade should be outlawed, 3/5 clause of Constitution should be
repealed, Congress should abolish slavery wherever it had the
authority to do so.
New Englander – The Liberator newspaper – most famous and
controversial white abolitionist. “I will be Heard.” – immediate
abolition – blacks should have civil (legal) equality with whites.
Many black abolitionists supported him. He soon called for a
rejection of ALL laws and governments, as well as political
parties, as part of his doctrine of nonresistance.” 1838 – New
England Nonresistance Society – slavery depended on force; all
governments ultimately rested on force; even laws passed by
elected legislatures needed police enforcement. Force was the
opposite of Christian love; Christians should refuse to vote, hold
office, or have anything to do with government. Garrison also
supported women’s rights and urged that women be given
positions equal to men in the American Anti-Slavery Society.
Early issues of “The Liberator” had a picture of a kneeling slave
woman imploring, “Am I Not a Woman and a Sister?” Said the
South was a vast brothel and described slave women as treated
badly.
Douglass – escaped slave – “I appear before the immense
assembly this evening as a thief and a robber.” “I stole this head,
these limbs, this body from my master, and ran off with them.”
White abolitionist murdered by a mob in Alton, Illinois, 1837
1834 – more antislavery than most religious institutions – many
preachers were weak on abolition –
Led by Theodore Dwight Weld “Lane rebels” left to go to the
antislavery Oberlin College in Ohio
Battles between Garrison and prominent NY and Midwestern
abolitionists such as the brothers Lewis and Arthur Tappan,
Theodore Dwight Weld, and James G. Birney. Should the
abolitionists enter politics as a separate party?
Birney ran for president on the ticket of the newly formed
Liberty Party.
A. Politics/parties or not? This issue divided abolitionists –
see above “nonresistance” by Garrison
B. Role of women? Garrison supported it, but many
abolitionists opposed it including Theodore Dwight Weld
Daughters of South Carolina slaveholder – against slavery – they
drew mixed audiences of men and women. Sarah – “Letters on
the Condition of Women and the Equality of the Sexes”
Angelina – “Letters to Catharine E. Beecher” – daughter of
Abby Kelley 1840
Abolition growth
1836 Gag Rule
Women’s Rights
Lucy Stone 1840s
1848 Lucretia Mott
and Elizabeth Cady
Stanton
Seneca Falls 1848
Prisons and Asylums
Lyman Beecher and militant opponent to female equality
(married to Theodore Dwight Weld).
Elected to previously all-male committee – split the American
Anti-Slavery Society in two. A substantial minority of profeminist delegates left – some to join the Liberty Party – others
to follow Lewis Tappan into the new American and Foreign
Anti-Slavery Society.
By 1840 – more than 1,500 abolitionist societies mostly in MA,
NY, and Ohio. Flooded Congress with petitions calling for an
end to slavery in the District of Columbia.
Automatically tabled abolitionist petitions and prevented
discussion of them in Congress. Result of so many abolitionist
petitions. It was repealed in 1845. Issue became constitutional
rights of free expression and petitioning Congress. The South
was on the defensive, and this led them to error with the gag
rule.
1830s – women could not vote. If married, had no right to own
property (even inherited property), could not retain their own
earnings.
Separate sphere argument hurt women. Justified reform activities
on behalf of the family, but undercut women’s demands for legal
equality. Leave politics and finance to men. Women worked
more for abolition, then moved into women’s rights.
First abolitionist to lecture solely on women’s rights.
Lucretia Mott had been made to sit in a screened-off area at the
World’s Anti-Slavery Convention in London in 1840. Stanton
had accompanied her abolitionist husband to the meeting as a
honeymoon trip.
Women’s rights convention in Seneca Falls, NY – Declaration
of Sentiments – patterned after American Declaration of
Independence – “all men and women are created equal.” 12
resolutions – all but the one on women voting passed
unanimously; but it did pass. It took until 1920 for women to get
the right to vote in national elections. Slow to get rights because
abolition was linked to it and abolition was unpopular – also,
domesticity provided opportunities for women WITHOUT the
need to vote.
Colonial era – poverty as neither the fault of its victims nor a
sign of defective social order – seen as permanent condition of
society, ordained by God to test Christians’ humility and charity.
Crime was seen as enduring part of society.
Early 1800s –
a. poverty and crime were rising
b. in cities, crime and poverty were more visible
c. deviant behavior resulted from drunken fathers and
Sing Sing 1819-1825
Poverty
Insanity
Dorothea Dix 1843
Regimentation
Utopian Communities
1825 New Harmony
Near Boston, creation of
broken homes
d. failure of parental discipline, not will of God was the
problem
e. moral qualities of individual were changeable rather than
fixed
f. human nature could be altered by right combination of
moral influences.
g. Crime was caused by environment
h. Penitentiary was substitute for parental discipline – could
bring about rehabilitation – solitary confinement
Prison in New York – inmates confined to single cell – received
no news or visits
Colonial – supported them in a household “outdoor relief” –
gradually gave way to construction of almshouses for the infirm
poor and workhouses for the able-bodied poor “indoor relief” –
plucking the poor from their demoralizing surroundings and
exposing them to a highly regimented institution could change
them into virtuous, productive citizens. Results often bad. 1833
legislative committee found inmates of the Boston House of
Industry packed 7 to a room and included unwed mothers, the
sick, the insane, the poor.
Insane put “in cages, closets, cellars, stalls, pens! Chained,
naked, beaten with rods, lashed into obedience.”
Presented the state legislature in MA with study of jails and
almshouses in MA – she encouraged them to build insane
asylums, and by time of Civil War, 28 states, 4 cities, and the
federal government had constructed public mental institutions.
Reformers were convinced that the unfettered freedom and
individualism of American society were themselves defects in
the environment. Prison inmates were to march around in lock
step, the poor in workhouses were treated like prisoners –
forbidden to leave or receive visitors without permission.
Belief that individuals could live perfectly – had some common
features:
a. founders were intellectuals who designed their communities as
alternatives to the prevailing competitive economy and as
models whose success would inspire imitation
Robert Owen, Indiana. Had been a manager of cotton mills at
New Lanark, Scotland. Had improved workers’ educational
opportunities and living conditions. Small, planned communities
– “villages of unity and mutual cooperation”
It fell apart- attracted idlers and fanatics – Owen was gone too
much – clashed with clergymen – they thought it was sin not
environment – Brook Farm
Retreat and a model – elevated discussions after a day of work –
only had around 100 residents, it attracted renowned writers.
transcendentalists -
Oneida Community
NY 1867
John Humphrey
Noyes
Emerson visited, Hawthorne lived there briefly, its magazine
“The Dial” became a forum for transcendentalist ideas about
philosophy, art, and literature. Disbanded in 1849
John Humphrey Noyes – studied theology at Yale, sin was an
individual choice – attacked monogamous marriage. Noyes said
monogamy involved an exclusive attachment to one person and
was selfish and suited only to sinners. All men should be
married to all women. “Complex Marriage” – but this began to
include young girls – age 15! Noyes tied complex marriage to
“male continence” – men could engage in sexual intercourse
with women but had to practice coitus reservatus – birth control
and self-mastery. Oneida renounced private property, practiced
communism. Accepted profit for with outsiders “worldlings” –
made and sold a wide array of products – slippers, silk, mop
handles, wheel spokes, silverware –
300 people by 1875.
Oneida leader.
a. free love/complex marriage
b. insisted males perform kitchen duties alongside women
c. allowed women to work in community’s stores and
factories
d. criticized separate sphere for women –
e. women wore pantaloons instead of hoop skirts and cut
their hair short
f. stirpiculture – modified male continence to allow
consummation
g. Acquired characteristics – selective breeding – decided
who could sleep with whom – older members mated with
younger members –
h. Younger women protested – could not fall in love with
young men their own age
i. 1879 – Noyes exiled himself to Canada
j. 1881 – they abandoned communism
k. Oneida was remarkable for its persistence
l. Noyes usually had good relations with worldlings, who
found jobs in Oneida factories
m. By embracing an odd sexual doctrine, Oneidans, like
Mormons effectively burned their bridges to the world,
and when they abandoned complex marriage, their unity
dissolved.