AUTEURS:
PROF. DR. BECEANU DUMITRU
MAÎTRE DE CONFERENCE DR. ROTARU LILIANA
UNIVERSITE DES SCIENCES AGRICOLES ET DE MEDECINE VETERINAIRE
"ION IONESCU DE LA BRAD" IASI -ROUMANIE
ALEE M. SADOVEANU NO.3
IASI-700490
ROUMANIE
dumitru.beceanu@gmail.com
lirotaru@univagro-iasi.ro
tel. +40-232-407539
fax+40-232-260650
We certifies that the manuscript is not copyrighted and has not been published elsewhere.
CLIMATIC CHANGES AND VITICULTURAL-WINE MAKING REPERCUSSIONS
IN THE 14TH –19TH CENTURIES
D. BECEANU, Liliana ROTARU
“Ion Ionescu de la Brad” University of Agricultural Sciences
and Veterinary Medicine Iaşi, Roumanie
Abstract. After an age with a warmer climate, from the 14th to the 19th century an
evident cooling down of the terrestrial climate, called the “little ice age”, takes place. Among
other mentioned repercussions, the reduction of the area of grapevine cultivation and the
dependence of the northern countries’ wine consumption on importation are of great interest,
since they contributed to the long-term modeling of the world viticultural patrimony in
agreement with the requirements of an ever more dynamical specialized trade.
Although there were other causes, of political or economical nature, capable to
mitigate the impact of this cold age, many of the direct consequences that arose have lasted
to this day.
Key words: climatic changes, wine production, market of wine, european commerce
with wines.
At the end of the first millennium after Christ (about 900), the limit of vine growing
reached the 53oN latitude (Lamb, 1982), being about 500 km in the north than the recent limit
from France and Germany (Tkachuk, R.D., 1983).
The period called Optimum Climatic Medieval lasted between the 10th and 14th
centuries. In the Northern Hemisphere, around year 1000, the climate was relatively warm
and dry. At the end of the 12th century, Europe was having an active economic life, with a
flourishing commerce, prosperous and developed towns and new agricultural lands were
being fallowed. With a milder climate and a more secure food supply, the population started
increasing in a sustained rhythm.
The historian Charles Van Doren (1992) asserts that “three centuries after year 1000,
in 1300, were the most optimistic, prosperous and full of progress periods in the European
history”. On the entire continent, the population was earning good money erecting
spectacular castles and great public edifices where they invested extraordinary financial
resources. The massive Romanic churches made room for the high gothic cathedrals. Though
many of them remained unfinished for centuries, they are a witness of people’s optimism at
that time.
Along the continent, the economic activity prospered. Banks, insurances and finances
developed and the trust in the monetary circulation grew considerably. Manufactures knew
unprecedented activity levels. Medieval chronicles, the registers of estates, monasteries or
commercial houses keep also data regarding the viticultural activities and the wine commerce
that may be checked and classified in a coherent system of phenological observations with a
viticultural-wine growing character.
The farmers from medieval England deployed a flourishing viticulture. They mention
that Muscat of Hamburg grapes breed might originate in the old vineyards of England. To
obtain good wines they needed warm springs, without frosts, hot and sunny enough summers,
without too many precipitations, long autumns with fine days and relatively mild winters. In
1100-1300, in the south of England there were considerable vine surfaces. Domesday survey
(1085 - 1086), a tax record document drawn up by the conquering Normans, mentioned 46
viticultural areas from East England and up to the region (known today) as Somerset.
Pfister, Chr.(1999) considers that Central Europe had at the beginning of the second
millennium a climate closer to the Mediterranean one, for about ten months a year. Annales
Colmariensis (a chronicle from the times of the Alsatian town of Colmar, on the Rhine)
mentions the low level of rivers making difficult the functioning of the mills situated on their
course. The transport on the Rhine of the wine barrels from the abundant crops of the time
was not possible due to the shallow waters. Annual precipitations did not exceed 300-400
mm (fig. 1).
Fig. 1 - Changes at world level of the annual average temperatures as against the
annual average from 1900, evaluated for the last 18.000 years (after P. J. Michaels and collab.
World Climate Report, 2000-2004)
Le Roy Ladurie (2004) mentions that in the mentioned period, the end of vine
blooming took place in Basel (260 m altitude) in the last days of May. The grapes harvesting
in Central and West Europe started, on average, a month earlier than it takes place today. In
the sub-mountainous areas, the vine harvesting, going at that time up to 500-700 (780) meters
altitude, started at the end of August. There were years when the first wine (called “Sauser”),
produced from the early breeds of Burgundy, was sold even since early August.
In the 12th century, the Arabian geographer Al Idrisi mentions the vineyards in the
north of Europe. In Flanders they were situated around the towns of Ghent/Gand (“its
location is fine, covered with vineyards, orchards...”) and Bruges (“surrounded by vineyards,
one next to the other”), and in the north, near Utrecht (“surrounded by numerous vineyards,
orchards...”). He also writes about the vineyards from Bremen, and in the east, about those
from Poland, especially around Krakow (“surrounded by vineyards and orchards”).
Describing Poland, he repeatedly insists on the vine and all species of fruit trees growing
“abundantly.”
Towards the end of the Middle Ages, the vine area will decrease, due to a long
cooling of weather. The cooling process from the west of the continent was gradual, starting
in the 12th century by instable stormy weather (fig. 2), heavy rains and floods alternating with
draught periods (Ahrens, C.D., 1991). Very strong and cold winds were followed by others
relatively hot. Between 1300-1850, the climatic cooling becomes more and more obvious,
with alternations between 1400 and 1550, but also with extremes in the next three centuries
(fig. 4).
Numerous climatologists attributed this change to the decrease of sun shining that
registered in this period three minimum periods of activity: Sporer Minimum (1450-1540),
Maunder Minimum (1640-1715, the most obvious) and Dalton Minimum (1790-1820),
named after the researchers that established them. The climatic system is very complex
having numerous feed-beck subsystems, and an increase or decrease by one single degree
Celsius of the annual average temperature at world level may trigger unforeseen
consequences (fig 3).
Fig. 2 – Strong storms reported by centuries in the second millennium, on the North Sea
(Lamb, 1995).
Fig. 3 – Annual average number of sun spots between 1610-2000. We may see
Maunder Minimum between 1640-1715 (Vaquero J.M., Sanchez-bajo F., Gallego M.C.
2002 )
Fig. 4. – Estimation of annual average temperatures in the second millennium, based on a
series of climatic, political and social indicators (Lamb 1977).
At the level of the northern hemisphere, Greenland and Iceland were the most affected
ones (Tkachuk,R.D., 1983). In Greenland (the green country) the annual average
temperatures fell by 2-4oC. In the permanently frozen area, we may still find today plant
remains (roots, forest sediment layers, dry leaves, stems etc.). The Vikings’ settlements,
where they also cultivated cereals, lost connection with Europe after 1420 dying of cold.
Cereal culture was practiced in Iceland up to the 16th century. In 1695, ice surrounded
Iceland, except for a single harbor. All water courses froze. The farms were covered by ice
and they thought to evacuate farmers in Denmark (the country ruling the island).
The harsh winters determined the ice covering of the Baltic Sea and the freezing of
the main rivers in the north, such as Thames. The paintings of the Flemish masters of the time
(for example Pieter Bruegel the Old) evoke a cold weather, snows and ice (fig. 5 and 6).
Fig. 5. – Winter landscape (1565). P. Bruegel the Old (1525–1569).
During this “small ice age” there were also other circumstances that contributed,
depending on the area, to the northern and central European decline of viticulture:
destruction of the basic food cultures, the economic decline, famine, depopulation, wars,
disappearance of monastery estates in the protestant countries, etc.
Fig. 6. – Hunters in the snow (1565). P. Bruegel the Old (1525-1569)
The period favorable to the food cultures shortened by about 3-4 weeks, representing
the diminution by 20% of the agricultural season in the northern countries (May-September).
From the 14th century, they periodically recorded years of great food shortages and famine, in
the north of Europe and Russia and up to Ireland or Scotland, comprising also the
Scandinavian Peninsula and mountainous areas from the Alps, Pyrenees etc.
The great famine that affected especially the north of the continent between 13151317 started with the unfavorable weather from the spring of 1315. The permanent rains and
the low temperatures continued in summer too, and crops could no longer be harvested. The
straws and hay could not be dried and the cattle had no sufficient fodder. The price of food
doubled in England. The salt used to conserve food, partially obtained by evaporation, also
grew more expensive due to the hard extraction conditions (excessive and continuous
humidity).
In Lorena, crops became three times more expensive and bread became too expensive
for peasants. The possibilities to store cereals ensured long term subsistence only for the rich.
The population was looking for food gathering roots, herbs, nuts and tree bark in the forest.
The rains continued in the springs of the next two years 1316 and 1317, and crops
were once again compromised. The hungry population sacrificed the traction animals and ate
the seed cereals reducing the future possibilities to produce their own food. Millions of
people died, starting with the most vulnerable people, the old, the children or the sick. They
estimate at 10%-25% the number of the deceased in towns and fairs. Serious social
phenomena appeared (mass death, depopulation, epidemics, and criminality). In the summer
of 1317, weather gradually returned to normal. Despite all these, diseases still made
numerous victims among the population weakened by food shortage until 1325.
Famine periods were also signaled at European level in the decade 1590-1600, and
again starting from 1620. Much more frequent were the local famine periods signaled in
Iceland, Scotland, Russia (every 10-13 years), England, France and even Italy, throughout the
cold period. They are confirmed by the registers or documents recording the cereal prices, the
tax payment or the animal census.
Though the north of Europe was more seriously affected, many central European
regions were also affected. The lowering of the level and the increase of alpine glacier
volume after 1430, the short cold and rainy summers more and more frequent after 1570, the
long very harsh and cold winters (fig. 7), the late frosts were visible signs of climate changes.
In the Alps, the wood vegetation lowered, depending on the mountainside, by 70 m up to 300
m. The settlements at higher altitudes were gradually covered by ice (Saas valley, Chamonix
etc).
Fig. 7. – Graphic appreciation of the meteorological conditions related to the winter
harshness as they were measured in Paris and London
(Schneider and Mass 1975).
In Germany, the vineyards that used once to go up to 780 m altitude, lowered in this
period below 560 m. the harvesting date for vine lagged behind by more than three weeks.
They say that the annual average temperature may have lowered by 1oC-1,4oC (Tkachuk,
R.D., 1983).
The very poor viticultural harvests from 1580-1600, 1620-1629, or 1690-1699 at the
level of entire Europe could be found out from documents. The cold waves that succeeded
one another comprised more significant periods, such as 1640-1715.
The northern part of France was very seriously affected in the winter 1708-1709
(January-February). On February 13th 1709, in the surroundings of Paris they registered
temperatures below –15oC, and minimums of -20oC. Temperatures continued to be low until
February. Even in the Mediterranean area, at Montpellier, they registered minimums of -18
C and for 6 days values of –10oC.
o
All vineyards in the north of France were destroyed, especially the ones situated in the
valleys. The Loire valley was seriously affected, especially the viticultural plantations around
the town of Nantes. The regions that used to produce high quality wines from the vineyards
of Burgundy, Bordeaux or Champagne, suffered less. The grapes harvest around Paris was
less than 5% as compared to the harvest of the previous year and in 1710 rose to 25% and
hardly returned to normal in 1711.
Frequent returns of the very cold periods are mentioned starting from 1739-1740 and
1815-1817, respectively. Year 1816 was called “the year without summer”. The unstoppable
rains and low temperatures during summer were followed by a very harsh and long winter.
The climatic abnormality determined the destruction of crops in Europe, already affected by
the Napoleonic wars. Switzerland suffered the most, since the agricultural and horticultural
cultures were severely affected or completely destroyed and the famine that appeared
afterwards made the government declare the national emergency state (Ahrens,C.D., 1991).
The decline of the English viticulture took place gradually, and some actual historians
affirm that, despite the more and more unfavorable climate, at the beginning of Henry VIII’s
reign (1491) there were left 139 vineyards of certain size in England and Wales, 11 of the
crown, 67 of noblemen and 52 of the church. Lamb (1995) even suggests that England’s wine
production was still competing with the French wines that had to be transported by sea. The
religious reform led to the degradation of the monastery vineyards that were the best kept
ones.
In the north countries, such as England, the Netherlands, those from the Scandinavian
Peninsula, Poland, Russia etc., the wine importation becomes predominant. In many of these
territories, viticulture was gradually replaced by other more profitable activities and the wine
consumption was, more or less, replaced by the beer consumption.
The beer consumption in the north perpetuated to richer townsmen, noblemen, clergy
and even common people occasioned by different holydays. In many of these countries, the
import wine consumption was a sign of distinction and social prestige.
The wine commerce increases significantly:
-by sea towards England, Holland, Anglo-Saxon and Iberic America and non-Muslim
East;
-by land towards Germany, Poland, the Baltic countries, Russia etc.
This evolution ensured the existence and even development of some European
viticultural areas and commercial routes, real wine roads:
-maritime routes towards the riparian areas (Seville and Andalusia; route Dordogne –
Garonne – Bordeaux - Gironde; La Rochelle or Loire estuary; along Yonnei - Bourgogne Paris - Rouen; the Rhine area; the Greek archipelago and other Levantine areas);
-terrestrial routes towards the transalpine areas (Tirol – Brescia - Vicenza - Friuli Istria), central and east-European ones (Moravia, Hungary, the Romanian Principalities) or
continental Levantine ones (Ispahan, Şiraz).
The geographic layout and especially the facility of wine transport by a nearby
communication way were decisive. They quote in this respect the vineyard of Frontignan,
those situated on the coasts of Andalusia, Portugal, or in Bordeaux, La Rochelle etc. The
vicinity of Paris ensured the sale of the Orleans wines, and the Naples wines were marketed
in Naples and Rome. The political situation, wars and customs barriers also influenced this
commerce.
The need for an easier or more profitable transport gradually triggered some
complementary evolutions. Importers preferred (and created by this demand) a specific wine
assortment, that were imported especially in England and Holland from Cyprus, Porto,
Malaga, Madera, Jeres, Marsala, subsequently followed by Haut-Brion, Gaillac, Cahors,
Sauternes, Monbazillac, Setubal etc. The volume of distilled products, demanded by the
Dutch since the 17th century, gradually increased, too (Charante).
In the south, new viticultural riparian regions develop being suppliers for Europe.
Madera Islands give up the sugar cane to produce red wines. The Azores become a source of
alcoholic (improved) wines preferred to those from La Rochelle or Bordeaux.
There appear producers, intermediaries and investors specialized in export wines
assuming the supply of the beneficiary countries and improve the transport, keeping or sale
routes (assortment, packaging, storehouses, and retail commerce). They mention among the
first, the English companies from San Lucar de Barremeda, Sevilla, Puerto de Santa Maria
and Cadiz (1530-1585), as well as the Dutch tradesmen from Bordeaux and TonnayCharente. The Great Britain favored by special commercial agreements with Portugal, by
which it was tied up by dynastic alliances, the balancing of payments (Portuguese wines in
exchange of British textiles).
Numerous retailers from the northern countries proposed as the main goal of their
activity the bottling and keeping for more than one year of the import wines coming in
barrels. These investments, especially the bottling, were very profitable because they
triggered for the first time the increase of value in time for wines. The number of the rich
buyers, able to appreciate wines and pay accordingly, also increases.
In the north, the population with low income becomes predominately a beer
consumer. In England, even since 1566 (Elisabeth I Tudor) the parliament passes protective
laws taxing the French wine import to the benefit of the British treasury and that of brewers
who enjoyed a stronger lobby that that of transporters and wine tradesmen. In some
continental areas too, the wine consumption, dependent on import, cedes the place to the beer
consumption (even in central Europe, as it happened at the beginning of the 17th century in
lower Austria).
The German and Italian states did not involve in a sufficiently dynamic commerce
with wines or looked for remedial or adaptation solutions for viticulture due to the politic
causes (wars, territorial fragmentation), lack of capital or significant private initiative.
Disfavored by the smaller and smaller wine consumption (due to poverty, austerity, a
viticulture seriously affected by the 30 year war between 1618-1648), the German states
witness an increase of beer consumption. The recovery of the German viticulture in the
favorable areas started slowly after 1648 (the Westphalia peace), due to the lack of economic
impulse. Between 1400 and 1700, the wine production of the German territory was on
average about 53% as against the previous period, with intervals when it was only 20%
(Lamb, 1995).
The cold waves affecting the entire Europe touched France too, where in some areas
vineyards were totally destroyed by the mentioned frosts (1709). France enjoyed the
existence of a stable internal market and the wine demand maintained high, though in 17101711 the wine price increased four times due to the harvest affected by frosts. The cause is
the rapid and considerable increase of the urban population of rural origin. This market was
a sure outlet for cheap wines, of current consumption.
For this reason, the replanting of the destroyed vineyards was sustained, especially in
the area supplying Paris, and the winning breed (as against the old assortment) was Gamay,
productive, but with mediocre wines. Argenteuil and Orleans become producers of “vins
populaires”, and the surplus was distilled or turned into vinegar.
In the Loire area (Pays Nantaise) spread Melon de Bourgogne, a robust breed from
which they produced later the Muscadet wines. For Lyon there appeared the Beaujolais area,
and in Marseille will arrive the cheap wine from Algeria.
The qualitative wine differentiation first appeared in France when the British customs
regime allowed only to several owners to export their quality wines (Grands Crus), collecting
finally considerable income. The wines for the current consumption (vins populaires), were
paid ten times cheaper and they could not bring profit on the external market.
We must also remark the Great Britain’s preoccupation to diminish the commercial
deficit produced by the wine commerce by protectionist taxes. Consequently, here developed
the production of ale (a beer with a specific technology, top yeast) and cheap distilled
alcohols (gin, whisky etc.).
At the same time, in the Cape colony (South Africa), the Dutch (Oost Indische
Compagnie) started planting vineyards (1659-1695), and some French Huguenots banned by
the revoking of the Nantes Edict (1685) joined this activity. In 1795-1806, the territory
becomes British, plantations grow and wines go to the metropolis. In the 18th century, they
started planting vineyards in Australia, New Zeeland and California.
Coming back to our century, we may notice that the climatic amelioration which
started in the 19th century perpetuates as a global warming. Jones, G. (2004) retraced, for 27
viticultural regions from 9 countries, the evolution between 1950 and 1999, for the average
temperatures of the vegetation period (IV-X) and vegetative repose (XI-III) for the vine. In
these 50 years, the average temperatures of the vegetation period increased in absolute value
between 0,830C and 4,070C, depending on the region. Then he took into account the
evolution of appreciations on Sotheby scale (0-100; over 90 = excellent, under 40 = lacking
quality), for about 30 wines produced in the respective areas at the same period. He noticed
that for each supplementary degree, wines won 13.3 points on Sotheby scale.
For more than 15 years, viticulture has repapered in the south of England, and in 2003
they obtained the best local harvest. In England and Wales there are at present more than 400
viticultural plantations becoming gradually more and more profitable. The sparkling wines
from England start competing the French Champaign on the British market and several blind
taste tests effectuated by the specialized stores from London gave satisfaction to the national
products to the detriment of some famous French brands.
Around year 2050, they foresee an increase of temperatures by 20C on average. It is
estimated that in the colder viticultural regions (Champagne, Rhine valley and Mosellei
valley, south England) they will produce better and better wines. The Rhone valley (France)
or the regions Chianti and Barolo (Italy) will be gradually affected by the increasing
temperatures, grapes will mature too quickly and, despite their sugar contents, their flavor
will not have the time to accumulate step by step and become perfect as it did in the 20th
century.
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