Contributions to the Antarctic Glaciology from India
R. Ravindra
Antarctica Division
Geological Survey of India, Faridabad.
Antarctica provides a unique environment to study the interactions of glaciation
and climate without interferences of habitation, industry and pollution.
Glaciological studies in Antarctica were initiated in 1982-83 by the First and
Second Indian Antarctic Expeditions1-5 and most of these results were published
by 1985. The initial observations recorded fluctuations of polar continental ice
margin, ablation and accumulation patterns on the ice shelf, details of
stratigraphic zonation within the shelf ice, melting rates on shelf ice during the
polar day etc. In the subsequent expeditions, most of these studies were fine
tuned and some long-term investigations were continued6-8.
As a part of the programme on monitoring fluctuations in continental ice
margin, a prominent glacial tongue was identified in Western Schirmacher
Range in 1983 and it was named Dakshin Gangotri Glacier Snout1. The snout was
monitored from fixed survey points on an yearly basis9-10 and average annual
recession rates were computed for this glacier. In 1996, many peripheral points
were added along this snout to enhance the details of the observations 11. Also, the
advance and retreat patterns along the periphery of the glacier were recorded in
every month during the wintering12.
This established the overall model of
recession of the glacier. Under the influence of global warming, huge ice shelves
are breaking off; the evidence for such calving is available from the Antarctic
coast. But the steady recession of this glacial tongue is a significant supportive
evidence from an inland glacier13. These monthly trends were verified in the year
2000 by another prolonged observation during the wintering14 and the decadal
rates of glacial recession were calculated. In 2001, the area of observation was
increased by many km to cover the entire western wall of polar continental ice
margin in Schirmacher Oasis. The succeeding years, till date, have shown that
not only the snout of the glacier but the entire ice wall is strikingly receding. This
uninterrupted observation for the last two decades is providing a valuable input
for studying the impact of global warming in Antarctica.
1
Another long term project initiated in the Second Expedition2 was to record the
ablation and accumulation patterns on the ice shelf. These observations have
been carried out by fixing a network of stakes. These observations have
continued on an yearly basis15-17 and sometimes details of monthly patterns are
available from wintering teams also. The results of these observations have
quantified the rate of ablation during polar summer (November to January) and
the rate of accumulation during the polar winter (February to October). The
average annual net accumulation18 on the ice shelf has also been calculated.
Antarctic ice sheet is an exceptional repository of the climatic record of the past
thousands of years. The proxy indicators of palaeoclimatic records are preserved
as air bubbles, gases, pollen, dust, volcanic particles, pollutants within the icy
layers. To obtain this serial information, raising of ice cores is necessary. The
initial attempts at recovery of ice cores were limited19-21 to the hand auger and
the ice shelf. These cores provided useful information about isotopic composition
of ice samples. First use of a motorized electromechanical drill22 was made in
1993 and in subsequent years, shallow ice core drilling (i.e. within a depth of 100
m) has been undertaken in many expeditions23-24. The analysis of these ice cores
has provided useful insights about changes in the earth’s climate during the past
two centuries25. All these drilling operations were carried out during the polar
winter months. However, in 2003, ice core drilling was successfully tried during
the polar summer (January-February) by going farther inland towards the
Antarctic continental interior26. In addition to the isotopic analysis, these ice
cores are being subjected to TL-dating processes.
The arrival of polar cold front induces significant changes in various ground
media. In one of the earlier studies27, a comparative study of these thermal
changes in ice, firn and permafrost was carried out. Based on these inputs, a
more ambitious project was undertaken. A small glacier was drilled through its
entire thickness till bedrock was encountered. Thermal sensors were placed from
the surface of the glacier down to the bedrock-depths. These were monitored for
one full year and it generated information about the effect of the polar cold
front, its maximum penetration depth, response pattern within the layers of the
2
glacier, the 10-m depth average annual temperature and thermal inversion point
within the glacier28. Similar year-long thermal observations were also made in
permafrost29 and information was gained about active layers of permafrost,
penetration effect of polar cold front, penetration time lag within different layers
of permafrost and annual trends of permafrost migration. By installation of
automatic weather stations on ice shelf and on polar continental ‘blue’ ice,
glacio-meteorological data was collected. Supporting these data with ground
based observations, albedo studies were carried out, resulting in surface energy
balance models for different snow and ice media30-32.
During these studies,
complementary data on snowdrift profiles, radiative properties of various media,
micro-structural fabric of ice types was also collected33.
Geomorphological studies were initiated in the Fifth Expedition34 in the
Wohlthat Mountains. These have been followed up in successive expeditions35-37.
Various polar and peri-glacial landforms have been identified and characteristic
diagnostic units have been mapped. Glacial debris and moraines of different
generations have been plotted and sampled. After de-glaciation, the isostatic
rebound has resulted in formation of raised beaches far above the present day
coast38. The imprint of these glacial processes on the landscape provides
inferences about peak glaciation, stages of its recession and the rate of
recession39-41. The palaeo-paths and migration routes of glaciers over
Schirmacher Oasis have been plotted42. The morainal samples are being probed
by TL-dating methods and precise quantification of the stages of de-glaciation is
expected soon. A geomorphological map of Schirmacher Oasis, incorporating
these dates and details, is under preparation43.
Utilizing the modern precision instruments like the satellite based GPS,
movement patterns, velocity, direction, stress of present day glaciers are being
mapped44. Neo-tectonic features in Schirmacher Oasis are also being analyzed by
these methods. GPS-based techniques have also been used in preparation of
detailed topographic maps around Indian Antarctic Station, Maitri, which have
been published45. In the coastal area of India Bay, hydrographic charts and ice
shelf coastal delineation work has been carried out46. Antarctic coast-line is in a
state of dynamic equilibrium and great chunks from floating ice shelf keep
3
breaking off into the sea. Successive satellite imageries, for the past 30 years,
have been utilized for studying the changing face of Antarctic coast-line near
India Bay47.
There are numerous fresh water lakes in Schirmacher Oasis. These have been
plotted on the map, genetically classified and each lake has been given a specific
reference number48. Thermal variations within the lake waters have been
studied49. Isotope analysis for some of the lake waters is also published 50. Lake
sediment coring has been carried out and palaeoclimatic models for changes in
the Holocene, back to the last glacial maxima, have been made51-52. Fine
resolution palynostratigraphic studies of lake sediments have provided insights
to late Quaternary climatic cycles in the polar region53. Supraglacial sediments
have also been studied for grain-size behaviour and morphoscopy using the
SEM. Mechanical and chemical textural characteristics imprinted on these
grains have been linked to the micro-environments and transportation agents54.
During the voyages to Antarctica and back, icebergs have been monitored from
the ships. The first and last sighting of icebergs are marked. The concentration
zones have been plotted, numbers have been counted, various sizes and shapes
have been classified55. An attempt has been made to find out the relationship
between global climatic change and iceberg sightings56.
References:
1. Kaul, M.K., Chakraborty, S.K., and Raina, V.K. (1985): “A Note on the
Snout of Dakshin Gangotri Glacier, Antarctica.” Scientific Report of the
Second Indian Expedition to Antarctica, Tech Pub No. 2, DOD, New
Delhi, pp 91-93.
2. Kaul, M.K., Chakraborty, S.K., and Raina, V.K. (1985): “Ablation on the
Antarctic Shelf Ice.” Scientific Report of the Second Indian Expedition to
Antarctica, Tech Pub No. 2, DOD, New Delhi, pp 81-86.
3. Kaul, M.K., Chakraborty, S.K., and Raina, V.K. (1985): “Stratigraphic
Studies of Antarctic Ice.” Scientific Report of the Second Indian
Expedition to Antarctica, Tech Pub No. 2, DOD, New Delhi, pp 99-102.
4
4. Kaul, M.K., Chakraborty, S.K., and Raina, V.K. (1985): “Experiment on
Artificial Augmentation of Ablation on the Shelf Ice, Antarctica.”
Scientific Report of the Second Indian Expedition to Antarctica, Tech
Pub No. 2, DOD, New Delhi, pp 95-97.
5. Raina, V.K., Kaul, M.K., and Chakraborty, S.K. (1985): “Ice Shelf
Studies at and around Indian Scientific Research Station, Dakshin
Gangotri, Antarctica.” Scientific Report of the Second Indian Expedition
to Antarctica, Tech Pub No. 2, DOD, New Delhi, pp 75-80.
6. Kaul, M.K., Singh, R.K., Srivastava, D., Mukerji, S., and Jayaram, S.
(1988): “Observations on the Changes in the Snout of Dakshin Gangotri
Glacier, Antarctica.” Scientific Report of the Fifth Indian Expedition to
Antarctica, Tech Pub No. 5, DOD, New Delhi, pp 205-209.
7. Singh, R.K., Mukerji, S., Srivastava, D. and Kaul, M.K. (1988): “Snow
Accumulation and Ablation Pattern on Ice Shelf near Dakshin Gangotri,
Antarctica and Development of Face Ice off Dakshin Gangotri.” Scientific
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8. Ravindra, R., Dey, A., Beg, M.J. and Kaul, M.K. (1994): “Observations
on the Snow Accumulation/Ablation over Shelf and Continental Ice in
parts of Central Dronning Maud Land, East Antarctica.” Scientific
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DOD, New Delhi, pp 227-238.
9. D’Souza, M.J. and Kundu, A. (1998): “Glaciological Studies during the
Seventeenth Antarctic Expedition: Monitoring of the Snout of Dakshin
Gangotri Glacier.” Geol Surv Ind, Rec Vol 132, pt. 2, pp 67.
10. Mukerji, S., Srivastava D., Singh, R.K. and Oberoi, L.K. (1999):
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413-419.
11. Chaturvedi, A., Singh, A., Gaur, M.P., Krishnamurthy, K.V. and Beg,
M.J. (1999): “A Confirmation of Polar Glacial Recession by Monitoring
the Snout of Dakshin Gangotri Glacier in Schirmacher Range.” Scientific
Report of the Fifteenth Indian Expedition to Antarctica, Tech Pub No. 13,
DOD, New Delhi, pp 321-336.
12. Chaturvedi, A., Singh, A., Jayapaul, D., Asthana, R. and Ravikant, V.
(1999): “Glaciological Studies carried out during the Wintering Period of
XV Expedition and the Summer Period of XVI Indian Expedition to
Antarctica.” Geol Surv Ind, Rec Vol 131, pt. 2, pp 71-74.
13. Chaturvedi, A. and Ravindra, R. (2001): “Conspicuous Evidence of
Global Warming from Schirmacher Range, Antarctica.” In Role of Earth
5
Sciences in Integrated Development and Related Societal Issues, GSI-NR,
Lucknow.
14. Chaturvedi, A., Beg, M.J. and Prasad, A.V.K. (2004): “Monthly Patterns
of Advance and Retreat Of Dakshin Gangotri Glacier Snout in
Schirmacher Range.” Accepted for Pub in Scientific Report of the
Nineteenth Indian Expedition to Antarctica, Tech Pub No. 17, DOD, New
Delhi.
15. Asthana, R., Gaur, M.P. and Chaturvedi, A. (1996): “Notes on Pattern of
Snow Accumulation/Ablation on Ice Shelf and Secular Movement of
Dakshin Gangotri Glacier Snout in Central Dronning Maud Land, East
Antarctica.” Scientific Report of the Twelfth Indian Expedition to
Antarctica, Tech Pub No. 10, DOD, New Delhi, pp 111-112.
16. Beg, M.J., Chaturvedi, A., D’Souza, M.J. and Asthana, R. (1997):
“Fluctuations in the Surface Profile of a part of Ice Shelf in Central
Dronning Maud Land, East Antarctica.” Scientific Report of the
Thirteenth Indian Expedition to Antarctica, Tech Pub No. 11, DOD, New
Delhi, pp 221-226.
17. Asthana, R., Gaur, M.P. and Dharwadkar, A. (2002): “Glaciological
Studies during the Expedition.” Scientific Report of the Eighteenth Indian
Expedition to Antarctica, Tech Pub No. 16, DOD, New Delhi, pp 95-109.
18. Chaturvedi, A., Singh, A. and Beg, M.J. (1999): “Trend of Depositional
Patterns on Ice Shelf near Dakshin Gangotri Station.” Scientific Report of
the Fifteenth Indian Expedition to Antarctica, Tech Pub No. 13, DOD,
New Delhi, pp 313-320.
19. Nijampurkar, V.N., Bhandari, N., Bhattacharya, S.K., Rao, D.K.,
Sengupta, D., Raina, V.K. and Kaul, M.K. (1985): “Isotopic and TL
Studies of Antarctic Ice Samples.” Scientific Report of the Second Indian
Expedition to Antarctica, Tech Pub No. 2, DOD, New Delhi, pp 103-106.
20. Nijampurkar, V.N., Bhattacharya, S.K., Mukerji, S., Singh, R.K. and
Srivastava, D. (1988): “Oxygen Isotope Studies in Antarctica.” Scientific
Report of the Fifth Indian Expedition to Antarctica, Tech Pub No. 5,
DOD, New Delhi, pp 171-179.
21. Nijampurkar, V.N., Rao, D.K., Kaul, M.K., Mukerji, S., Singh, R.K. and
Srivastava, D. (1988): “Radioactivity Studies in Antarctica.” Scientific
Report of the Fifth Indian Expedition to Antarctica, Tech Pub No. 5,
DOD, New Delhi, pp 225-233.
22. Chaturvedi, A. and Asthana, R. (1996): “An Attempt at Shallow Ice Core
Drilling in Polar Continental Ice, Central Dronning Maud Land,
Antarctica.” Scientific Report of the Twelfth Indian Expedition to
Antarctica, Tech Pub No. 10, DOD, New Delhi, pp 77-99.
6
23. Chaturvedi, A., Singh, A. and Kaul, M.K. (1999): “Ice-core Drilling in
Polar Continental Ice at Tronstadhallet, Central Dronning Maud Land,
Antarctica.” Proc Symp on Snow, Ice and Glaciers, Geol Surv Ind Spl
Pub 53, pp 403-408.
24. Chaturvedi, A., Singh, A. and Beg, M.J. (1999): Drilling for Polar
Continental Ice Cores between Nunataks Veteheia and Tallaksenvarden
in East Antarctica. Scientific Report of the Fifteenth Indian Expedition to
Antarctica, Tech Pub No. 13, DOD, New Delhi, pp 281-302.
25. Nijampurkar, V.N., Rao, D.K., Clausen, H.B., Kaul, M.K. and
Chaturvedi, A. (2002): “Records of Climatic Changes and Volcanic
Events in an Ice Core from Central Dronning Maud Land, East
Antarctica, during the Past Century.” Proc Indian Acad Sci (Earth Planet
Sci), Vol 111, No.1, pp 39-49.
26. Ravindra, R. (2003): “Ice Core Drilling Programme.” Workshop on
Research Programmes of Indian Antarctic Expeditions: Retrospect and
Prospects. At National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research, Goa.
Ed-N. Khare. pp 17.
27. Chaturvedi, A. and Asthana, R. (1996): “A Study of Thermal Behaviour
of Different Ground Media in Response to the Polar Cold Front in
Antarctica.” Scientific Report of the Twelfth Indian Expedition to
Antarctica, Tech Pub No. 10, DOD, New Delhi, pp 123-142.
28. Chaturvedi, A. and Singh, A. (1999): “Thermal Variations within a
Glacier from the Surface to the Bed-rock.” Scientific Report of the
Fifteenth Indian Expedition to Antarctica, Tech Pub No. 13, DOD, New
Delhi, pp 303-312.
29. Chaturvedi, A., Singh, A. and Vekateswarlu, S. (1999): “Annual Cycle of
Permafrost Migration in Schirmacher Oasis.” Scientific Report of the
Fifteenth Indian Expedition to Antarctica, Tech Pub No. 13, DOD, New
Delhi, pp 265-280.
30. Srivastava, P.K. (2002): “A Comparative Study of Glacio-Meteorological
Parameters, Reflectance and Surface Energy Exchange over Different
Snow-Ice Media in Dronning Maud Land in East Antarctica.” Scientific
Report of the Eighteenth Indian Expedition to Antarctica, Tech Pub No.
16, DOD, New Delhi, pp 153-190.
31. Mishra, V.D. and Mathur, P. (2003): “Energy Budget Estimation based
on Radiation Characteristics and Glacio-Meteorological Parameters of
Different Snow-Ice Media in Antarctica through Ground Based and
Automatic Weather Station Data and Study of Cracks using Ground
Penetrating Radar.” Proc Nat Sem on India in Antarctic, Panjab
University, Chandigarh. Ed- S. Chaturvedi.
7
32. Kumar, M. (2004): “Albedo Studies in Antarctica.” Accepted for
Publication in Scientific Report of the Nineteenth Indian Expedition to
Antarctica, Tech Pub No. 17, DOD, New Delhi.
33. Sharma, S.S. (2003): “Achievements of Snow and Avalanche Study
Establishment in Antarctica.” Workshop on Research Programmes of
Indian Antarctic Expeditions: Retrospect and Prospects. At National
Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research, Goa. Ed- N. Khare. pp 36-37.
34. Srivastava, D., Kaul, M.K., Singh, R.K., Mukerji, S. and Jayaram, S.
(1988): “Some Observations on the Glacial Geomorphological Features of
Wohlthat Mountains, Central Queen Maud Land, Antarctica.” Scientific
Report of the Fifth Indian Expedition to Antarctica, Tech Pub No. 5,
DOD, New Delhi, pp 211-218.
35. Ravindra, R., Pant, N.C. and D’Souza, M.J. (1991): “Landscape
Evaluation of Humboldt and Adjacent Area, Wohlthat Mountains, East
Antarctica.” Jour Geol Soc Ind, Vol 37, pp 172-183.
36. Ravindra, R. and Dey, A. (1992): “Geological, Geomorphological and
Glaciological Studies carried out during Austral Winter of 1990 at
Antarctica.” Geol Surv Ind, Rec Vol 125, pt. 2, pp 99-101.
37. Pant, N.C., Ravindra, R., and D’Souza, M.J. (1994): “Terminal Moraines
in Grautfatet, Humboldt Mountain, East Antarctica: Indicators of Rate of
Glacier Recession.” Scientific Report of the Ninth Indian Expedition to
Antarctica, Tech Pub No. 6, DOD, New Delhi, pp 219-225.
38. Ravindra, R. (1999): “Evidence of Raised Beaches from Schirmacher
Oasis, East Antarctica.” IGCP-367 Meeting cum Workshop on
Quaternary Coastal Environments: Records of Rapid Changes and
Responses, Centre for Remote Sensing, Bharathidasan University,
Tiruchirappalli, pp 27-28.
39. Ravindra, R. (2001): “Geomorphology of Schirmacher Oasis, East
Antarctica.” Proc Symp on Snow, Ice and Glaciers, Geol Surv India, Spl
Pub No. 53, pp 379-390.
40. Ravindra, R. (2001): “Geomophology of Schirmacher Oasis, East
Antarctica.” Proc Symp Snow, Ice, and Glaciers, Geol Surv Spl Pub 53,
pp 379-390.
41. Gaur, M.P., Dharwadkar, A. and Asthana, R. (2002): “Glaciomorphic
Landforms in parts of Schirmacher Oasis, Central Dronning Maud Land,
East Antarctica.” Scientific Report of the Eighteenth Indian Expedition to
Antarctica, Tech Pub No. 16, DOD, New Delhi, pp 81-93.
42. Ravindra, R., Gaur, M.P., Chaturvedi, A., Beg, M.J. and Asthana, R.
(2001): “Movement of Glaciers over Schirmacher Oasis during Last
8
Glacial Maxima.” Pub in Role of Earth Sciences in Integrated
Development and Related Societal Issues, GSI-NR, Lucknow.
43. Ravindra, R. (2003): “Geological, Glaciological and Geomorphological
Investigations in Central Dronning Maud Land, East Antarctica.”
Workshop on Research Programmes of Indian Antarctic Expeditions:
Retrospect and Prospects. At National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean
Research, Goa. Ed- N. Khare. pp 15-16.
44. Dhar, A. (2003): “Application of Global Positioning Systems for Crustal
Deformation, Glaciology and Atmospheric Studies.” Workshop on
Research Programmes of Indian Antarctic Expeditions: Retrospect and
Prospects. At National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research, Goa.
Ed- N. Khare. pp 86-87.
45. Nagarajan, B. (2003): “Mapping Neo-tectonics and Geophysical Studies in
Antarctica for Earth Science and Glaciology.” Workshop on Research
Programmes of Indian Antarctic Expeditions: Retrospect and Prospects.
At National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research, Goa. Ed- N.
Khare. pp 23-24.
46. Kumar, V. (2003): “Hydrographic Surveys in Antarctica using Ship
Fitted Echosounder and GPS.” Workshop on Research Programmes of
Indian Antarctic Expeditions: Retrospect and Prospects. At National
Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research, Goa. Ed- N. Khare. pp 25-26.
47. Chaturvedi, A., D’Souza, M.J. and Ravindra, R. (2003): “Calving Pattern
of Area Adjoining India Bay in Princess Astrid Coast, East Antarctica.”
Accepted for Pub in National Seminar of Geol Soc Ind, National Centre
for Antarctic and Ocean Research, Goa.
48. Ravindra, R., Chaturvedi, A. and Beg, M.J. (2002): “Melt-water Lakes of
Schirmacher Oasis Their Genetic Aspects and Classification.” Pub in
Advances in Marine and Antarctic Science, New Delhi, Ed- D.B. Sahoo
and P.C. Pandey, pp 301-313.
49. Sinha, R., Chatterjee, A., Panda, A.K. and Mitra, A. (1999): “Thermal
Structure and Heat Budget of Priyadarshini Lake, Schirmacher Oasis,
East Antarctica.” Current Science, Vol 76, No. 5.
50. Sinha, R., Navada, S.V., Chatterjee, A., Kumar, S., Mitra, A. and Nair,
A.R. (2000): “Hydrogen and Oxygen Isotopic Analysis of Antarctic Lake
Waters.” Current Science, Vol 78, No. 8.
51. Bera, S.K. and Sinha, A.K. (2003): “Proxy Pollen Data Retrieved from
Terrestrial Deposits in and around Schirmacher Oasis, East Antarctica.”
Proc Nat Sem on India in Antarctic, Panjab University, Chandigarh. EdS. Chaturvedi.
9
52. Bera, S.K. (2003): “Incidence of Airborne Palynodebris in Various
Terrestrial Deposits and Lake Sediments in and around Schirmacher
Oasis, East Antarctica: A Palaeoclimatic Approach.” Workshop on
Research Programmes of Indian Antarctic Expeditions: Retrospect and
Prospects. At National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research, Goa.
Ed- N. Khare. pp 38-39.
53. Bera, S.K. (2004): “Reconstruction of Palaeoclimate from Holocene
Sequences of Lake Sediment, Schirmacher Oasis, East Antarctica.”
Accepted for Pub in Scientific Report of the Nineteenth Indian Expedition
to Antarctica, Tech Pub No. 17, DOD, New Delhi.
54. Asthana, R. and Chaturvedi, A. (1998): “The Grain-size Behaviour and
Morphoscopy of Supraglacial Sediments, South of Schirmacher Oasis,
East Antarctica.” Jour Geol Soc Ind, Vol 52, pp 557-568.
55. Gaur, M.P., Asthana, R., and Chaturvedi, A. (1996): “Monitoring of
Icebergs in Antarctic Waters.” Scientific Report of the Twelfth Indian
Expedition to Antarctica, Tech Pub No. 10, DOD, New Delhi, pp 101-109.
56. Jayapaul, D., Chaturvedi, A. and Kaul, M.K. (2001): “A Study of
Antarctic Icebergs and their Role as Indicators of Global Environmental
Change.” Proc Symp Snow, Ice, and Glaciers, Geol Surv Spl Pub 53, pp
409-412.
57. Ravindra, R. and Mitra, A. (2001): “Overview of the Geological Outputs
of the Indian Antarctic Expeditions.” National Seminar on Precambrian
Evolution and Mineralisation in India Its Economic Impact and Future
Prospects. Seminar Volume, Ed. S.P. Singh, Patna.
10