CHAPTER 8: MORAL DEVELOPMENT, VALUES, AND
RELIGION
INTRODUCTION
Moral development is a multifaceted aspect of individual growth involving cognition, behavior,
motivation, and self-assessment based on personal interpretations of right and wrong. The thoughts,
feelings, and behavior of moral development may have an intrapersonal or interpersonal focus.
Piaget explained two types of moral cognition: heteronomous morality and autonomous
morality. Young thinkers in early stages of moral development believe consequences of
misbehavior are delivered immediately, as immanent justice. Older children think more about
cooperation in social issues. Kohlberg described three levels of qualitatively distinct aspects of
moral reasoning.



Level 1: Preconventional Reasoning—reasoning is based on external rewards and
punishment
 Stage 1: Heteronomous morality—morality is based on avoidance of punishment
 Stage 2: Individualism, instrumental purpose, and change—mutual pursuit of
own interests
Level 2: Conventional Reasoning—morality is based on internal values and external
standards
 Stage 3: Mutual interpersonal expectations, conformity—value for trust, caring,
and loyalty
 Stage 4: Social systems morality—value for the social order, law, justice, and duty
Level 3: Postconventional Reasoning—morality is internalized
 Stage 5: Social contract or individual rights—explores options, makes own decision
 Stage 6: Universal ethical principles—conscience decides conflict between law
and conscience
Kohlberg hypothesized that the moral orientation of youngsters evolves in conjunction
with cognitive development and external factors such as cognitive conflict, peer relations, and
role-taking opportunities. Kohlberg’s critics argue that he places too much emphasis on thought
versus behavior. Kohlberg’s theory does not show respect for cultural traditions found in eastern
or third world countries. It is not clear that students can apply Kohlberg’s dilemmas to their daily
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experiences. Gilligan proposes that Kohlberg places too much emphasis on the Western justice
perspective, and too little appreciation is shown for the care perspective. Another perspective
recognizes a moral domain, a social-conventional domain, and a personal domain as factors that
promote justice, consistency within social groups, and personal choice.
From the behavioral perspective, moral behavior depends on consistency of
consequences, clarity of societal rules, quality of the modeled behavior, and competency of the
adolescent. Models of moral behavior include parents, peers, and media figures. Competencies are
based on cognitive capacity, demonstrated behavior, and awareness of morality rules. Social
cognitive theory emphasizes the distinction between moral thought and moral action; that is,
performing moral behavior when it is warranted. Altruism seems to develop from reciprocity in
personal experiences; having experienced help, care, and forgiveness from others, an adolescent
is able to offer the same assistance to others.
Moral feelings are based on experienced child-rearing strategies, empathetic nature, and
emotions in moral development. Psychoanalytic theory focuses on the superego, the moral branch
of the personality, influenced by components of the superego called the ego ideal and conscience.
According to Freud, parents influence moral development by employing love withdrawal and
power assertion. These punitive strategies have not been found to be as effective as induction,
explaining responsibility as it relates to consequences for others. Empathy is an emotional
response that depends on perspective to understand the emotional condition of others. A lack of
empathy correlates highly with antisocial and violent behavior. Many developmentalists believe
that the contrast between positive sympathetic and negative shameful feelings contributes to
adolescents’ complete moral development.
Families and schools are important contexts for moral development. Parents play a
primary role in moral development. Parents who use induction as a form of discipline will
encourage positive moral development. Moral education is recognized as an aspect of instruction
that occurs consciously and overtly as well as unconsciously or covertly.





Hidden curriculum—creates an atmosphere covertly teaching ethical and unethical
behavior.
Character education—teaches moral behavior and avoidance of behavior that harms
self or others.
Values clarification—helps students identify purpose and merit in their lives.
Cognitive moral education—develops democratic values such as cooperation, trust,
and responsibility.
Service learning—incorporates the community to provide applied learning settings
that shift the focus from the student to those who require the skills the student must
learn.
Values are reflected in ones beliefs in politics, religion, money, friends, career, and selfrespect. Values change with time, and the current trend is toward concern for self over those for
others. Good personal adjustment depends on self-fulfillment and strong commitment to others.
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Adults usually introduce religion to present moral and ethical ideals and to maintain religious tradition. A majority of adolescents report engaging in religious behavior and believe that
religion is important. Religious organizations help adolescents with identity formation. Piaget’s
cognitive developmental theory may be applied to developmental processes that children
demonstrate as they acquire knowledge about biblical figures, moral concepts, and hypothetical understanding of religious material. They are preoperational intuitive religious thought (unsystematic
and fragmented), concrete operational religious thought (focused on literal details), and formal
operational religious thought (abstract, hypothetical religious understanding). Fowler’s theory of
religious development focuses on how individuals find meaning in their life. Religious adolescents demonstrate
greater self-discipline in avoiding premarital sex and other risky behavior, but are less likely to use
contraception if they are sexually active.
Cults offer alternative affiliations and values that may be characterized as dangerous or
deviant. Cults serve the members of the group, not the community or nonmembers. Cults’ leaders
use overbearing authoritarian methods, are deceptive and coercive, and replace a previous identity
with a new identity that would not have been acceptable initially. Most members of cults are
psychologically healthy.
TOTAL TEACHING PACKAGE OUTLINE
Chapter 8: Moral Development, Values, and Religion
HEADING
I.
DOMAINS OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Moral Thought
RESOURCE
Learning Goal: 1
Image Gallery: 136
Lecture Topic: 8.1
Critical Thinking Exercise: 8.1
Discussion Topic: 8.2
Essay Question: 1
WWW: Institute for Global Ethics www.globalethics.org/
Learning Goal: 1
Critical Thinking Exercise: 8.1
Essay Question: 2
Piaget’s Ideas and Cognitive Disequilibrium Theory Critical Thinking Exercise: 8.2
Kohlberg’s Theory
Critical Thinking Exercise: 8.2
Research Articles: 8.1, 8.2
Research Project: 8.2
WWW: Exploring Moral Development; Kohlberg’s Theory of
Moral Development; Kohlberg’s Moral Dilemmas; Kohlberg’s
Moral Stages at www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
Kohlberg’s Level 1: Preconventional
Reasoning
Kohlberg’s Level 2: Conventional
Reasoning
Kohlberg’s Level 3: Postconventional
Reasoning
In-Class Activity: 8.1
Short Scenarios: 8.1, 8.2
Research Articles: 8.1, 8.2
Research Project: 8.2
Influences on the Kohlberg Stages
Research Article: 8.1
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Why Is Kohlberg’s Theory Important for
Understanding Moral Development in
Adolescence?
Kohlberg’s Critics
Essay Question: 3
Moral Thought and Moral Behavior
Essay Question: 3
Assessment of Moral Reasoning
Short Scenario: 8.2, 8.3
Research Project: 8.2
Culture and Moral Development
Discussion Topic: 8.1
Gender and the Care Perspective
Short Scenario: 8.3
Essay Question: 4
WWW: In a Different Voice; Exploring Girls’ Voices at
www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
Reasoning in Different Social Cognitive
Domains
Lecture Topic: 8.2
Discussion Topic: 8.1
Short Scenario: 8.2
Moral Behavior
Learning Goal: 1
Lecture Topic: 8.2
Critical Thinking Exercise: 8.1
Basic Processes
Short Scenario: 8.2
Social Cognitive Theory of Moral
Development
Essay Question: 5
Prosocial Behavior
Discussion Topic: 8.2
Essay Question: 6
Short Scenario: 8.2
Moral Feeling
II.
Research Article: 8.2
Learning Goal: 4
Critical Thinking Exercise: 8.1
Psychoanalytic Theory
Essay Question: 7
Empathy
Lecture Topic: 8.1
The Contemporary Perspective
Discussion Topic: 8.1
CONTEXTS OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Learning Goal: 2
Lecture Topic: 8.3
Research Project: 8.1
Essay Question: 8
Parenting
Parental Discipline
Parenting Moral Children and Adolescence
Schools
The Hidden Curriculum
Character Education
Values Clarification
Short Scenario: 8.2
Discussion Topic: 7.2
Essay Question: 8
In-Class Activity: 8.2
Research Project: 8.1
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Cognitive Moral Education
III.
Service Learning
Through the Eyes of Adolescents: Finding a Way to Get a
Playground
VALUES, RELIGION, AND CULTS
Learning Goal: 3
Critical Thinking Exercise: 8.3
Values
WWW: Values of American College Freshman; National Service
Learning Clearinghouse; Give Five; Kids Who Care; Volunteer
Matching Online at www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
Religion
Developmental Change
Fowler’s Life-Span Developmental Theory
Religious Indoctrination and Parenting
Religiousness and Sexuality in Adolescence
Learning Goal: 3
Image Gallery: 13
Research Article: 8.2
Essay Question: 9
Careers in Adolescent Development: Constance Flanagan, Professor
of Youth Civic Development
Cults
Learning Goal: 3
Discussion Topic: 8.3
Essay Question: 10
WWW: Cult 101; Cults and Mind Control; Social Psychological
Aspects of Cults; The Heaven’s Gate Website; Dangerous Cults
at www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
SUGGESTED LECTURE TOPICS
Topic 8.1—Eisenberg’s Model of Moral Development
Eisenberg suggests that Kohlberg’s model is too rigid; she suggests that children’s moral
reasoning is not very predictable because children can reason from several different levels rather
than using one level and only being able to advance. In Eisenberg’s model, the higher levels are
found only in older children, but children can use any of the levels for which they are capable. A
child who can use high-level abstract reasoning doesn’t have to use it.
Eisenberg’s model gives equal value to justice-oriented and caring-oriented moral reasoning. The six levels are:
A.
Self-centered reasoning. At this level the individual is concerned with consequences to
oneself. One may choose to assist or not assist because of (a) personal benefit or loss;
(b) the expectation of reciprocity; (c) one needs the other, or likes or dislikes the other.
Preschoolers and early elementary-school children frequently use this level.
B.
Needs-oriented reasoning. Concern for needs is expressed, without role taking or empathy,
even though there may be a conflict with one’s own needs. Some preschoolers and many
school-age children use this mode of reasoning.
C.
Stereotyped and/or approval-oriented reasoning. This level involves stereotyped ideas of
good/bad people and good/bad behavior and the desire to win approval. Some school-age
children and adolescents use this level.
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D.
Empathetic reasoning. The individual can use some role taking, empathy, and recognition
of the other’s humanness. There is awareness of the emotional consequences of helping
(feeling good) or not helping (feeling guilty). This is the common level for a few older
school-age children and many adolescents.
E.
Partly internalized principles. Justifications for actions involve internalized values (e.g.,
concern for others’ rights). The ideas are not clearly thought out or strongly stated. This is
the common mode for a few adolescents and adults.
F.
Strongly internalized principles. Justifications for actions are based on strongly felt
internalized values (e.g., wanting to improve society, belief in equality of all). Emotional
consequences involve self-respect and living up to one’s own values. This reasoning is rare.
Reference
Eisenberg, N. (1989). The development of prosocial values. In N. Eisenberg, J. Reykowski, & E. Staub
(Eds.). Social and moral values: Individual and social perspectives. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Topic 8.2—Egalitarian Motive
In some societies, such as with Filipino peasants, the central cultural orientation is an egalitarian
motive and the belief that all people should be equal. For the Filipinos, society provides a stable
central government, sufficient agricultural and natural resources, over 50 percent literacy in
English, and yet poor health, malnutrition, and much disease exist. The peasants live in a
subsistence economy, do not plan ahead, do not allow government programs to improve
agriculture and business, and deliberately avoid individual accomplishments. Americans view
this pattern as irresponsible, illogical, and lazy. But from the Filipino perspective, the foundation
of happiness is social approval rather than personal prestige and material possessions.
The peasants are guided by these aspects of the egalitarian motive:
1.
Pakiksama. More importance is placed on good feelings among people than on personal
achievements.
2.
Desirability of just meeting one’s needs. The prevailing attitude is that it is sufficient to just
meet the day’s needs.
3.
Leveling. Any attempts at personal improvement are discouraged by negative results such
as teasing, threats, attacks, and gossip.
4.
“All have a right to live” belief. While advancement is discouraged, the peasants do help
people who are having great difficulty in meeting their everyday existence needs.
5.
Hiya. Failure to succeed would lead to feelings of embarrassment and inferiority called
hiya.
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Do the cultural effects of the egalitarian motive surprise you? Are there other effects of
the egalitarian motive that surprise you? Are there other effects of this motive on a culture?
Would it be possible to combine the typical American motives and the egalitarian motive? What
do you think the result would be? Could you change some aspects of the egalitarian motive to
make it a healthier motive?
References
Guthrie, G. M. 1970. The psychology of modernization in the rural Philippines. I.P.C. Paper No. 8.
Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press.
Madigan, F. C. (Ed.) (1967). Human factors in Philippine rural development. Cagayan de Oro City:
Xavier University Press.
Topic 8.3—Ethics Education
Professionals are well aware of the importance of moral and ethical education in preparation for
employment, particularly in areas such as social services, psychology, law, and medicine.
Professional organizations have had ethical guidelines for decades, and in the case of medical
ethics, for centuries. Books that discuss business ethics or ethics in daily life recently have
become relatively popular. Adolescents are faced with increasingly difficult challenges to
behaving morally and ethically as substance abuse, sexual harassment, bullying, cheating, and
vandalism increase in educational settings. The importance of establishing acceptable codes of
behavior suggests that moral and ethical behavior need to be addressed at the high school level.
Although ethics education cannot and should not be the focal point in all coursework, it
can be integrated into all levels and types of educational preparation. The basic goals of ethics
education are:




to sensitize students to ethical issues and potential consequences of their actions;
to increase students’ ability to recognize ethical issues;
to develop the ability to analyze issues and make good decisions; and
to accept the lack of clarity that often occurs before and after making ethical
decisions.
Ethics must be related both to current experiences and to potential future difficulties.
Issues that students experience regularly afford the best learning examples for ethical decision
making. Students also must be prepared to recognize potential difficulties; thus, they must be
presented with some slightly more abstract issues than they are familiar with currently. Several
strategies are used:

Discussion of moral and ethical behavior may be conducted in separate training
sessions or in conjunction with other areas of study. For example, high school
students might learn how to respond to plagiarism in English class and perjury in law
and government, or about lying and cheating as a topic in an ethics class.
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

Case studies provide students with the opportunity to solve ethical dilemmas that they
might observe or experience. In these exercises, students think about the choices that
they might make from the position of an objective observer. For example, suppose a
student was told in confidence who took the money from a club treasury. The student
recognizes that the planned party will not be held unless the money is returned. On
the one hand, if the student tells the club advisor who took the money, the confidant
will feel betrayed. If she doesn’t say anything, everyone will be deprived of the
opportunity for a party.
Role playing exercises get students directly involved in responding to difficult
situations. For example, give one student the information that he has been at a party and
is too drunk to drive, but can’t admit it to anyone. It could jeopardize his position on the
team headed for a state championship. A second student is given the information that she
recognizes that her friend is drunk for the fifth weekend in a row. Beside that, she has
smelled alcohol on her friend’s breath all week, even in the morning.
All ethical dilemmas have one or more moral issues that are present and must be decided
upon for the good of those involved. Learning to weigh the relative importance and impact of each
potential outcome of the moral dilemma allows students to make decisions with which they can be
most comfortable. Issues that students are likely to be faced with include confidences of friends
versus negative consequences for an individual or group, and freedom to choose versus harm to the
individual or others. Although many educators believe that ethical behavior depends on an
individual’s character, fundamentals of ethical behavior have been established in nonprofessionals
and professionals in a wide variety of employment settings. The acquisition of basic ethical
awareness, knowledge of ethical behavior, and application of ethical decision making capabilities
represent invaluable interpersonal competence and commitment to the welfare of others.
Reference
Patterson, J. B., & Curl, R. M. (1990). Ethics education in supported employment preparation. Rehabilitation
Education, 4, 247–259.
CLASSROOM DISCUSSIONS AND ACTIVITIES
Discussion Topics
Discussion 8.1—An Age of Ethical Relativity
Western culture emphasizes individualism as the foundation of relationships between people. As
such, the individual is responsible for making moral decisions, responding to individual
conscience, determining responsibility, and establishing personal values through education.
Kenneth Gergen explains that the individual acts on these responsibilities based on relationships
with the broader culture and the broader concerns of the culture. Two theoretical foundations
have been used to explain individual action: the romanticism view of deep inner standards that
guide benevolent propensities and the modernist morality based on Darwinism, scientism, and
increased cultural consciousness. Neither considers the relationship or interdependence of the
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individual with the greater culture. The consequence of considering relationships in identifying
significance and meaning to moral action is what Gergen identifies as constructivist relativism.
From this perspective, Kohlberg’s form of independent decision making would not be as
beneficial as Gilligan’s socially centered decision-making processes.
Current Gallup Polls suggest that Americans are becoming increasingly comfortable with
moral relativism. In March 2000, almost 90 percent of Americans said religion was important in
their lives, but only 20 percent believed theirs was the only true path to God. About 45 percent
believed that their views and the views of others were as important as religious teachings. Only
24 percent of those polled viewed themselves as part of the religious right, a group that believes
in biblical literalism.
How do students determine the truth? What percentage of students decides about moral
behavior based on internal feelings? What percentage base decisions on scientific information?
When might it be wrong to tell the truth? What additional evidence do students have that ethical
relativism influences the lives of adolescents?
References
The Gallup Organization. (2000, March). Gallup poll topics: A–Z—Religion. Princeton: Author.
www.gallup.com
Gergen, K. J. (1992). Social construction and moral action. In D. N. Robinson (Ed.), Social discourse and
moral judgment (pp. 9–27). San Diego: Academic Press, Inc.
Lamborn, S. D., Fischer, K. W., & Pipp, S. (1994). Constructive criticism and social lies: A developmental
sequence for understanding honesty and kindness in social interactions. Developmental Psychology,
30, 495–508.
Discussion 8.2—Does Altruism Really Exist?
Do we really care about others, what happens to them, how they feel, and whether life is positive
for them? Or do we always have ourselves as the target of our concern? Do we help others for
their sake, or only for our own? A terminal value occurs if we value others for their own sake.
An instrumental value takes place if we value others because it is to our advantage to do so.
Which is truer of human nature?
Some psychologists seem to believe that altruism, valuing and pursuing another person’s
welfare as a goal, is a fantasy. These psychologists see humans as social egoists. As William
James noted in 1890:
“We know how little it matters to us whether some man, a man taken at large and in the abstract,
proves a failure or succeeds in life—he may be hanged for aught we care—but we know the utter
momentousness and terribleness of the alternative when the man is the one whose name we
ourselves bear.”
In addition to William James, Freud’s psychoanalytic theory and Skinner’s behaviorism
makes strong social egoist assumptions.
Social egoism as a dominant psychological philosophy is also exhibited in the amount of
research done on such self-emphasizing topics as self-awareness, self-monitoring, selfIM 8 | 9
presentation, self-handicapping, self-deception, self-evaluation, self-affirmation, self-discrepancy,
self-expansion, and self-esteem. Many theories in social psychology assume that people are out for
themselves: Among them are social comparison theory, social exchange theory, and equity theory.
Yet, Batson and his colleagues (1990) conducted a series of research studies that suggests
that there is altruism or true empathy-induced helping. His studies looked at alternatives such as
helping (1) to reduce aversive empathic arousal, (2) to avoid social and self-punishments (e.g.,
shame and guilt), and (3) to seek social and self-rewards, and found that some helping occurs
because of altruism. Batson (1990) concludes,
“All the research . . . suggests that our capacity for altruistic caring is limited to those for whom we
feel empathy. In study after study, when empathy for the person in need is low, the pattern of helping
suggests underlying egoistic motivation. It is not that we never help people for whom we feel little
empathy; we often do . . . We care for them instrumentally rather than terminally.” (p. 344)
Furthermore, even when we have concern for others, we might not act on it if the cost of
helping is painfully high.
Reference
Batson, C. D. (1990). How social an animal? The human capacity for caring. American Psychologist, 45,
336–346.
Discussion 8.3—Satanism
Satanism has been identified as a destructive religion that seduces individuals who feel alienated,
alone, angry, desperate, and powerless. The promises of Satanism are power, dominance, and
gratification to those who join the cult. Adolescents are seduced by these promises and have
psychological needs that are met by participation in Satanic worship including:

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
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


Sense of belonging—resolves the adolescent’s identity crisis;
Mastery and structure—establishes order and a sense of accomplishment;
Power and control—provides opportunity for power in destructive rituals;
Rebellion—satisfies normal processes of experimenting with values;
Curiosity and relief from boredom—satisfies normal curiosity about occults;
Self-esteem—achievement of identity resolves difficulties of low self-esteem;
Validation of anger and violence—resolves alienation by violent means of attaining
power.
Feelings of gratification that come from participation in the cult make it a difficult and
lengthy process to leave. Contact and patterns of involvement can be used to determine level of
involvement.



Experimental use—”dabbling” with friends
Social/recreational use—practices magic and learns rituals
Situational use—Satanic practices in response to stressful situations
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


Intensified use—deeply involved; formal cult initiation has occurred
Compulsive use—secretively and compulsively engaging in ritualistic behavior
Chronic addiction—Satanism is a way of life; leaving the cult is nearly impossible
Involvement often correlates with a significant event. Family participation often helps to
successfully extricate adolescents from cult involvement, particularly after establishing a strong
relationship between the therapist and client. Success also depends on developing alternative
healthy activities, including elimination of probable substance abuse.
Reference
Clark, C. M. (1994). Clinical assessment of adolescents involved in Satanism. Adolescence, 29, 461–468.
In-Class Activities
Activity 8.1—Kohlberg’s Ethical Dilemmas
Present the four moral dilemmas and have students respond to them and explain their responses
(essentially Kohlberg’s tasks). Then have the students break into small groups and analyze their
results according to Kohlberg’s six stages. Do their reasons fit into his categories? Why or why
not? How do their patterns of results support or not support his stage model? Are all their
responses in one stage? What kind of mixture or patterning is evident?
Dilemma 1: In Europe, a woman is near death from cancer. There is one drug that the
doctors think might save her. It is a form of radium that a druggist in the same town has recently
discovered. The drug is expensive to make, but the druggist is charging ten times what the drug
cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and is charging $2,000 for a small dose of the
drug. The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, goes to everyone he knows to borrow the money, but
he can get together only about $1,000. He tells the druggist his wife is dying and asks him to sell
the drug for $1,000 now and the rest later. The druggist says, “No, I discovered the drug and I’m
going to make money from it.” Heinz is desperate and considers breaking into the man’s store to
steal the drug for his wife. Should he? Why or why not?
Dilemma 2: John and Mary are taking a class together and are strongly attracted to one
another. They want to have sex together, but John is married, although the marriage is having
difficulties. Should they sleep together? Why or why not?
Dilemma 3: Dr. Johnson makes decisions about which patients have access to a kidney
machine. Patients who do not get access will die. There are far more people who need the
machine than can be accommodated, so there is a waiting list for those not yet on it. Dr.
Johnson’s young daughter is injured in a car accident and has kidney damage. She needs access
to the machine to live. Should Dr. Johnson take another patient off the machine to put his
daughter on? Why or why not?
Dilemma 4: You are shopping with a friend when you notice that your friend is
shoplifting. You look around and notice that the store manager is watching you. What should
you do? Why?
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Reference
King, M. B., & Clark, D. E. (1989). Instructor’s manual to accompany J. W. Santrock and S. R. Yussen’s
Child development: An introduction (4th ed.). Dubuque: Wm. C. Brown.
Activity 8.2—Values Clarification Exercise
The world as we know it is coming to an end. There is a fallout shelter in central Canada to
which six people will be admitted during this third world war. You are the administrator and you
must make the selections. The supply of air, food, water, and availability of space is adequate for
only six people for three months, but ten people are asking to be admitted. For the survival of the
human race, you must decide which six of them will be saved. You have exactly 30 minutes to
make up your mind before Washington goes up in smoke. These are your choices:
1.
A 16-year-old girl of questionable IQ, a high school dropout, pregnant.
2.
A policeman with a gun (which cannot be taken from him—he was recently thrown off the
force for brutality).
3.
A clergyman, 75.
4.
A woman physician, 36, known to be a confirmed racist.
5.
A male violinist, 46, who served seven years for pushing narcotics.
6.
A 20-year-old Black militant, no special skills.
7.
A former prostitute, female, 39.
8.
An architect, a male homosexual.
9.
A 26-year-old law student.
10.
The law student’s 25-year-old wife who spent the last nine months in a mental hospital,
still heavily sedated. They refuse to be separated.
Ask students to choose the six people they will admit to the shelter. After they have
completed their assignment, ask students to choose by casting votes of the ten applicants and
determine which will be admitted into the shelter. Ask students to debate the decisions they
made.
Reference
Santrock, J. W. (1998). Adolescence: An introduction (7th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
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Critical Thinking Exercises
Exercise 8.1—Moral Development, Values, and Religion
The chapter discussion of moral development, values, and religion presents another opportunity
to study clearly measurable developmental changes during adolescence. The developmental
issues discussed in Chapter 2 receive variable emphasis for the topics in Chapter 8. Which issue
appears to receive the least attention in this chapter? Circle the letter of the best answer,
explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate.
A.
Development results from biological, social, and cognitive processes.
B.
There are periods of development.
C.
Nature and nurture interact to produce development.
D.
Development may be either continuous or discontinuous.
E.
Early experience is often important for later development.
Exercise 8.2—Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development represents a standard against which other
theories are compared. One question to ask is how this approach relates to the various theories
and studies about moral development presented in the chapter. Based on Santrock’s summary of
Kohlberg’s theory in Chapter 8, which of the following statements does not accurately represent
a way in which Kohlberg’s approach applies what we know about moral development? Circle
the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other
answers is not as appropriate.
A.
Piaget’s formal operational thinker is comparable to a person at Kohlberg’s Level 3:
Postconventional Reasoning.
B.
Kohlberg’s approach to understanding moral development is to investigate cognitive
processes, not moral behavior.
C.
Kohlberg’s theory emphasizes discontinuity in moral development across time.
D.
Kohlberg’s approach is slightly different from the social cognitive theory of moral
development.
E.
Kohlberg’s theory can be used successfully as the foundation for moral education.
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Exercise 8.3—Values, Religion, and Cults
In the section of Chapter 8 entitled “Values, Religion, and Cults,” Santrock discusses
contemporary patterns and trends in adolescents’ values. Which of the following is an
assumption, rather than an inference or an observation, which motivates Santrock to write about
this topic? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why
each of the other answers is not as appropriate.
A.
Adolescents carry with them a set of values that influences their thoughts, feelings, and
actions.
B.
College freshmen are strongly motivated to be well off financially.
C.
Talking about values and exposure to religion helps adolescents make good decisions when
they encounter new dilemmas in daily life.
D.
There was an increase between 1986 and 1995 in the percentage of freshmen that said they
were strongly interested in participating in community action programs.
E.
Religious institutions created by adults are designed to introduce certain beliefs to children
and adolescents and ensure that they will carry on a religious tradition.
Answer Key for Critical Thinking Exercises
Exercise 8.1
A. This is not the best answer. The chapter suggests sex differences in emphasis of moral
behavior; it covers social and cognitive processes extensively.
B.
This is not the best answer. Piaget and Kohlberg, both of which receive research support
for their claims, treat developmental periods in the theories.
C.
This is the best answer. There is no discussion of the influence of nature and nurture in this
chapter.
D.
This is not the best answer. The theories of Piaget and Kohlberg, and theories derived from
them (e.g., Hoffman’s, Gilligan’s) explain discreet, discontinuous stages of moral development.
E.
This is not the best answer. Although there is limited treatment of this idea, it is included in
the discussion of psychoanalytic accounts of the development of moral feeling.
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Exercise 8.2
A. This is not the best answer. This statement correctly identifies the comparison between
Piaget’s formal operations, individuals who think logically, deductively, and abstractly;
postconventional reasoning is based on completely internalized morality.
B.
This is not the best answer. Kohlberg believed that moral development is based primarily
on moral reasoning, not the behavior that an individual demonstrates.
C.
This is not the best answer. Kohlberg described moral development as unfolding in a series
of stages, and at each stage the children and adolescents describe qualitatively distinct
thought processes.
D.
This is the best answer. It is an inaccurate explanation of Kohlberg’s theory because social
cognitive theory of moral development distinguishes between moral competence in ability
versus performance.
E.
This is not the best answer. Higgins, Power, and Kohlberg (1983) demonstrated that moral
education was successful in three schools following a democratic approach to school
management.
Exercise 8.3
A. This is an observation. Santrock states this as a principle at the beginning of the section
with a reference. He argues for this position with additional supporting references as
evidence.
B.
This is an observation. It summarizes findings portrayed in Figure 8.3 from a study of
college student values. In short, college freshmen say they are highly motivated to be well
off financially.
C.
This is an assumption. Santrock proposes that adolescents who are exposed to values
clarification and attend religious services are more likely to hear the necessary information
about avoiding risky behavior, but they also benefit from spending time with good models.
It is not clear how well adolescents generalize the information they receive to new
problems they experience at school or in the community.
D.
This is an observation. It is one of the observations that led to the interpretation just
discussed in C. The statement reports an observed shift in what freshmen say about their
interest in community action programs.
E.
This is an inference. Santrock introduces the idea that adults create environments for
children to transmit specific religious values. There are no data to suggest what percentage
of parents use religious educational settings as a mechanism to teach values, to introduce
students to acceptable peer groups, or to avoid undesirable influences by unacceptable
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peers. The data do show, however, that adults adopt the religions they were exposed to as
youths.
Short Scenarios
Scenario 8.1
Brandon has been at the Roosevelt Senior High for three years, and has great plans for writing a
book about his high school experience. He was lucky enough to have two professional parents
who provided him with interesting opportunities for academic achievement, participation in
school activities, and travel around the United States and Europe. Brandon has learned a lot
about people, the way they respond to the circumstances of their lives, and the way they respond
to other people. Of course he understands his classmates at school better than anyone else he has
observed. He has noticed that students living in the poorer neighborhoods, and whose parents
have inconsistent employment, look out for themselves. They do a good job of keeping track of
the teachers and principal so they don’t often get caught breaking rules, but they take advantage
of the system at every opportunity. Most kids want to be liked. They don’t really think for
themselves; they do and say what most of their friends do and say. Even those who think they are
very enlightened check with friends or authority figures before making any decision. Brandon
has only a few personal friends who seem to be individualists, but also are considerate of others’
feelings and beliefs. Most of them have jobs, support school and community events, or visit and
help older people. Brandon writes in his journal every night to remember interesting events and
the contradictions he observes between what students and teachers say and do. It also gives him a
chance to reflect on his experiences and perspectives and those of his classmates. Someday he
will have enough material to write a book of short stories.
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Brandon has had a variety of experiences as a result of an upper middle-class SES.
Traveling around the United States and Europe has given Brandon an opportunity to
observe a wide variety of cultures and belief systems, offering points of comparison.
As his exposure to Western cultures has been most dominant, the Kohlberg theory of
moral development would provide an accurate assessment of his development.
The pattern of taking care of self could be described as Kohlberg’s Level 1 behavior.
The social cognitive theory of moral development explains the importance of distinguishing between the ability and the willingness to produce moral behavior.
Wanting to be liked and going along with community rules are aspects of Kohlberg’s
Level 2.
Brandon describes his friends as engaging in postconventional reasoning.
Scenario 8.2
All that Jim has to do is turn on his killer smile, and he can charm almost anyone into almost
anything. He has tried it often enough to know that it works. Other people know it too. His
teammates have started asking him to buy alcohol and tobacco products for them. The coach
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wants him to help raise money for the team. And his parents ask him to attend all of the social
events they host for their business and civic activities. Even though he wants to remain good
friends with his teammates, he knows that he will get into serious trouble with the law, the coach,
and his parents if he is caught buying liquor. In addition to that, he knows it isn’t healthy to drink
after extensive workouts or games. It is even more dangerous for his friends, and anyone else on
the road, if they drink and drive. He could go into the liquor store and not be so convincing, but
that would solve only part of the problem. He must think of some strategy to convince them that
they should stay sober. Maybe he could get his parents and the coach to foot the bill for a pro
ball player to come and give everyone a motivational “be smart” lecture. He’ll try that approach
first.
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Jim is conflicted because his adolescent friends encourage him to manipulate others;
he does not want to get in trouble—Kohlberg’s Level 1 thinking.
Jim’s parents have modeled altruistic and philanthropic behavior to support
community.
His coach wants him to help raise money for the team, and Jim’s altruistic behavior
becomes apparent if he does so.
Jim’s parents ask him to attend social events that they host to further their business
and philanthropic interests or their altruism.
Part of the dilemma is whether to help his friends so they will continue to like him
versus refusing to help and having everyone angry with him represent Kohlberg’s
Stage 2 thinking.
Jim feels discomfort from the pressure that he gets from his friends, but he also wants
to remain friends with them. Acting on these thoughts and feelings to find a solution
demonstrates moral competence and behavior described by the social cognitive
theory.
Jim has identified a solution by exchanging his support to his coach and parents for a
speaker that could help his friends, an example of reciprocity in altruism.
The speaker would provide an opportunity for character education.
Scenario 8.3
Lisa and her girlfriend Rhonda have just had the scare of a lifetime. Two crazy people were driving
down the freeway at what must have been 100 m.p.h. and one of them actually fired a gun! Lisa and
Rhonda were fine, but the older gentleman driving in front of them didn’t fare so well. His car
swerved off the road and ran into a guardrail. Lisa slowed down immediately and pulled over to see
what could be done to help him. Lisa phoned 911 and asked for an ambulance as soon as she noticed
the gash on the man’s forehead. The first aid kit and blanket her mother insisted on keeping in the
car were certainly helpful, as was Rhonda, who volunteers at the hospital. As they took care of the
wound, the man complained that he had not gotten the car license plate number and that the police
had not yet arrived. Lisa and Rhonda were so thankful that nobody had been hurt seriously they had
not thought about the police. They realized that they wouldn’t be much help to the police when they
IM 8 | 17
did arrive. They were proud anyway, since their team effort had enabled them to deal with the
man’s emergency medical needs. Everyone else seemed to have paid attention to the car.

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Lisa and Rhonda demonstrated moral sensitivity by thinking first about the
consequences of the gunshot.
Lisa and Rhonda demonstrated altruism by helping the older man at the scene.
Lisa was prepared for the emergency with the cell phone and first aid kit, indications
of foresight to support the performance of moral behavior, and motivation to help
others.
Lisa and Rhonda were concerned that the injured man received attention, not the
justice that the driver and occupants of the speeding car should receive.
Rhonda may have received some direct instruction during her hospital work about
handling a medical emergency that allowed her to act quickly and appropriately.
CURRENT RESEARCH ARTICLES
Article 8.1—Moral Decision Making and Moral Judgment Development
Research on moral judgment investigated the influence of a wide range of environmental factors
including educational practices, social influences, and family and peer relationships. The results
generally support the stage theorist’s perspective in that moral development is hierarchical and
can be influenced by contextual experiences. Recently, studies have focused on intraindividual
correlates of change, specifically at the phases of consolidation and transition as they relate to the
individual’s development of moral judgment. Consolidation refers to the individual’s consistent
pattern of responses across items that show a preference for one stage. Highly variable response
patterns reflect low stage consolidation, and reflecting a pattern of transition. Response patterns
have been suggested as predictors of stage transition. This research investigated the possibility
that one can predict the usefulness of Kohlberg’s moral stages increases during developmental
phases of consolidation and diminishes during periods of transition.
Subjects were identified from data sets of students representing junior high school, senior
high school, college, and graduate school. Over 47,000 participants were included in three crosssectional samples (46,679) and two longitudinal samples (822). Analysis showed that the
Defining Issues Test (DIT) scores formed a distribution that reflected a normal sample.
The DIT, a measure of moral development based on Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning,
was used to assess study participants. The DIT includes six stories of social dilemma about which
participants must form solutions. Solutions are ranked and given a P score, based on a scale from 0
to 95, that reflects assessed preferences for postconventional moral orientation. The DIT assesses
developmental shifts between adolescence and adulthood, focusing on conventional to postconventional reasoning.
The results show that participants’ reliance on the Kohlbergian moral framework was
greatest during periods of consolidation and lowest during periods of transition. As participants
demonstrated movement toward periods of consolidation, the usefulness of the moral stage
IM 8 | 18
information increased. Participants demonstrating high mixture in stages of reasoning were
experiencing periods of transition; transition periods were associated with confusion about
interpreting real-life events and, subsequently, how to respond based on the confusion. As a
result, the authors concluded that it might be necessary to develop strategies for moral education
that address current abilities and strategies students demonstrate during transition and consolidation
periods. As the utility of Kohlberg’s stages decreases, it becomes increasingly necessary for
other systems to be in place to guide moral decision-making processes.
Reference
Thoma, S. J., & Rest, J. R. (1999). The relationship between moral decision making and patterns of consolidation and transition in moral judgment development. Developmental Psychology, 35, 323–334.
Article 8.2—Individual Moral Judgment
Theories of moral development explain developmental changes through (a) socialization of the
individual to cultural ideology and (b) the individual’s cognitive processes of social and moral
meaning. Theories differ in explaining the importance of one process over another. Other aspects
of moral development include autonomy and heteronomy: Cognitive developmentalists emphasize the development of autonomy; social learning theories and cultural psychology focus on
cultural transmission, thus emphasizing heteronomy. Piaget argued that the individual develops
from heteronomy to autonomy. Kohlberg theorized that the individual fluctuates between
heteronomy and autonomy within each stage. The position used as a foundation for this
investigation was that both processes influence the development of moral thinking and that they
occur simultaneously, in parallel, and reciprocally.
Moral thinking is used in this research to describe the individual’s perspective on issues
such as abortion, rights of homosexual individuals, or religion in public schools. Cultural
ideology is another basic process used here to refer to values, norms, and standards that are
independent of the individual and shared mutually by a group of people as part of the norm. The
question for this investigation was how individual moral thinking and group cultural ideology
interrelate.
Two studies were completed to determine the association between political attitudes and
moral judgments. Study 1 included two congregations of about 300 members each, from the
same neighborhood in Minneapolis/St. Paul, MN. One church was a liberal congregation from
the United Church of Christ (UCC); the second was a conservative American Baptist
congregation. A random sample of 100 members from each was mailed a set of questionnaires.
Respondents included 87 Baptists and 80 UCC members.
Questionnaires measuring independent variables included measures from the Inventory of
Religious Belief, the Intrinsic Religious Motivation Scale, and a measure of political
conservatism-liberalism. The Defining Issues Test (DIT) was used to measure moral judgment.
Opinions about pubic policy issues were dependent variables measured by the ATHRI; public
policy issues included items such as euthanasia, due process rights of the accused, and free
speech. Demographic variables were measured on several variables such as education, sex, and
occupation. The two churches were chosen for similarity on these variables, and in fact the
results showed a high degree of similarity across variables.
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The results showed that the combined responses for religious ideology, political identity,
and moral judgment produced a multiple correlation of .79 that established anticipation of
members’ moral thinking. All major independent and dependent variables were significantly
different between the two churches in the expected directions. With the exception of education
(the more conservative Baptist group had a higher reported level of education), the groups
differed in the expected directions. The two congregations had opposite positions on human
rights public policy issues and polarities also were found in ideological and moral judgments
(DIT P scores were 32.44 for Baptists and 41.72 for UCC members).
Study 2 was completed as a cross-replication of Study 1. Sixty-two undergraduate
students completed all of the protocols and demonstrated consistency on the DIT. The materials
and procedure were the same as in Study 1.
The results of Study 2 indicated that the student sample was more like the UCC sample
than the Baptist sample. Generally, students were more liberal on measures of political
conservatism, theocentrism, fundamentalist, Orthodoxy, moral judgment and public policy
issues. The combined results also indicated that religion alone does not predict responses to
questions about public policy, but the underlying orientation toward fundamentalist beliefs does
so. Middle America, usually depicting the middle class socioeconomically and conservative
politically, refers here to the middle range of moral judgment that corresponds to religious
fundamentalism.
Overall, the results suggest that political identity (liberal or conservative), religious
fundamentalism, moral judgment, and views on public policy were significantly interrelated.
Liberal and conservative position viewpoints transcended categories of questions. A person who
demonstrates high religious fundamentalism, supports strong religious authority, and has strong
respect for civil authorities. Religious authoritarianism was associated with high Stage 4 DIT
scores. Further, beliefs that authority should not be questioned or scrutinized, blocks the
individual from making the transition to postconventional thinking. The main point of the article
is that consistency across moral judgment, religious fundamentalism, and political identity
produce highly predictive decisions about moral thinking and public policy issues.
Reference
Narvaez, D.; Getz, I.; Rest, J. R., & Thoma, S. J. (1999). Individual moral judgment and cultural
ideologies. Developmental Psychology, 35, 478–488.
STUDENT RESEARCH PROJECTS
Research Project 8.1—Applying Ethics in Human Research
Objective. Students will be able to assess and compare the knowledge of research ethics for
human subjects by college students in psychology classes that teach research design.
Type/Length of Activity. Out-of-class activity; variable.
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Directions. Students should contact psychology professors in three courses that teach sections of
research design for human subjects’ research. Explain to professors that their students may
participate in an assessment of students’ ability to apply the ethical procedures and guidelines for
human subjects to three research descriptions. The research descriptions will not adequately
comply with the principles and guidelines in the handout. The assessments can be administered
during class time with specified time limits or individually, having students discuss the ethical
considerations of each.
Students will need to make copies of the ethical principles and guidelines to distribute to
students serving as their subjects. At the time of administration, read the descriptions of each of
the research plans. Be prepared to answer questions that participants might ask.
Three Ethical Principles
The following ethical principles should be followed to plan and complete research with human
subjects.
1.
Beneficence—maximizing beneficial outcomes and minimizing potential risk or harm.
2.
Respect—concern for autonomy of person and courtesy.
3.
Justice—fair procedures and fair distribution of costs and benefits.
The three ethical principles can be acted upon in five guidelines for scientific behavior:
1.
Valid research design. Valid research designs must be used to accurately determine
research results. Valid research designs consider theoretical orientation, possible data
collection procedures, and previous research designs and results.
2.
Identification of consequences. The potential risks and benefits of the research should be
identified before beginning the research and measures taken to assure that they will not
affect the subject or the research results.
3.
Selection of subjects. The research participants should (1) be chosen based on the purpose
of the study, (2) derive some benefit from participation, and (3) be free from coercive
strategies that would influence their participation or the participation of disadvantaged
subjects.
4.
Voluntary informed consent. Participants should be given adequate information about the
study to make knowledgeable decisions about their participation. Informed consent should
be obtained before the research begins, in language that is appropriate to potential subjects,
and with the knowledge that they can withdraw at any time.
5.
Compensation for injury. The researcher is responsible for negative effects of the research
and should compensate subjects for personal injury.
IM 8 | 21
Research Plans
These research plans are intended to assess students’ ability to apply the ethical principles given
to you separately to the following research plans. Explain orally, or provide a written document
for, each of the research plans and ask students to decide which of the ethical principles have
been supported and which have been neglected. Compare their answers with those provided
below.
Research Plan 1. This exercise is designed to assess the effects of competition in solving
a Piagetian problem in logical thinking. Half of the subjects will be told that the research is
investigating the problem solving strategies used by subjects and the other half will be told that
the investigation will identify the person who uses the best problem solving strategies.
Answer. This study requires that some information be withheld from the subjects.
(Neither group has a clear idea about the purpose of the investigation.) The informed consent
should include the information that subjects can choose not to participate because they will not
know ahead of time what the research is all about. The consent should explain that a full
disclosure of the information will be provided after the research is complete. Those
uncomfortable with these parameters can refuse participation.
Research Plan 2. You plan to compare the cognitive abilities of college sophomores with
those of retired adults over 70 years of age. The sophomores will be recruited from college
classes and participants will get an A in their course and nonvolunteers will have their grade
lowered. Retired people will be recruited from a retirement community by doing a door-to-door
request for participants. Those who agree will be asked to complete some puzzles without
explaining in detail what the study is designed to test. They probably would not be interested or
understand the details anyway.
Answer. In order for the comparison to be meaningful, comparable educational
experiences, vision, test-taking skills, and motivation should be established. Thus, some
screening procedures would be necessary as opposed to the recruitment strategies proposed here.
Further, older people would probably be wary of letting a stranger come in at night for whatever
reason. The sophomores in the psychology class are being coerced into participating in the study
by the incentive of consequences to their grades.
Research Plan 3. You plan to investigate the effects of watching television on the
immediate and long-term behavior of children. Based on parental cooperation, one group will be
exposed to television programs with violent content, a second group will be exposed to primetime situation comedies, and a third group will be exposed to educational programs from the
Discovery channel every day for a month. At the end of the month, and a year later, each group
will be asked to complete a questionnaire about solving conflict with their classmates.
Answer. Subject selection may be skewed, especially if a group of parents allows the
viewing of violent programs versus educational programs, other family characteristics may be
influencing behavior patterns. Further, the long-term effects of watching violent programs could
be very troublesome, and the researcher could be held responsible for deviant developmental
patterns. It is unethical to set a child up for poor peer interaction.
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Wrap-Up. After completing the data collection, the answers should be analyzed to determine
students’ ability to respond to the research plans. Students could be required to write a full
research paper or a short report of the results. The information should be shared with the
professors of each class and with the psychology class for which the research project was
completed.
Reference
Sieber, J. E. (1990). Three exercises on the ethics of research on humans. In Activities handbook for the
teaching of psychology (pp. 266–270). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Research Project 8.2—Assessing Students’ Level of Moral Development
Objective. Following the completion of this project, students conducting the investigation will
be able to compare the level of moral and ethical development demonstrated by selected college
students in comparison to Kohlberg’s six stages.
Type/Length of Activity. Out-of-class activity; 4 hours.
Directions. Look for famous quotes or quotes by famous authors on the Internet. Numerous
resources are available through Google. Choose one quote from each of Kohlberg’s stages as
shown. Write each quote on a file card (do not provide the stage number), and label each quote
randomly by an alphabetical letter. Find six college students (three female and three male) who
are willing to rank the quotes from highest moral reasoning to lowest moral reasoning. Compare
their answers to your answers. Also ask each participant to pick out the quote that best reflects
his/her own beliefs. Record their answers. You may use the data sheet in the Student Handouts
section of this Instructor’s Manual.
Example Quotes
“Every disorder of the soul is its own punishment.”—Saint Augustine (Stage 1)
“ ‘Am I living in a way which is deeply satisfying to me, and which truly expresses me?’ This I
think is perhaps the most important question for the creative individual.”—Carl Rogers (Stage 2)
“What you do not want others to do to you, do not do to others.”—Confucius (Stage 3)
“My country right or wrong.”—Anonymous (Stage 4)
“Morality is the observance of the rights of others.”—Dagobert D. Runes (Stage 5)
“A world at peace will be one where the rights of every human being—dignity, liberty, and the
basic rights of education and health care—will be respected.”—Kris Kristofferson (Stage 6)
1.
Why did you pick the quotes that you did? Do you think your choices influenced the
results?
2.
How closely did the subjects reflect Kohlberg’s hierarchy?
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3.
Some research findings suggest that Kohlberg’s six stages are more typical of male
morality than female morality. Did your male subjects reflect Kohlberg’s rating more
closely than did females?
4.
Gilligan’s research suggests that females choose caring morality over justice morality, and
that males prefer the reverse. Do your subjects’ choices reflect this gender difference?
5.
Evaluate the use of quotations in moral development research. What are the advantages and
disadvantages?
Wrap-Up. Write a 4-page research paper to explain your procedures and summarize your
results. Include your quote choices and research results. Discuss possible gender differences in
moral development and what you attribute these differences to. Be prepared to discuss your
results in class.
ESSAY QUESTIONS
Review the guidelines for “Answering Essay Questions” before students respond to these
questions.
1.
Define moral development and explain why thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are important
aspects of the individual to understand.
2.
Compare and contrast Piaget and Kohlberg’s theories of moral development. Which seems
more relevant to the study of adolescence? Why?
3.
What are the criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory? Explain their importance to contemporary
dilemmas that adolescents might encounter.
4.
Compare and contrast Kohlberg and Gilligan’s theories of moral development.
5.
What are the similarities and differences between the behavioral and social cognitive
perspectives of moral development?
6.
Define altruism and discuss the roles that moral thinking and feeling play in expressions of
altruism.
7.
Outline the psychoanalytic explanation of moral development. What approaches do
researchers recommend that parents watch for or adopt?
8.
Explain the characteristics of character education, values clarification, cognitive moral
education, and service learning. What are the strengths and weaknesses of each approach?
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9.
Characterize adolescents’ involvement in religion and whether their involvement relates to
other aspects of their lives.
10.
Compare and contrast cults with mainstream religious groups. What are the characteristics
of adolescents who are attracted to cults?
References
Borba, M. (2001). Building moral intelligence: The seven essential virtues that teach kids to do the right
thing. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Gurian, M. (2000). The good son: Shaping the moral development of our boys and young men. New
York: Penguin Putman Inc.
Hoffman, M. L. (2002). Empathy and moral development: Implications for caring and justice. Cambridge,
UK: Cambridge University.
VIDEO
Adolescent and Parent Emotions (VAD)
Overview
Child developmentalists who have studied child-rearing techniques and moral development have
focused on parents’ discipline techniques. These include love withdrawal, power assertion, and
induction.
Moral development theorist and researcher Martin Hoffman believes that any discipline
produces arousal on the adolescent’s part. Love withdrawal and power assertion are likely to
evoke a very high level of arousal, with love withdrawal generating considerable anxiety and
power assertion considerable hostility. Induction is more likely to produce a moderate level of
arousal in adolescents, a level that permits them to attend to the cognitive rationales parents
offer. When a parent uses power assertion or love withdrawal, the adolescent may be so aroused
that, even if the parent gives accompanying explanations about the consequences for others of
the adolescent’s actions, the adolescent might not attend to them. Power assertion presents
parents as weak models of self-control—as individuals who cannot control their feelings.
Accordingly, adolescents may imitate this model of poor self-control when they face stressful
circumstances. The use of induction, however, focuses the adolescent’s attention on the action’s
consequences for others, not on the adolescent’s own shortcomings.
In this segment, Dr. Reed Larson discusses how parents and adolescents, respectively,
tend to experience and express their emotions. From his comments, consider how Hoffman may
have reached his conclusions about the connection between emotional arousal and the
effectiveness of one parental discipline technique over another.
Pre-Test
1. Induction is a discipline technique in which a parent
a. attempts to gain control over the adolescent or the adolescent’s resources. Examples
include spanking, threatening, or removing privileges.
Incorrect. This discipline technique is power assertion.
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b. withholds attention or love from the adolescent, as when the parent refuses to talk to
the adolescent or states a dislike for the child.
Incorrect. This discipline technique is love withdrawal.
c. uses reason and explanation of how the adolescent’s actions may affect others.
Correct. In induction, a parent might say, “If you yell at her, she’ll be angry and it will be harder
to solve the root problem.”
d. refrains from expressing emotion.
Incorrect. Whether or not the parent expresses emotion does not necessarily constitute a
discipline technique.
Post-Test
1. In Dr. Larson’s observations, adolescents tend to experience emotions differently from their
parents in the following manner.
a. Adolescents feel annoyed more often than their parents do.
Incorrect. There does not appear to be a big difference in how frequently adolescents or parents
feel an emotion.
b. Adolescents tend to be unhappy and their parents tend to be happy.
Incorrect. There does not appear to be a big difference in happiness versus unhappiness between
adolescents and their parents.
c. Adolescents experience greater range and intensity of emotion, or arousal, than their
parents do.
Correct. Dr. Larson observes parental emotions as more moderate and adolescent emotions as
more extreme.
d. Adolescents experience lower levels of arousal than their parents do.
Incorrect. On the contrary, Dr. Larson observes adolescent arousal as higher than that
experienced by parents.
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