Pre- Christian Ireland and Inculturation
Leaving Certificate Religious Education Section I Religion: The Irish Experience
Part 3 Christianity in Ireland
Topic 3.1 The coming of Patrick
Topic
3.1 The coming of
Patrick
Description of content
 ….
 the inculturation of Christianity
in Ireland
 ….
Outcomes
As a result of studying this section, students
should be able to
 ….
 give two examples of the inculturation
of Christianity in Ireland
 ….
 ….
Leaving Certificate R.E. Syllabus p91
Please note that the following article is background information only on this topic. It in no way
constitutes a sample or exemplary answer on this topic.
The Cult of the Ancestors
‘The early agricultural peoples combined fertility rites with the cult of the dead. They
were, in fact, two aspects of one religion – expressions of the hopes and anxieties of the
community. The world seemed full of power, everywhere would be found signs of the
life forced, manifest in all living creatures, both animal and vegetable – in the heavens, in
the waters and in the mysterious events of disease, death and decay. These forces could
be temporarily localised in some person or place, but ancient men were not sufficiently
self-conscious to think of them as residing in individuals as such. The community was
not merely composed of the living but of the ancestors as well. Life on earth was a
temporary exile from the true, undifferentiated, group-life somewhere beyond. The
ancestors, the custodians of the source of life, were the reservoir of power and the
vitality, the source whence flowed all the forces of vigour, sustenance and growth.
Hence, they were not only departed souls but still active, the keepers of life and fortune.
Whatever happened, whether for good or evil, ultimately derived from them. The
sprouting of the corn, the increase of the herds, potency in men, success in hunting or
war, were all manifestations of their power and approval. Hence the place where the
ancestors dwelt was the most holy spot in the world. From it flowed the well being of the
group. Without the tomb or the cemetery, life on earth would be miserable, perhaps
impossible. They were a collective concept without individual names’.
R.T. Rundle Clark, ‘Myth and Symbol in ancient Egypt’, 1959, p119
The cult of the ancestors among African peoples can be seen in the Liturgy of the Mass in
the Zaire rite:
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‘Brothers and sisters, we who are living on earth are not the only followers of Christ;
many have already left this world and are now with god. But together with them, we
make up one great family. Let us join ourselves to them, and especially to the saints, so
that this sacrifice may gather us all together into one body. And you our ancestors, be
with us, you who have served God with a good conscience be with us. Here is our
prayer’.
M. Thurian and G. Wainwright, ‘Baptism and Eucharist: Ecumenical Convergence in
Celebration’, 1983, p205
In Eucharistic Prayer 1 we read:
‘For ourselves, too, we ask some share in the fellowship of your apostles and martyrs,
with John the Baptist, Stephen, Matthias, Barnabas, (Ignatius, Alexander, Marcellinus,
Peter, Felicity, Perpetua, Agatha, Lucy, Agnes, Cecilia, Anastasia) and all the saints’.
In this prayer we see that the faithful Christians who have died and the saints in heaven
are the ancestors – like Abraham ‘our father in faith’ in the Roman Catholic Canon.
On 1st November each year the Christian calendar marks the feast of All Saints – clearly
an adaptation or Christian equivalent of the pre-historic cult of the ancestors. The feast of
All Saints arose from the inculturation of the Celtic feast of Samhain in which the
barriers between the divine world of the Tuatha Dé Danann and humans were broken
down through an intermingling of the two races. Yet the distinction between the dead –
the ancestors and the Tuatha Dé Danann or gods and goddesses of Ireland – is a fine one.
This is hinted at in the feast of All Souls on 2nd November. In the Catholic tradition
purgatory is a part of the otherworld like as is heaven and hell.
In relation to the cult of the ancestors there also exists a rite for the consecration of a
church. In the Pontificale Romanum the relics of the saints were held in a building which
was separate from the church. On the night before the consecration of the church a vigil
took place to honour the saints. On the next day when the ‘sepulchre’ or cavity in the
altar of the new church was ready, the relics were taken from the separate building and
buried in the new sepulchre. This was done by way of a solemn procession. Four priests
carried the enclosed relics on their shoulders and they completed a circular tour of the
new church externally. Also in the procession were the bishop and the faithful people,
who sang Kyrie eleison, repeatedly. During the procession the following antiphon was
sung (in Latin): “Arise, O Saints of God, from your dwelling place, bless these places,
bless the population and preserve us sinners in peace”. This again is evidence of the
close and sacred relationship between the faithful living and the blessed dead. In the
early Christian period churches were often built on the burial sites of the martyrs. With
the spread of Christianity, churches were built in places where there were no martyrs so
pieces of the bones of martyrs were instead collected and inserted into the altar of the
local church. Ó Nualláin, 1984, p8-91 wonders if such dedications were in the same
manner as the cremated remains in the stone circles at Drombeg, Bohonagh,
Reanascreena, in Cork and in Cashelkeelty, Co. Kerry. Soil-filled pits were also found in
the stone circles of Bohonagh and Reanascreena. Perhaps this was a sample of rich soil –
a reminder of rich fertile land that the ancient worshippers desired, land that would
1
Ó Nualláin, S; ‘A Survey of Stone Circles in Cork and Kerry’, Dublin 1984
2
provide many fruitful harvests and healthy cattle. There seems to be an understanding
that the ancestors could help the people still living and the soil sample was a reminder of
this. Similarly, Christians reminded the saints whose relics were contained in the church
altars that they were to sanctify the place, to bless the faithful people and to intercede for
them with Christ.
Thus, there appears an unbroken and long tradition of the cult of the ancestors from the
Neolithic era to Roman Catholicism today. Throughout rural Ireland we notice the
remains of many ancient graveyards, enclosed by a circular wall of earth or stone. Inside
is visible a mound of earth in the centre, indicating the large numbers of burials there. In
the centre lies the ruins of a medieval church, probably not the first to built there. This
ideal situation indicates the traditional closeness of the living and the dead. On an
important occasion, the Sunday liturgy, the barriers between the living and the dead were
broken down. They living and dead formed one united community. This also seems to
have happened at the great Celtic festivals of Lughnasa and Samhain, when celebrated at
the tombs of the ancestors. Today, many graveyards are situated many kilometres away
from the site of the church, creating a distance and disunity between the visible reminder
of the worlds of the living and the dead.
The presence of yew trees in many ancient graveyards is perhaps not a co-incidence.
Druids liked to use wood from the yew tree to make their wands. The yew tree is a longlived type, and when cut down can arise again similar to the way in which the snake
sloughs its skin and arises as a reborn snake. It raises the question as to the possibility
that perhaps these graveyard yews were first planted by the druids.
The landscape of Ireland is full of traces of the ‘lingering footmarks of man’s quest for
the divine from the most remote past to the present day’2. This phenomenon is evidenced
in the many megalithic tombs dispersed around the country, the stone circles, the rows of
standing stones and single pillars, the earthen raths and liosanna, the natural formations
given a religious significance such as Dhá Chíoch Dhanann (The Paps) near Killarney,
the sacred lakes, rivers, wells and trees, the Christian buildings such as monasteries and
churches, graveyards and pilgrimage sites. It is worth remembering that for most of our
time on earth, human beings have been pagan. Sometimes Christians forget this
phenomenon, and are inclined to look down on ‘paganism’. Indeed one could argue that
Jesus himself was influences by paganism. It seems that he could read and write – a
practice invented by the pagans. He wore clothes – again a pagan practice of weaving
and making cloth from sheep’s wool. We know that Jesus visited the synagogue and the
Temple in Jerusalem; but architecture was also a pagan invention. Therefore, Jesus
himself made use of much of the cultural heritage of his time as it had come to evolve
from pagan times.
Gods and Goddesses of Ireland
The Celts had a particular interest in the fertility of the land, preserving the order of the
universe and with peace and prosperity. The goddess Éire, who gives her name to
2
Ó Duinn, S; ‘Where Three streams Meet’, Dublin, 2002; p52
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Ireland, is the land of Ireland. She is the Great Mother, the nourishing mother of people
in Ireland, responsible for the growth of grass, the ripening of corn and the growth of
apples on trees, fish in the rivers etc. The legend ‘Leabhar Gabhála Éireann tells how at
Sliabh Mis in Kerry the Clann Mhíle met the goddess Banbha of the mystic race of the
Tuatha Dé Danann. After speaking to her she agreed that they could take possession of
the land if it were called her name. In Bardic poetry Ireland is often referred to as
‘Banbha’. Clann Mhíle then journeyed to Sliabh Eibhleann on the Limerick-Tipperary
border. There they met the goddess Fodhla. She also agreed to let them have the country
if it was called after her name. They agreed. In Bardic poetry Ireland is also known
therefore as Fodhla. The clan then journeyed to the hill of Uisneach where they met Ēire.
She welcomed them and said that Éire would be the main name of the country for ever.
The three husbands of the goddesses (Mac Coill, Mac Céacht and Mac Gréine) organised
a battle between the Tuatha Dé Danann and Clann Mhíle (Celtic invaders) at Taitleann in
Co. Meath. The battle resulted in the division of the country between the supernatural
Tuatha Dé Danann and the human Celts, Clann Mhíle. As a way of dividing the country
between them the humans took the surface of the land and the Tuatha Dé Danann
descended underground into the hollow hills and megalithic sites throughout Ireland.
The supernatural life of the Tuatha Dé Danann was to continue in the underground in
sites such as Brú na Bóinne (Newgrange), Sliabh na mBan, Sí Mór, Sí Beag, Cnoc Áine,
Lough Gur, Cnoc Sí Úna and Carraig Chlíona. The Tuatha Dé Danann are usually
invisible but on occasions can make themselves visible. Examples of this are when
people claim to hear the ‘bean sí’ (the woman of the hollow hill) or they claim to see her
combing her long red hair. In Irish folk tradition it is seen as unlucky to pick up a comb
from the wayside since it might be the property of a bean sí who dropped it on her way to
wail at the death of someone descended from Gaelic or Norman aristocracy. The Tuatha
Dé Danann are often called the ‘aos sí’ (inhabitants of the sacred hill/site).
Soon after the Tuatha Dé Danann went underground they caused the harvest and milt to
fail. Humans were then in a position where they had to humbly go and ask the Tuatha Dé
Danann to restore the crops. Their king, Daghdha, graciously agreed to restore the
land’s fertility. The leadership of the Tuatha Dé Danann is later passed on to Manannán
Mac Lir (who gives his name to the Isle of Man). He divides the sí (supernatural
mansions) among the princes of the Tuatha Dé Danann. For instance, Bodhbh Dearg
takes over the fairy mansion of the Sí mBuidhbh near Lough Derg on the river Shannon.
Fionnbharr is given Sí Meadha in Co. Galway. Midhir gets Sí Truim near Slane. As a
result the supernatural race of the Tuatha Dé Danann are spread throughout the country,
living in the hollow hills still venerated as sacred places after thousands of years.
The Tuatha Dé Danann possess three great treasures:
1. The Faeth Fiadha – the supernatural cloak of invisibility. They can on occasion
make themselves visible to humans if they wish.
2. Flea Ghoibhneann – the supernatural drink from the blacksmith god Goibniu.
This allowed the Tuatha Dé Danann to avoid death and old age.
3. Muca Mhanannáin – the pigs of Manannán Mac Lir which provided endless food.
Pigs that were killed and cooked today would be alive again tomorrow.
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Thus in Ireland there exists the tradition of two population groups: the human population
living on the land surface, and the supernatural, divine, immortal, usually invisible
Tuatha Dé Danann living in the hollow hills and ancient monuments. A constant
interchange exists between these two groups. The divine race of the Tuatha Dé Danann
controls land fertility. The humans on the land surface acknowledge this by making
offerings to them. If the offerings are not made, the Tuatha Dé Danann has the power to
create bad harvests, crop failure and other land misfortunes. The offerings made by
humans are of two types: formal and informal. Formal offerings included practices such
as burying a sheaf of corn on a Lúnasa Hill, killing a cock and sprinkling its blood on a
threshold and four corners of the house on St. Martin’s Eve (11 November), leaving
cakes at sacred sites during sacred times (e.g. Samhain, Imbolc, Belataine Lúnasa).
Informal offerings included the following: when milking a cow, the first drops of milk
are poured onto the ground, marking the side of the cow with a sign of the cross made by
the thumb dipped in milk, the first milk of a newly-calved cow is poured out at a sacred
tree, lios or other sacred site, three potatoes taken from the lunchtime pot are laid aside
for the Tuatha Dé Danann. Iron was used as a protector from the harm of the Tuatha Dé
Danann – for example, the horseshoe over the door or the thongs in the cradle. The
creidheamh sí included many other observances: the bean sí who wails at the death of a
member of the Gaelic aristocracy, the traditions of skill in music and medicine given to
humans by the Tuatha Dé Danann, stories of supernatural animals coming from the sea,
the four Celtic feasts of Samhain, Imbolc, Bealtaine and Lúnasa which celebrated the
yearly life-cycle of the goddess. The early founders of Christianity in Ireland, such as
Colm Cille, had to contend with a sophisticated and mythical religions which was firmly
integrated into the socio-political system in Ireland. The underground race of the Tuatha
Dé Danann exerted huge power over the lives of people on the land, since the Tuatha Dé
Danann controlled land fertility. They had to be placated by offerings such as a loaf laid
at the foot of a sí and they required huge respect of their sacred sites which were not to be
tampered with by humans. This has meant that many sacred sites have been preserved to
this day. However, the decline of the fairy faith (creideamh sí) has also led to much
destruction of such sites.
The fairy faith: This was a complex religious system, a fertility cult concerned with the
production of food, health, good harvests, children, large herds of cattle, sheep and pigs,
and protection. Since food and children were at the heart of this faith it represented the
survival of individuals and the survival of the human race. The creideamh sí was
concerned with practical issues: survival, the secrets of nature and herbs to provide good
health, with healthy laws to produce a stable society. It was seen as extremely important
to placate the Tuatha Dé Danann and the goddess since people feared a succession of bad
harvests and their ultimate destruction. Good relations with the divine Tuatha Dé
Danann secured land fertility as well as human and agricultural stock. The Tuatha Dé
Danann could move between worlds and become involved in the personal affairs of
people. There was a constant meeting and blending of the two populations realms: the
human and the supernatural. It seems that Christianity co-existed with the creideamh sí.
Some assimilation probably occurred, which is not unusual when one religion replaces
another and they establish an understanding of each other.
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The Gods and the power of nature: In a sense the ancient gods and goddesses might be
explained as elemental divinities, the personifications of the forces of nature. One might
imagine the High King at the Hill of Tara looking over the plains of Éire, and discerning
there the body of the goddess in her fruitfulness and variety making the grass grow and
the corn ripen, producing acorns and apples on the trees. The image of the goddess could
also be discerned in the river Boyne, An Bhó Fhinn (white cow) – symbol of fertility, the
giver of salmon. The god Manannán Mac Lir could be discerned in the raging sea
crashing against the strand, charging his chariot. The Tuatha Dé Danann regularly
abducted people, especially on the feast of Samhain (31st October) when the invisible
barriers between this world and the world of the supernatural was broken down. This
allowed the Tuatha Dé Danann to wander into the human world and humans could be
drawn into the divine sphere. The Christian Church could not ignore the huge
importance attached by the Celts to the feast of Samhain. It is no coincidence, and is an
example of inculturation, how the feasts of All Saints and All Souls replace Samhain and
are deeply influenced by it.
The Cycle of the Year
The Celts celebrated four great feasts: Samhain (1 November), Imbolg (1 February),
Bealtaine (1 May) and Lughnasa (1 August). Each feast marks the beginning of a new
season of the year. These feasts bisect the quarter periods set by the solstices and
equinoxes. Samhain is half way between the autumn equinox and the winter solstice.
Imbolg is half way between the winter solstice and the spring equinox. Bealtaine is half
way between the spring equinox and the summer solstice. Lughnasa is half way between
the summer solstice and the autumn equinox. The Celtic year had two halves: the bright
summer from Bealtaine to Samhain and the dark winter from Samhain to Bealtaine. This
division was marked in some areas by a tradition known as the buaile. Cows were taken
up the mountains and kept there for summer grazing. Young people took care of them,
making butter and cheese. The young people lived in small purpose-built huts. At
Samhain, as winter set in, the cows were taken back down the mountain and kept in
sheltered areas on the farm for the duration of the winter. This tradition still survives in
some parts of the Alps. The ascending cows are decorated with cow-bells, garlands and
ribbons.
During the feast of Bealtaine there was a tradition that two fires were lighted by the
druids and incantations were chanted. The cattle were driven between the two fires to
guard against diseases each year. Belataine bonfires are still lighted in some rural parts
of Ireland today. In the Catholic tradition the great fire of the Easter vigil is blessed and
the paschal candle is dipped in baptismal waters, the cross and the alpha and omega are
cut into the wax and the numerals of the current year. This ancient ritual allows people to
feel transposed into a world of archaic rites where they feel connected to a great cosmic
unity springing from a primary source.
Examples of inculturation may be hinted at in the following adaptations of Celtic feasts:
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Samhain (1 November): Feast of All Saints. All Souls. Beginning of the dark half of the
year. Barriers between the two worlds are broken down. Until mid December – theme of
Last Judgment, Reward and Punishment.
Advent: Preparation for Christ’s birth. Winter solstice on 21st December. Entrance of
ray of sunlight into inner chamber of Newgrange.
‘O Antiphons’: ‘O Oriens’. Birth of Christ. Wren Boys. Epiphany, 6th January. 12 days
of Christmas.
Imbolg (1 February): Naomh Bríd. Beginning of Spring and the agricultural year.
Presentation of Christ in the Temple (2 February). Season of Lent. Spring equinox (21
March). Ancient start of the year. Annunciation (Conception of Christ). The Paschal
Mystery. Death and resurrection of Christ.
Bealtaine (1 May): Beginning of the bright half of the year. Bonfires, fertility, dragon
fighting. Easter season.
Pentecost – descent of the Holy Spirit on the apostles. Work of the Holy Spirit in the
Church.
Summer solstice (21 June) – Birth of John the Baptist, Bonfire Night.
Lughnasa (1 August): First fruits of the harvest – wheat, oats barley and wild fruits.
Pilgrimage time: Lough Dearg, Croagh Patrick, Cnoc Bhréannainn.
Transfiguration of Christ (6 August): Glory of the risen Lord shown, first fruits of
redemption. The rest of the faithful will follow with Mary leading the way into heaven at
the Feast of the Assumption (15 August). The Beheading of John the Baptist (29
August).
Autumn equinox (21 September): Feast of St. Michael (29 September). Defeat of rebel
angels in war in heaven. First fruits festival in Hebrides.
Samhain, All Saints and All Souls
In the Christian liturgical calendar the six week period from the beginning of November
(feasts of All Saints and All Souls) until mid December demonstrated the strong theme of
the interruption of the other-world into this human world and the passing over of the dead
from this world to the next. The threshold between the two realms is blurred at this time.
There is a sense of danger and discomfort emanating from the liturgical texts at this time.
Ó Duinn3 refers to this period as the ‘Season of Samhain’ or Samhaintide’, since Samhain
is the Celtic Feast for the First of November which the season begins.
The selection of 1 November as the Feast of All Saints is shrouded in some obscurity. It
may have been influenced by Celtic custom which attributed huge importance to the
Feast of Samhain. It may be that the Feast of All Saints was celebrated in Ireland at an
early date and may have spread to the continent through Northumbria. The Christian
calendar at this time has strong overtones of Samhain over this six week period. In the
Celtic year Halloween and May eve are considered the sacred threshold points of ‘in
3
Ó Duinn, S; ‘Where Three streams Meet’, Dublin, 2002 p247
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between’ periods. At Samhain (Halloween) the summer isn’t quite finished and the
winter hasn’t yet begun. This evening is called Tráth na Táirsí, a threshold time, neither
within or without.
The Celtic year begins with Samhain. The first half of the year is dark and it gives way
to the bright summer part. Summer replaces winter. Brightness replaces darkness. Life
replaces death. On the Celtic New Year’s Eve, predictions are made about the
approaching year. One tradition that continues is that of finding the ring in the
Halloween breac. Whoever finds the ring in the Báirín Breac is soon to be married.
People light bonfires to help the sun to continue shining and to destroy any evils of the
past half-year. Oíche Shamhna is the night of the tricks (Oíche na gCleas). One
traditional trick is to remove gates at this time. The significance of removing a gate is
that the boundary between two people’s properties is gone and the animals are allowed to
wander freely between the two areas that had been separated. This is a symbolic
expression of the disappearance of the common barriers from the world of the Sí or the
Tuatha Dé Danann. Humans respected the immense power of fertility of the Tuatha Dé
Danann, since they could destroy as well as produce rich crops. Hence the willingness of
people to placate them by spilling the first drops of a cow’s milk on the ground and
offering a specially baked cake outside at the four great Celtic feasts. At Samhain
(Halloween), people wore masks, straw suits and other disguises and travelled from
house to house to collect money, bread, eggs or whatever else was offered by
householders. The generous offerings made by householders resulted in their prosperity
in the year ahead. People who were mean in their offerings could expect misfortune in
the year ahead. Traditionally in Scotland a Celtic ritual for blessing and good fortune
occurred during the Hogmanay Rite. A fire was lighted in the centre of the kitchen. The
Guisers / Hogmanay Men would perform the iompú deiseal around the fire. If they were
well treated they processed around the fire in a clockwise direction, following the course
of the sun. This bestowed the Celtic blessing. If people had been mean in their offerings,
the Hogmanay Men would march around the fire in an anti-clockwise direction, against
the movement of the sun. This was a sign of evil and bad luck. Sometimes they played
musical instruments, blew horns and performed dramas and dances and took with them
an artificial horse with snapping jaws to represent the Tuatha Dé Danann and the
Fomóirí coming back to collect taxes which had to be paid to the underground race in
recognition of their power over the production of corn and milk.
Many stories abound from Celtic culture about the incursion of the otherworld into the
affairs of humans at the time of Samhain. The stories indicate a time of danger and
hostility. It requires the skills of a hero to control the destructive powers that operate at
this time. The hero must be on his guard and ready to conquer the evil forces when the
time comes. It is not difficult to see a connection between the Celtic and Judeo-Christian
cultures regarding their practices of celebrating the winter and the dying year as well as
their awareness that the supernatural world invades the world of humans at this time and
the need for people to be alert and ready to deal with this cosmic struggle.
In Christian tradition the Feast of All Souls (2 November) remembers those who have
died. On this day many people attend mass for the dead, recite prayers, visit churches
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and graveyards. People’s awareness of the otherworld is heightened at this time of
Samhain. Traditionally there was a belief that the dead family members returned to their
earthly homes for this one night of the year. People took care to make the visiting souls
welcome. Rituals included lighting a good fire, placing a bowl of water on the table,
lighting candles and unlocking the door while the family went to bed early so that the
place was left free for the returning souls4. In Brittany (France) and in Wales a group of
people would go from house to house on the eve of All Soul’s seeking alms, sometimes
in the form of ‘Soul-Cakes’. They implored householders to remember their dead and
they promised to pray for the deceased members of the family in return for receiving
alms5. An Irish ritual involved people walking three times in a clockwise direction
around megalithic tombs or tumulus and then placing a stone on the cairn while reciting
the formula “Síocháin, ar d’anam agus cloch ar do charn”. (Peace to your soul and a
stone on your tomb). In Scotland people would light a bonfire on the tumulus or barrow,
sometimes lit by the older men of the community. People danced and ran around this
bonfire with flaming sticks. In some places the flaming sticks were carried around farm
boundaries for protection and to encourage land fertility6.
Thus the Catholic celebration of the Feast of All Saints and the Feast of All Souls
contains echoes of the Celtic celebrations. The theme of the intermingling of the divine
and the human worlds is strong. In the Catholic readings at mass at this time we hear of
throngs of saints surrounding the throne of God in heaven and the preoccupation with the
souls of the dead in the otherworld on the next day. This is also the time when the pagan
Celts were obsessed with the otherworld. While the barriers to the otherworld are not
completely removed, the Catholic tradition sees the blurring of the boundary between this
life and the otherworld at this time of the liturgical year. The liturgical readings towards
the end of the Church year and the beginning of the Advent season are full of references
to the theme of God returning to reward the good and punish the evil. Contrasts are
evident in the gospel readings – wise virgins vs foolish virgins, sheep vs goats, the
prepared vs the unprepared, the truly holy vs the seemingly holy, the generous vs the
ungenerous. This echoes the same type of thinking of the celebrations of Samhain. Ó
Duinn7 suggests that we can distinguish a whole liturgical season running from the Feast
of All Saints to mid December which contains these themes, and he calls this time
‘Samhaintide’. He suggests that Advent would, according to this view, begin around mid
December as an immediate preparation for Christ’s birth.
Imbolc and St. Brigid’s Day
Irish folk tradition sees the beginning of spring and the agricultural year on 1st February.
This coincides with the ancient Celtic festival of Imbolc. We know little about this preChristian festival. The feast of St. Brigid (Lá Fhéile Bríde) celebrates Ireland’s second
venerated saint (after St. Patrick). Many wells, churches, convents and schools are
named after her both in Ireland and abroad. Also known as Muire na nGael (Mary of the
Irish) her name appears in ancient litanies and martyrologies. It is said that she founded a
Danaher, D; ‘The Year in Ireland’, Cork 1972, p228-229
Whitlock, R; ‘A Calendar of Country Customs’, London 1978, p147
6
Ibid; p146-147
7
Ó Duinn, S; ‘Where Three streams Meet’, Dublin, 2002, p259
4
5
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monastery in Co. Kildare where, in her capacity as abbess, she ruled over both nuns and
priests. Kildare may itself have been a pagan sanctuary of the Celtic Goddess, Brigid.
An example of inculturation may be that the saintly Christian woman called Brigid took
over the pagan sanctuary of the Celtic goddess, Brigid, and the pagan sanctuary was
replaced by a convent. Some of the attributes of the Celtic goddess, Brigid, may have
been bestowed upon St. Brigid, for example, her feast day was on the ancient Celtic Feast
of Imbolc, the beginning of spring, in addition to her close links with agriculture,
especially corn and cows. However, St. Brigid has earned the reputation of one who
sincerely practiced the virtue of charity, helping countless people in need, imitating the
example of Christ in the gospels.
In the seventh century Cogitosus tells us that there were two key themes in the life of St.
Brigid: her great faith and her immense charity. He attributes her monastery and the
many miracles of St. Brigid to her deep faith. It is said that one of her miracles was to
change water into beer by blessing it with the power of faith. She is also reputed to have
given sight to a man who was blind from birth, out of her great faith. Her miracles are
not mere trickery, but manifestations of God’s power. One day as her workmen were
reaping corn she performed a miracle causing the rain to stop pouring in that area and to
continue pouring in the surrounding fields. It is also reported that she hung up her cloak
on a sunbeam which was shining through a window. Her charity demonstrated immense
concern for the poor and marginalised, those oppressed or just her guests, friends or
strangers. She always gave generously to the poor and to beggars. No doubt she was
highly aware of the presence of Christ in such people. Each day she divided the butter
into twelve parts and one larger part. This symbolised the sharing with the twelve
apostles and that in a real way she was sharing with Christ and the apostles.
Many of her miracles concern healing and the multiplication of food and drink. But there
were also other miracles. One such miracle concerned a man whose wife no longer lived
him. She would not sleep or eat with him, so he sought the help of St. Brigid. She gave
him a bucket of water and told him to sprinkle it around the house when his wife was not
there. After he did this the man’s wife fell in love with him again and they enjoyed a
permanent marriage. In 1185 Giraldus Cambrensis visited Ireland and remarked on the
presence in Kildare of a perpetual fire to St. Brigid. The nuns and other holy women feed
it and although it has burned for many years there is no accumulation of ashes 8. “This
fire is surrounded by a hedge, made of stakes and brushwood, and forming a circle,
within which no male can enter; and if any one should presume to enter, which has been
sometimes attempted by rash men, he will not escape the divine vengeance. Moreover, it
is only lawful for women to blow the fire, fanning it or using bellows only, and not with
their breath”9.
St. Brigid was deeply connected to God and aware of God’s presence. She enjoyed the
simple things in life and domestic life and was yet deeply holy. Séan Ó Súilleabháin of
the Irish Folklore Commission states that “the main significance of the Feast of St. Brigid
would seem to be that it was a Christianisation of one of the focal points of the
8
9
Wright, T; ‘The Historical Work of Geraldus Cambrensis’, London 1887 p96-97
Ibid; p96-97
10
agricultural year in Ireland, the starting point of preparations for the spring sowing.
Every manifestation of the cult of the saint (or of the deity she replaced) is closely bound
up in some way with food production and this must be the chief line of approach to a
study of the spring festival10.
The feast of St. Brigid was a time for making weather forecasts. The beginning of spring
on her feast day was associated with the dispelling of darkness and the beginning of a
more fruitful season. In some localities her feast day was treated as a holiday and certain
types of work were forbidden, such as turning a wheel. People held a festive supper to
mark her feast day. They believed that on the last night of January St. Brigid toured the
country, so they invoked her blessing as she passed by. They would leave outside a sheaf
of corn or a specially baked cake or else leave a meal ready on the table inside for the
guest11. Today four major remnants of the traditional celebrations continue to survive:
Crois Bhríde (St. Brigid’s Cross), Brat Bhríde (St. Brigid’s Cloak), the Brídeog (a
procession from house to house carrying a doll or figure representing St. Brigid) and
Gnás na Tairsí (Threshold rite).
St. Brigid’s Cross: Seen over the door of many households (especially in Leinster and
Ulster) the St. Brigid’s cross is made from straw, rushes or stiff reeds. The four legged
irregular cross type (sometimes referred to as the ‘Swastika’ type) was widely distributed
throughout the country. It is made from between four and twenty overlapping doubling
rushes. Cord ties together the projecting rushes at the ends. Another type of St. Brigid’s
cross is the diamond / lozenge shaped straw cross, not unlike the lozenge shapes carved
on sacred monuments such as Newgrange. This design is found on small statues of the
Fertility Goddess from Old Europe depicted on the figure’s belly. One figurine with a
dotted lozenge incised on its belly comes from Gladnice near Pristine (south Yugoslavia)
and dates from 6,000B.C12. Gimbutas clearly interprets the diamond / lozenge figure as
being associated with the goddess’s chief function – the fertility of the earth. The dot
represents the seed, and the lozenge represents the sown field. It seems to point towards
the invocation of secure fertility. In Newgrange we also see this Neolithic stone
engraving of the lozenge figure. This archaic motif has continued to be used in folkcraftsmanship as is evidenced in the design of traditional Aran Sweaters13. Ecclesiastical
art in Ireland also contains this design. It is seen on the Donaghmore Cross, Co. Tyrone;
on the portal to the round tower of St. Brigid’s Cathedral, Kildare; Killaloe Cathedral, St.
Saviour’s Church in Glendalough Co. Wicklow and in other places. This design is spread
across a large array of areas and materials extending beyond well the Christian era. In
Connacht the ‘Sheaf Cross’ is more common. It consists of two small sheaves of unthreshed corn, plaited and tied at the ends. A wooden peg on which a potato is skewered
joins the sheaves in the centre. The peg attaches the sheaves to the thatch. This clearly
shows a link between St. Brigid and the fertility of the land. The grain from the sheaves
which were consecrated to St. Brigid was mixed with the seed that was sown in the field.
The fertility power of St. Brigid was transferred to the seed and an abundant harvest was
10
Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, 1945, 164 footnote
Danaher,D; ‘The Year in Ireland’, Cork 1972 p14-15
12
Gimbuttas, M; ‘The Goddesses and Gods of Old Europe’, London 1989, p203
13
Ó Síocháin, P; ‘Ireland: A Journey into Lost Time’, Dubhlinn 1967 p179-181
11
11
the result. The skewered potato is probably a modern adaptation of the tradition of the
use of corn. The cross is associated with the fertility of the land and the protection of the
household from disease and sickness. It is also associated with the protection against bad
weather, particularly thunder and storms. In sea side areas the crosses were placed on the
thatch and made from the white straw of the sand-dunes. The crosses offered protection
against the severe spring storms. The crosses also offered protection from bad luck and
from fire (most traditional cottages would have had a thatched roof). Stories have been
invented to account for the origins of the cross. One such story concerns ‘The Dying
Pagan’. It involves St. Brigid’s discovery of a dying pagan man on a roadside. In an
effort to convert him she used rushes to make a cross to show to the man thus symbol of
Christianity. She baptised him and he became a Christian. Thus the custom arose of
making the cross from rushes.
Brat Bhríde / St. Brigid’s Cloak: This refers to a piece of cloth which is traditionally
hung outside people’s homes on the eve of St. Brigid’s day and taken in the next
morning. As St. Brigid passed by on the Eve of St. Brigid’s night she blessed the cloth
and it thereafter acquired the ability to cure some diseases such as headaches and
toothaches. People often placed the brat on a bush, windowsill, door-latch or a wall and
recited a prayer.
The Brídeog: This custom is similar to the procession of the ‘Wren Boys’ from house to
house on St. Stephen’s Day. The procession occurred on St. Brigid’s Eve and is a well
known tradition in Killorglin, Co. Kerry. The procession involved dressing in costumes,
blowing horns, dancing and welcoming Brigid. They carried with them a doll / Brídeog
and before they left each house the woman of the house stuck a pin in the doll. This
procession appears to ritualise the return of St. Brigid in springtime after her winter
slumber. As spring heralds the reawakening of nature through the buds on trees, the long
evenings and the greening of fields, the lambing and calving, so St. Brigid returns to visit
the people and assure them of new life on earth and that she offers them food and
protection in the year ahead.
Gnás na Tairsí – The Threshold Rite: This rite marked the events from the making of St.
Brigid’s crosses on the night of 31st January to the erection of the crosses on the doors on
1st February. The parish of Kilcommon, Erris, Co. Mayo has an account of the custom
which combines the making of the cross with the custom of the Brat Bhríde.
The Christianisation of Lughnasa
On 1st August the Celts celebrated the important festival of Lughnasa. The festival was
connected to Lugh Lámhfhada, leader of the Tuatha Dé Danann who defeated Balar of
the Evil Eye, leader of the Fomhóraigh, at the supernatural battle of Maigh Tuireadh, Co.
Sligo. In this battle the bright, generous deities defeat the dark divinities. The Tuatha Dé
Danann were the gods of light and of prosperity. They were being harassed by the mean
sea-pirates (Fomhóraigh), who demanded huge rents from the Tuatha Dé Danann. After
much bloodshed the battle ended in combat between Lugh (Tuatha Dé Danann king) and
Nuadha, Balar of the Evil Eye (Fomorian King Breas). Using a stone and a sling, Lugh
managed to hit the eye out of Balar’s head, killing twenty seven of his followers at the
12
same time. Thus the Tuatha Dé Danann won the battle. The Tuatha Dé Danann decide
not to kill Breas since the Fomhóraigh possess the secrets of agriculture. The life of
Breas was spared when he imparted the information to the Tuatha Dé Danann.
Thereafter, the Fomhóraigh are allowed to exist but are tamed down.
This mythological dragon fight represents a conflict of opposites: the god of light,
generosity, fruitfulness fighting the god of darkness, greed and blight. Christian saints
such as Patrick, Kevin and Colmán also engage in the dragon fight (peistchomhrac)
where usually the péist is banished to an area where he is rendered harmless. Other saints
in Europe also engaged in the dragon fight – Sts Julian of Mans, Hilary, and Samson of
Dol. In the struggle the péist (dragon) arises from the lake to eat the local farmers’ cows,
causes flooding and is a threat to those who oppose him. The locals ask their Christian
bishop for help. The bishop leads a procession of the people to the lake’s edge. They
recite prayers and sing psalms as they walk. The power of God enables them to
overpower the menacing dragon. It is not unusual for the bishop to hit the dragon with
his crozier. Clearly there is a similarity between the Celtic hero and the Christian saint.
The Tuatha Dé Danann win the battle and Lugh organises a victory march to Tailteann,
Co. Meath. On their way the Tuatha Dé Danann wash their horses around Leitrim and
Longford. The Festival of Lughnasa witnessed many people washing their horses in
rivers and lakes, such as Lough Owel, Co. Westmeath14. At Tailteann, Lugh is declared
King. He is married to Baoi, the goddess of fertility. This ritual marriage of god and
goddess occurs at Samhain. Nine months later, at Lughnasa, a child is born to them – the
new corn harvest! A sheaf of the new corn harvest is offered on Lughnasa hill during the
Rite of Lughnasa. This is similar to the act of a nurse placing his newly born son into his
father’s arms.
Thus the ritual Festival of Lughnasa involves the commemoration of the Battle of Maigh
Tuireadh, where the Tuatha Dé Danann won victory over the Fomhóraigh who had to
end their tyranny, cease causing blights and crop devastation and to produce an abundant
harvest. It was celebrated at around 200 sites in Ireland. There was a mountain site for
each province: Church Mountain, Co. Wicklow (Leinster), Mount Brandon (Co. Kerry),
Croagh Patrick, Co. Mayo (Connacht) and Slieve Donard, Co. Down (Ulster). There
were gatherings at holy wells such as Struel Wells, Co. Down. There were fairs such as
Aonach na Ceardchan, Connemara, Co. Galway on 26th July. The Lughnasa festival
always celebrated the victory of light over darkness, good over evil, abundance over
need, the victory of Lugh over Balar. The festival involved climbing the Lughnasa Hill,
eating whortleberries, presenting gifts at the sacred site, feasting, bonfires and
amusements. It was celebrated at the start of the harvest time so that nature would be
encouraged to produce a fruitful crop. Some people met their partners there, often from
beyond the local area, and married six months later around the Feast of Imbolc (St.
Brigid’s Day).
A clear example of inculturation is the Christian pilgrimage to Croagh Patrick which
replaces the pagan festival of Lughnasa. The dates are the same: the last days of summer
and the beginning of autumn. Tradition advises that the correct day to complete the
14
Danaher, D; ‘The Year in Ireland’, Cork 1972, p173
13
pilgrimage is the Friday of Crom Dubh (a mean harvest god, traditionally defeated by St.
Patrick). However, most pilgrims do the pilgrimage on the last Sunday of July. Legend
says that St. Patrick threw his bell at demons in the form of black birds on Croagh Patrick
– a reminder of the incident where Lugh threw a missile at Balar and removed his Evil
Eye. The bell of St. Patrick was used for hundreds of years as part of the pilgrimage.
Each pilgrim passed the bell in a clockwise direction around the body three times and
kissed the cross on the bell three times also15. Some pilgrims begin the pilgrimage at
midnight, carrying a lamp or candle to help them find their way. Pilgrims can hire staffs
at the foot of the mountain to help them on the rough terrain. As the pilgrimage begins,
pilgrims turn their backs on the north and head southwards, then head eastwards up o the
summit. The turning away from the north is an indication of a turning from evil and
darkness.
At the first station, Leacht Mionnáin, pilgrims walk around the heap of stones seven
times repeating the prayers: 7 Paters, 7 Aves and one Creed. The power of the stone is
imparted on the pilgrim when he/she touches first the carn and then the head. The
pilgrimage moves up a steep path (Cosán Phádraig) to the summit and recites the same
prayers again. Then the pilgrims kneel at the ruins of the chapel and say 15 Paters, 15
Aves, and one Creed. Traditionally people left an offering of a piece of cloth or a nail or
other token in the crevices of the stones, as at holy wells, reflecting an ancient pagan
custom. Then pilgrims walk fifteen times around the path encircling the summit followed
by mass in the modern chapel. At the next station (Leaba Phádraig) pilgrims kneel in the
cavity and recite 7 Paters, 7 Aves and one Creed, followed by 7 rounds of the Leaba,
walking clockwise. Traditionally this part of the pilgrimage was completed primarily by
those wishing to conceive. This is not unlike the ancient custom of Leaba Dhiarmada
agus Ghráinne which involved sleeping at a megalithic tomb to stimulate fertility.
During the descent from the summit, pilgrims walk around three stone cairns (Reilig
Mhuire) 7 times reciting the prayers and then around the complete area 7 times to
complete the pilgrimage.
The pilgrimage is important in Celtic piety. Through prayer and asceticism pilgrims
attack the power of evil on the site where St. Patrick once triumphed over the powers of
evil. Patrick’s victory is a reminder of the victory of Christ over Satan, the Easter
victory. Nevertheless, it is clear that the pilgrimage is a Christianisation of the victory of
Lugh over Balar at the Battle of Maigh Tuireadh. Ó Duinn16 writes: “It would appear
then, that St. Patrick’s great fast on Croagh Patrick was in preparation for the third Easter,
the Lughnasa Easter or Feast of the Transfiguration as interpreted by monastic writers of
a period later than that of St. Patrick himself. It was then that he triumphed over the
black demon birds and ever since, on Domhnach Chrom Dubh, his faithful followers
climb that sacred mountain to participate in his fight and victory over the forces of evil
which still remain to afflict mankind”. The struggle and victory parallels the pagan
celebration of Lughnasa.
15
16
Mac Neill, M; ‘The Festival of Lughnasa’, Dublin 1982, p72-73, 81
Ó Duinn, S; ‘Where Three streams Meet’, Dublin, 2002, p314
14
Ó Duinn17 offers many parallels between the idea of Christian redemption and the Cath
Maigh Tuireadh Cycle:
 Tuatha Dé Danann are oppressed by Balar & fomhóraigh – dark gods of the sea.
Angels and humans are oppressed by Satan (dragon) and rebellious angels in
Apocalypse 12.
 Tuatha Dé Danann cry out for a liberator. Jews cry out for a liberator. Advent
Liturgy – pour down your heavens and let earth bring forth a Saviour.
 Lugh Lámhfhada comes as liberator. Incarnation – Christ came to set his people
free from Satan and evil – Lk 4:16-19 He has sent me to proclaim liberty to
captives..to set the downtrodden free.
 Lugh collects co-operators and arms (meitheal) for the forthcoming battle. Christ
also collects meitheal – 12 apostles to assist him in the Battle against Evil.
 The mythic battle takes place – Lugh v Balar, light v darkness, summer v winter,
freedom v slavery, evolution v non-evolution, battle of the gods at Samhain.
Christ confronts Satan and death. Temptation in the desert – Mt 4:1-11. Dragon
fight. Easter.
 Victory of Lugh over Balar. Control over Fomhóraigh. Victory of Risen Christ
over death and evil.
 Victory of Lugh and Tuatha Dé Danann proclaimed by MórRíon. Victory of
Christ proclaimed by angels. Lk 24:5 He is risen.
 Victory procession of Lugh from Maigh Tuireadh to Taileann. Victory
procession of Risen Christ – angels proclaim his ascension into heaven, Acts 1: 911.
 Lugh declared king in place of Nuadha (killed in battle). Risen Christ becomes
king of heaven and earth, Mt 28:18.Marriage of Lugh and Baoi, goddess of land.
Mystical marriage of Christ to the church/people of God (Benedictus Antiphon
for Epiphany).
 At Lughnasa a child of ripened corn is born to Lugh and Baoi. At Lughnasa Rites
a sheaf of new corn is offered at Lughnasa Hill to Lugh. Newly baptised
(neophyte) of the church, blessing of baptismal font at Easter.
‘The circumambulation of the altar at Mass with fire in the censer is another example of
archaic ritual to delineate a sacred space from the incursion of hostile forces. One can
easily see that the usage may have developed from a ring of fire made by campers to keep
away wolves at night’18.
Adapted from ‘Where Three Streams Meet’, S. Ó Duinn
Columba, Dublin 2002
17
18
Ibid; p315 - 319
Ibid; p321
15