Dr. Katherine Heenan
English 472
Spring 2007
February 20, 2007
Aristotle’s Life and the Rhetoric Books I and II
Aristotle (384-322 BCE)
 Aristotle was a student of Plato’s who disagreed with his mentor over the place of public speaking
in Athenian life
 born in Macedonia about the time Plato was opening the Academy in Athens
 age seven went to Athens and entered the Academy--stayed on as teacher; left 20 yrs later on
Plato’s death in 347
 Was ineligible to inherit Academy because he wasn’t Athenian
 believed only scientific demonstration and the analysis of formal logic could arrive at transcendent
truth
 Dialectic and rhetoric form 2 major divisions in his view of human inquiry but they deal with
subjects on which true knowledge isn’t available
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Rhetoric: making persuasion possible
for Aristotle, rhetoric as the discovery in each case of the available means of persuasion--this
discovery requires scientific investigation
o in terms of speech situations, he focused on civic affairs
 forensic speaking considers guilt or innocence—judicial speech centering on
accusation and defense
 deliberative speaking considers future policy—political speech centering on future
policy
 epideictic speaking considers praise and blame—ceremonial speech
Aristotle classified rhetoric as the counterpart of dialectic
o dialectic is on-on-one conversation; rhetoric is one person addressing the many
o dialectic searches for truth; rhetoric demonstrates existing truth
o dialectic answers general philosophical questions; rhetoric addresses specific,
practical ones
o dialectic deals with certainty’ rhetoric considers probability
o rhetorician must start with knowledge
rhetoric is the art of public speaking
dialectic is the art of logical discussion
analyzes and classifies proper province for an art of rhetoric--study of souls and the occasions for
moving them
Differing Views of Reality
Plato
Reality is there and communication reflects reality
Aristotle
Reality is probably there and communication is a relationship with reality.
Gorgias
Reality is not there and communication creates reality.
Rhetoric, has its own Identity
 A counterpart to dialectic not cookery
 Not moral but pragmatic and scientific
 A study of all the available means of persuasion
 Functions to discover in each context the best way to by successful
Rhetoric’s Usefulness
 Prevents fraud and injustice
 Aids instruction
Aristotle’s Rhetoric Books I and II
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 Makes us argue possibilities
 Helps in self-defense
Book One General Outline
 Ch 1
Rhetoric vis-a-vis Dialectic
 Ch 2
Rhetoric Defined
 Ch 3
Three Species of Rhetoric (deliberative, judicial, epideictic)
 Ch 4
Deliberative Rhetoric: Political Topics
 Ch 5
Deliberative Rhetoric: Ethical Topics
 Ch 6
Deliberative Rhetoric: Ethical Topics(cont'd)
 Ch 7
Deliberative Rhetoric: The Greater Good
 Ch 8
Deliberative Rhetoric: Topics on Political Constitutions
 Ch 9
Epideictic Rhetoric & Amplification
 Ch 10 Judicial Rhetoric: Topics on Wrongs and their Causes
 Ch 11 Judicial Rhetoric: Topics on Pleasure
 Ch 12 Judicial Rhetoric: Topics on Wrongdoers and the Wronged
 Ch 13 Judicial Rhetoric: Topics on Justice and Injustice
 Ch 14 Judicial Rhetoric: The Greater Wrong
 Ch 15 Judicial Rhetoric: Non-artistic Means of Persuasion
Book I Overview
 Aristotle identifies three means of persuasion (pisteis) that a rhetor must keep in mind when
addressing an audience:
o ETHOS: that which is derived when the speaker's character is presented in a favorable
light.
o PATHOS: which is derived from awakening emotion in an audience.
o LOGOS: that which is derived from the logic of the speaker's argument.
Rhetoric Book 1
 speaks strongly against radical Platonic idealism by noting that we do not live in the perfect world
which Plato sought to establish
 therefore there are many good uses for rhetoric
 defines Rhetoric: the art of discovering in any given case what are the best means of persuasion
Rhetoric is ARTISTIC:
 organized according to principles,
 flexible to personal interpretation,
 expressive, with aesthetic considerations, and
 disposed toward utility
Rhetoric is about DISCOVERY:
 rhetoric is not merely the words, or their performance.
 Rather, the intellectual and philosophical development of that which should be said and how to
say it best. Rhetoric is about effective human thought in the realm of communication interests.
 Rhetoric is particular to the given case.
 at its best it is not canned or pre-fabed. It is individualized to specific cases.
Rhetoric is about PERSUASION.
 text comprised of lecture notes and was probably never intended for publication (book and
chapter divisions probably work of later eds.)
 most of the text, in fact, may be work of his students--their notes from his lectures
Book I, Chapter One
 Rhetoric as Technê
Aristotle’s Rhetoric Books I and II
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Definition of Rhetoric as counterpart of dialectic
The centrality of proofs and enthymemes
The usefulness of rhetoric
The true and the just are naturally superior to their opposites
General audiences lack the ability to follow scientific reasoning
Rhetoric proves opposites in order to counteract false argument
Book I, Chapter Two
 Analysis of Rhetoric as a System
 Rhetorical theory organized hierarchically
 divides rhetoric into 2 major categories:
 artistic proofs for which the rhetorician constructs the material
 inartistic proofs for which he interprets existing evidence
Definition of Rhetoric as a Faculty
 Rhetoric may then be defined as the faculty of discovering the possible means of persuasion in
reference to any subject whatever.
 Analysis of Rhetoric as a System
Rhetorical Proofs: logos, ethos, and pathos
 The available means of persuasion are based on three kinds of proofs
o logical proofs (logos) come from the line of argument in the speech
o ethical proofs (ethos) are the way the speaker’s character is revealed through the
message
o emotional proofs (pathos) are the feelings the speech draws from the hearers
o Aristotle focused on two forms of logical proof—the enthymeme and example
 enthymeme is the strongest of the proofs
 an enthymeme is an incomplete syllogism
 typical enthymemes leave out the premise that is already accepted by
the audience
 the enthymeme uses deductive logic—moving from global principle to
specific truth
 the example uses inductive reasoning—drawing a final conclusion from
specific examples
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Ethos emphasizes the speaker’s credibility, which is manifested in intelligence, character, and
goodwill
o Aristotle was primarily interested in how the speaker’s ethos is created in a speech
o the assessment of intelligence is based on practical wisdom and shared values
o virtuous character has to do with the speaker’s image as a good and honest person
o goodwill is a positive judgment of the speaker’s intention toward the audience
o Although skeptical of the emotion-laden public oratory typical of his time, Aristotle
attempted to help speakers use pathos ethically
o Aristotle catalogued a series of opposite feelings, then explained the conditions under
which each mood is experienced
 anger vs mildness
 love or friendship vs hatred
 fear vs confidence
 shame vs shamelessness
 indignation vs pity
 admiration vs envy
Two Types of Proofs
 Artistic and inartistic proofs
 modern scholars see Aristotle as dividing artistic proofs into 2 major categories:
 enthymeme and example with logical ethical and pathetic appeals as subdivisions under
Aristotle’s Rhetoric Books I and II
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Types of inartistic proofs
o evidence like testimonies, contracts, knives, tortured slaves
o Types of artistic proofs
 Logos--logical arguments
 Pathos--causes of emotion in humans
 not irrational or nonrational as in Gorgias’s enchantments
 Ethos--character, human goodness, virtue
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Modes of proof: example and enthymeme
Rhetorical vs. dialectical proofs
o Induction = example
o Syllogism = enthymeme
o enthymeme superior to example
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The function of Rhetoric, then, is to deal with things about which we deliberate, but for which we
have no systematic rules; and in the presence of such hearers as are unable to take a general
view of many stages, or to follow a lengthy chain of argument. But we only deliberate about things
which seem to admit of issuing in two ways; as for those things which cannot in the past, present,
or future be otherwise, no one deliberates about them, if he supposes that they are such; for
nothing would be gained by it.
The Syllogism--Logic
 All men are mortal
 Socrates is a man
 Therefore, Socrates is mortal
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syllogisms usually based on probable and not on certain premises
The Enthymeme
 The center of Aristotle's Theory
 deductive arguments
 Two part definition:
o Truncated syllogism
o Shared values
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Enthymeme-truncated
 So . . .
 Socrates is a man
 Therefore, he is mortal
Enthymeme--shared values
 What the speaker and audience share
 “held in the mind” (Herrick, p. 81)
 The argument is completed by the rhetor and the audience at the same time
Chapter Three
 Three kinds of speech--determined by the situation
o deliberative or political speech--intended to recommend a future course of action
o epideictic or ceremonial--intended to praise or blame a current state of affairs
o forensic or legal--intended to provoke judgment concerning past action
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only scientific demonstration leads to absolute truth; dialectic (a rigorous form of argumentative
dialogue btw experts) tests whether absolute truth has been achieved and rhetoric conveys that
truth to the ignorant--but will not lead to truth
Aristotle’s Rhetoric Books I and II
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Chapter Four
 Catalogues Topics of Deliberative Rhetoric
 advice is limited to those subjects about which we take counsel; and such are all those which can
naturally be referred to ourselves and the first cause of whose origination is in our own power…
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Five Deliberative Subjects
o Ways and Means
o War and Peace
o Defense
o Imports and Exports
o Legislation
Chapter Five
 Topics of Exhortation & Dissuasion: Happiness
 Definition of Happiness (Eudaimonia)
o Let us then define happiness as well-being combined with virtue, or independence of life,
or life that is most agreeable combined with security, or abundance of possessions and
slaves, combined with power to protect and make use of them; for nearly all men admit
that one or more of these things constitutes happiness.
 External Goods
o birth (eugeneia)
o good children
 Wealth
o good reputation (eudoxia)
o honor (timê)
 Internal Goods
o Health
o Beauty
o Strength
o Stature
o Athleticism
o happy old age
o friends
 Good Fortune
 Virtue Reserved For Topic Of Praise
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Chapter Six
Topics of the Expedient & the Inexpedient: Goods
Definition of the Good
o Let us assume good to be whatever is desirable for its own sake, or for the sake of which
we choose something else; that which is the aim of all things, or of all things that possess
sensation or reason; or would be, if they could acquire the latter.
Necessary (Generally Recognized) Goods
o Health
o Happiness
o virtues of the body and soul
o Wealth
o Friendship
Doubtful Goods
Chapter Seven
 Greater and More Expedient Goods
o It would seem then that it is better to receive than to confer a benefit; for one would
choose the former even if it should pass unnoticed, whereas one would not choose to
confer a benefit, if it were likely to remain unknown
Aristotle’s Rhetoric Books I and II
Chapter Eight
 Democracy
 Oligarchy
 Aristocracy
 Tyranny
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Liberty
Wealth
Education & Law
Self-Protection
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Book II General Outline
 Ch 1 Character and Emotion in Persuasion
 Ch 2 Arousing Emotion: Anger and Calmness
 Ch 3 Arousing Emotion: Anger and Calmness (cont'd)
 Ch 4 Arousing Emotion: Friendliness and Enmity
 Ch 5 Arousing Emotion: Fear and Confidence
 Ch 6 Arousing Emotion: Shame and Shamelessness
 Ch 7 Arousing Emotion: Kindliness and Unkindliness
 Ch 8 Arousing Emotion: Pity and Indignation
 Ch 9 Arousing Emotion: Pity and Indignation (cont'd)
 Ch 10 Arousing Emotion: Envy and Emulation
 Ch 11 Arousing Emotion: Envy and Emulation (cont'd)
 Ch 12 Adapting Ethos to Audience: The Young
 Ch 13 Adapting Ethos to Audience: The Old
 Ch 14 Adapting Ethos to Audience: Those in Their Prime
 Ch 15 Adapting Ethos to Audience: The Well Born
 Ch 16 Adapting Ethos to Audience: The Wealthy
 Ch 17 Adapting Ethos to Audience: The Powerful
 Ch 18 Logical Argument: Introduction
 Ch 19 Logical Argument: Common topics: Possible/Impossible; Past
Fact/Future Fact; Degree
 Ch 20 Logical Argument: From Example
 Ch 21 Logical Argument: Maxims
 Ch 22 Logical Argument: Enthymemes
 Ch 23 Logical Argument: 28 Common Topics & Strategies
 Ch 24 Logical Argument: Fallacious Enthymemes
 Ch 25 Logical Argument: Refutation of Enthymemes
 Ch 26 Logical Argument: Non-Topics: Amplification,
Refutation, Objection
Book II Overview
 In Book II Aristotle goes into greater detail on each of these means of persuasion.
 It is interesting to note that Aristotle realizes that the average person usually isn't persuaded by
arguments alone.
 It is for this reason that the rhetor needs to have a firm understanding of how to use his own
character and the emotions of the audience as means of persuasion as well.
Chapter One
 Ethical and Pathetic Proofs
 General Discussion of Ethos
 Object of Rhetoric is Judgment
 Speaker's character important for deliberative oratory
 Judge's frame of mind more important for forensic oratory
 Three qualities necessary to produce conviction:
o good sense
o virtue
o good will
 Definition of emotions
Aristotle’s Rhetoric Books I and II
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The emotions are all those affections which cause men to change their opinion in regard
to their judgments, and are accompanied by pleasure and pain.
Chapters Two - Eleven: Arousing Emotion
 Catalogue of Ethical/Pathetic Proofs
 "Emotions in Aristotle's sense are moods, temporary states of mind---not attributes of character or
natural desires---and arise in large part from perception of what is publicly due to or from oneself
at a given time. As such, they effect judgments" (Kennedy 124). The clever speaker, therefore,
can alter the psychological state of members of his audience by arousing specific emotions in
them, and, thus effect their judgments.
 Aims of Rhetor in Arousing Emotions
o The aim of the rhetor, according to Aristotle, is
 to aroused these emotion in an audience in order to effectively secure the
judgment that he desires from them and
 to be able to arouse negative emotions (e.g., shamelessness, enmity, and envy)
against one's enemies.
 What we need to know about the emotion in order to persuade (2.1):
o the nature (definition) of the particular emotion
o what is the state of mind of the person who feels the emotion?
o the object of the emotion
o towards whom or what is the emotion felt?
o cause of the emotion
o why is the emotion felt and in what circumstances is it felt?
 Catalogue of Ethical/Pathetic Proofs
o Anger and Mildness
o Analysis of Anger
o Definition
o Slights
o Dispositions of those roused to anger
o Objects of anger
Chapters Twelve – Seventeen: Adapting Ethos to Audience
 Introduction
 In this section Aristotle goes into a lengthy description of various character types. Although in
2.1, Aristotle discusses ethos primarily in terms of the character of the speaker as a means of
persuasion, throughout the rest of Book II he primarily focuses on the ethos of the audience.
 The aim here seems to be on how the speaker will have to adjust his ethos to the various types of
audiences he is addressing.
 In addressing an audience, the speaker, then, needs to keep in mind (1) the age if his audience
and (2) their circumstances in life.
 Although we generally talk in terms of the character of individuals, Aristotle believes that different
classes of people also manifest common character traits. Thus we can also talk about the
character of the elderly or of the rich.
"The predominant meaning of ethos in Aristotle is 'moral character' as reflected in deliberate
choice of actions and as developed in a habit of mind. At times, however, the word seems to
refer to qualities, such as an innate sense of justice or quickness of temper, with which individuals
may be naturally endowed and which dispose them to certain kinds of action" (Kennedy 162).
Chapters Twelve - Fourteen
 Ages
 Youth
 Old Age
 Prime of Life
Chapter Twelve
 the character of the young
 Aristotle's description of the young emphasizes the strength of their bodily drives.
Aristotle’s Rhetoric Books I and II
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the young, he claims....
o have stronger passions than those who are older
o are most swayed by sexual desire, and in this they often show a lack of self-control
o have intense desires that tend to be short-lived
o love honor, but love victory more, since young people love to win
 tend to act out of anger more than those who are older
o are more easily deceived and cheated than those who are older
o tend to be optimistic, because they haven't been knocked down much by life and hopeful
because they still have a long life ahead of them
Chapter Thirteen
 the character of the elderly
 Aristotle's description of the elderly begins by showing that their character is contrary to that of
the young. The emphasis in this section is primarily upon the idea that the experience of the
eldery in life makes them somewhat cynical.
 the elderly, he maintains...
o having lived a long time, having make mistakes, and having been taken in by others, view
life with less confidence than the young.
o tend to be overly cautious in their actions and in expressing opinions (e.g., they "think but
never know")
o tend to be more suspicious and distrustful than the young
o live more in the past than the future, since their life is drawing to a close.
o tend to be a bit stingy, because they know how hard money is to come by
o feel pity for others, but more out of weakness than kindness
Chapter Fourteen
 the character of those in the prime of life
 As opposed to the elderly who are often difficult to persuade and the young who are governed by
their passions, Aristotle's description of those in their prime makes it clear that he believes that
they are far more easily persuaded by reason. Aristotle describes the prime of life as physically
between 30 and 35 and intellectually between 30 and 49.
 those in the prime of life, he says...
o have characters free from the extremes of youth and old age (i.e., they are neither too
rash nor too timid; neither too skeptical nor over trusting; neither too generous nor too
stingy)
o combine the best traits of youth and old age, while avoiding many of the excesses.
o tend to make decisions on a rational basis
Chapters Fifteen - Seventeen
 Fortunes
 Noble Birth
 Wealth
 Power
Chapter Sixteen: Wealth
 Those who possess great wealth, according to Aristotle...
o tend to be insolent, overbearing and pretentious
o value everything by money
o tend towards ostentation (showiness)
o consider themselves entitled to everything (especially political power)
o tend to do wrong more form
o all these vices are compounded in the nouveau riche
Chapter Seventeen: Power
 Those who possess great power...
o are generally a better sort than the rich
o tend to be even more ambitious and heroic
o are more energetic and serious than other people because they want to stay in power
o can be a bit overbearing, but also possess a dignified reserve
Aristotle’s Rhetoric Books I and II
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usually commit great rather than petty crimes.
Chapters Eighteen - Twenty-six: Logical Argument:
 moves from a discussion of character to a discussion of logical argumentation. It is in these
chapters we find his treatment of the universal means of persuasion (example, maxim and
enthymeme) in 2.20-22.
 Logical Proofs
 Catalogue of Common or General Topics
 Transitional Summary
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Chapter Twenty
 Inductive and Deductive Proofs
 Examples
o examples are of two kinds:
 historical and fictitious.
 historical examples:
 pointing out that a situation from the past is similar to a current situation, and that, therefore, it's
out come will likely also be similar
 e.g., "In the past when Eqypt was conquered it led to all of Greece being conquered. Therefore,
we should not allow Egypt to be conquered."
o fictitious examples
o a fable is a fictitious story with a moral. All fables use a specific made up story to derive
universal conclusions (e.g., the tortoise and the hare).
o fictitious examples are easier to provide, but carry less weight than historical examples.
 when examples are used alone as a means of proof, we need to use many. When they support a
strong argument, they serve and a witness, and one good example is sufficient.
Chapters Twenty-One: Maxims
 a maxim is an opinion that is given as a piece of advice, and which are usually pithy (brief).
 e.g., "Spare the rod and spoil the child." "Foolish to kill the father and spare the child.”
 controversial or paradoxical maxims need to be supplemented by the speaker, while those that
are obvious can stand on their own almost as an argument in themselves.
 maxims are effect because they state as a universal rule the opinions that many people typically
already hold on a particular subject.
Chapters Twenty-Two
 Enthymemes
 Aristotle describes the enthymeme as "a kind of syllogism" or as a syllogism that is used in
rhetoric.
 Basically a syllogism is nothing a deductive argument used in logic.
 A deductive argument is one in which a group of statements (premises) lead to another group of
statements (conclusions)
 a conclusion is the statement or argument designed to be supported or defended.
 premises are the starting points of an argument. They are used to defend the conclusion and are
typically affirmed without any defense.
 Chapters Twenty-Two
 Some Examples of Enthymemes
o All mammals are warm blooded [premise 1].
o A whale is a warm blooded [premise 2].
o Therefore, a whale is a mammal [conclusion].
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o
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The earth is just one of many habitable planets in our galaxy [premise 1].
Life has evolved on earth [premise 2].
Therefore it seems likely that life has evolved on more than just this one [conclusion].
Aristotle’s Rhetoric Books I and II
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Important to note that the difference between the kind of argument that might be used in logic (the
syllogism) and the kind of argument that is used in rhetoric (the enthymeme) is that the latter can
be described as an abbreviated argument
 Because most audiences are usually not made up of experts on the subject being discussed,
using long and complicated lines of reasoning isn’t effective. As Aristotle emphasizes throughout
Book II, a rhetor must adapt his speech to his audience.
 Therefore enthymemes:
o must be arguments about things which are capable of being otherwise than they are, and
o they must restrict the number of premises that they use
Chapters Twenty-three - Twenty-Six: Catalogue of Enthymemes
 Topics of Enthymemes
 Apparent Enthymemes
 Refutation
 Non-Enthymemes