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LVIV NATIONAL MEDICAL UNIVERSITY
BY DANYLO HALYTSKYY
Department of medicine of extraordinary situations
FAILURES ON CHEMICALLY-DANGEROUS OBJECTS AND
THEIR MEDICALLY-SANITARY CONSEQUENCES
Methodical recommendations for self-study of students of medical and stomatological faculties
to practical and seminar lessons on educational discipline “Medicine of extraordinary situations”
Lviv – 2011
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Methodical recommendations prepared: Chaplyk V.V., Pylypiv Ya.I.,
Humenyuk V.V. and Oliynyk P.V.
Translation: Humenyuk V.V.
Methodical recommendations are developed for self-study of students of
medical and stomatological faculties to practical and seminar lessons on
educational discipline “Medicine of extraordinary situations” on theme:
Failures on chemically -dangerous objects and their medically-sanitary
consequences.
As a result of study of theme students must know classification of chemicallydangerous objects, reasons and medically-sanitary consequences on chemicallydangerous objects, facilities of collective and individual defense. Students must
know methods of estimation of chemical state in the region of ES, to know
equipment for chemical search.
Methodical recommendations are recommended by a methodical
commission of department of medicine of extraordinary situations of LNMU
by Danylo Halytskyy for the printing.
Document № 105 from 26 august 2011.
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A sequence of study of theme and methodical recommendations for
independent preparation to practical lessons
I. Educational aim: to learn classification of chemically-dangerous objects,
reasons and medically-sanitary consequences of failures on chemically dangerous
objects, facilities of collective, individual and medical defence.
II. Educational-aim tasks:
1. To know classification of chemically-dangerous objects, reasons and medicallysanitary consequences of failures on chemically dangerous objects.
2. To know facilities of collective, individual and medical defence.
3. To be acquainted with the methods of estimation of chemical state in the cell of
extraordinary situation, with the devices of chemical search.
III. Time of lesson: 2 academic hours.
IV. Place of leadthrough of the lesson: educational class of department
V. Educational questions and timing:
1. Classification of chemically-dangerous objects, reasons and medically-sanitary
consequences of failures on chemically-dangerous objects.
2. Methods of estimation of chemical state in the cell of extraordinary situation and
facilities of collective, individual and medical defence.
VI. METHODICAL POINTING ON INDEPENDENT PREPARATION
During independent preparation to practical lessons students must
familiarize with base material of methodical recommendations, by the
compendium of lectures on this topic, by educational material of the indicated
literature.
As a result of self-study students must know classification of chemicallydangerous objects, reasons and medically-sanitary consequences of failures on
chemically-dangerous objects, facilities of collective, individual and medical
defence. To be acquainted with the methods of estimation of chemical situation in
the cell of extraordinary situation, with the devices of chemical search and to be
ready to give an answer for the control questions of employment.
TASK FOR SELF-STUDY
1. Check your base knowledge in accordance with an educational purpose and
educational tasks and if necessary – correct them.
2. A questions for self-control of base knowledge:
1. Reasons and medically-sanitary consequences of failures on chemicallydangerous objects.
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2. An order of estimation of chemical situation in the cell of extraordinary
situation.
3. Organization and leadthrough of basic measures for liquidation of
consequences of chemical failure.
4. Order of providing of population and personnel of the non-military formings
with facilities of chemical defence.
5. Short description and setting of devices of chemical search.
6. Short description of facilities of individual defense.
7. Short description of facilities of collective defense.
8. Short description of facilities of medical defense.
BASE EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL
Failures on chemically-dangerous objects, their medically-sanitary
consequences.
The reasons and medically-sanitary consequences of failures on
chemically-dangerous objects.
The risk of chemical defeat of population is initiated by presence of 1818
enterprises in Ukraine, which are located in all areas. Failures on these enterprises
can result in chemical contamination of territory of square over 65,7 thousand km 2.
In the possible areas of chemical contamination there live over 24,3million people.
It is set also, that in the cities of Ukraine there are placed 40 chemically-dangerous
enterprises, failures on which can result in excrete into the environment of
poisonous chemical matters on distance over 10 km. Minimal area of chemical
contamination of territory at failures on these objects will make 157 km2, and
maximal – 10048 km2 . In each of possible areas of chemical contamination of
locality as a result of failures on such enterprises there live from 52,4 to 1587
thousand people. Districting of territory of Ukraine after the factor of potential
chemical danger for a population shows that: the threatening level of danger is in
Kharkiv, Dnipropetrovsk, Odesa and Donetsk areas; considerable level of danger –
in Kyiv, Ivano-Frankivsk, Zaporizhzhya areas and Autonomous Republic of
Crimea; average level of danger – Mykolayiv, Kherson, Lugansk, Lviv, Сherkasy,
Zhytomyr, Сhernihiv, Vinnytsya, Ternopil, Poltava, Zakarpattya and Volyn’
regions; insignificant danger – in the Khmel'nytsk area and absent danger – in the
Chernivtsi area.
Chemically dangerous objects are named the objects of national economy
(CHDO), at failures or destruction of which there can be mass defeats of people, of
animals and plants. To them belong:
enterprises of chemical, oil-processing and other types of industry;
enterprises, equipped by the refrigerating facilities; water stations and cleansing
buildings, which use an ammonia and chlorine; railway stations and ways, on
which are transported drastic poisonous matters; compositions and bases with the
supplies of matters for disinfection, disinsection and deratizations; depositaries and
bases with the supplies of poisoning chemicals, what are used in agriculture.
Chemical matters, which are used with a agricultural purpose and at extras or flow
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out can result in the contamination of air in striking concentrations and the direct
or relative action of which can entail death, acute or chronic disease or poisoning
of people and inflict harm to the environment are named hazardous chemical
substances (HCHS). Among hazardous chemical substances the special group of
matters, which are most dangerous for people in the case of their hit into an
environment, are distinguished. The matters of this group are named severe active
poisonous substances (SAPS). In this time from plenty of compounds, which are
used in industry, agriculture and in domestic, more than 500 are high-toxic and
dangerous for a man.
On some chemical enterprises is sometimes saved up to hundred thousand
kilograms of these substances. In depositories and bases SAPS can be saved:
- in reservoirs under high pressure (to 100 bar);
- in isothermal depositories at pressure, near to atmospheric;
- in the closed capacities at atmospheric pressure and ambient temperature.
During storage there is a possibility of destruction of capacities and output of
SAPS into an environment. Are selected three degrees of danger of chemically
dangerous objects, depending on the amount of SAPS:
а) after a chlorine: Ist degree – 250 tons and more; IInd – 250-50 tons; IIIrd –
50-0,8 tons;
б) after an ammonia: Ist degree – 2500 tonns and more; IInd – 2500-500
tonns; IIIrd – 500-10 tonns.
After the amount of population and part territories which get in the area of
chemical contamination are selected four degrees of chemical danger for
administrative-territorial units and chemically dangerous objects (except for
railways). Digital value of criteria for the degrees of chemical dangers is given in a
table 1.
The output of SAPS in an environment results in their evaporation, which
depending on speed of this process and can flow in 3 variants:
 Sudden evaporation of SAPS, when for short period of time (to 10 minutes),
the main amount of liquid is evaporating. Hereupon a cloud appears with
high, often mortal concentrations of poisonous matter in a kind of steam or
aerosols. Such poisonous cloud locates in the ground layer of air on a height
to 20 m from a ground. At the beginning, during 2-3 minutes, it is expressly
limited, with a radius up to 0,5-1 km, but then it interfuses with air and size
of cloud gradually increases. Under act of wind a distance of distribution of
SAPS steam can achieve tens (50-70) of kilometers.
 Unsteady evaporation of SAPS, when evaporation of the poured out liquid
takes place more slowly and depends on temperature of ground and air. In
the first minutes the intensity of evaporation is small, but it grows in course
of time. Such process promotes the long-lasting contamination of
atmosphere.
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Table 1. Criteria of classification of administrative-territorial units
and chemically-dangerous objects (except for railways)
Numeral value of criterion
for degrees of chemical
Name of
Criteria of
Units
danger
object
classifications
I
ІІ
ІІІ
IV
Amount of
Chemically- population, which
Thousand
dangerous gets into the area of
> 0,3
0,3 0,1-0,3 < 0,1
persons
object
chemical
contamination
ChemicallyPart of territory,
dangerous
which gets into area
30% - 10% administrativ
Percents
> 50%
< 10%
of chemical
50% 30%
e-territorial
contamination
unit
 even at time evaporation of SAPS, when duration of evaporation can make
hours and even days, because its speed does not exceed 3-5 % in a hour at
the temperature of 25оC. Saving of striking action of SAPS depends on the
temperature of air, its humidity, speed of wind, and also from physical and
chemical properties of poisonous matters.
On territory of Ukraine near the half of population lives in the areas of
objects, which in the production cycle use hazardous chemical substances. A
production, transporting, storage and use of SAPS are strictly regulated by the
special rules of technology, of safety technique and control for their use. However,
at failures on CHDO plenty of poisonous matters can get into an environment and
create the area of defeat. To SAPS belong:
 matters with a mainly suffocating action (chlorine, three-chlorous
phosphorus, phosgene, chloride of sulphur et al);
 matters of generally-poisonous action (monoxide of the carbon,
hydrocyanic acid, dynitrophenol, ethylenecloehydrine);
 matters of suffocating and generally-poisoning action (acrylonitril, oxiles
of nitrogen, sulfuric anhydride, sulphuretted hydrogen and others).
 neurotropic matters, which influence on a generation, leadthrough and
transmission of nervous impulse (phosphor-organic matters (PhOS),
bisulphid et al).
 matters, which have a suffocating and neurotropic action (ammonia).
 matters, which violate the exchange of matters and structure of cell
(dioxine);
 metabolic poisons (methylbromide, methylchloride, dimethylsulfate,
ethyleneoxide).
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By reasons of failures on a production, which uses chemical matters, most
frequently there are violation of rules of transporting and storage, neglect of rules
of work protection, break of equipment, mechanisms, pipelines, break of facilities
of transporting, dishermetizing of capacities of storage, exceeding of normative
levels of storages. Most typical failures on the enterprises of chemical and fuelchemical industry it is possible to divide into three groups:
 fires and spankings in the technological equipment, which do not result in
formation of explosive mixtures not only in vehicles, but also in the
atmosphere of production buildings;
 explosions on the opened equipment and in rooms of production, caused by
the extras of inflammable and explosive products into an atmosphere;
 explosions inside of technological equipment, which are accompanied by its
destruction (dishermetizing) and extras of inflammable and explosive
products, which make the secondary explosions or fires.
Chemical failures after a scale are divided into the followings categories:
 productive rooms – failures, as a result of which in general there were no
extras of SAPS or it was insignificant, and the infected territory is limited by
territory of productive rooms;
 objective – failures, related to the flow out of SAPS from a technological
equipment, but the infected territory does not exceed a sanitary-hygienic
area around an enterprise;
 local – failures, caused by destruction of large capacity or deposit of SAPS,
and the cloud of poisonous matters arrives at housings areas and that is why
it is necessary to evacuate a population from the nearest houses;
 regional – a failure, which is characterized by the considerable extras of
SAPS and the cloud of which spreads in a depth of housings areas;
 global – failures on a large object with complete destruction of all
depositories of SAPS, that makes the necessity of application of urgent
measures on defence of people on considerable territory.
After speed of forming of sanitary losses a SAPS is divided on:
 SAPS of rapid action, which cause development of symptoms of intoxication
during a few minutes. To them belong hydrocyanic acid, acrylonitrile,
sulphuretted hydrogen, monoxide of the carbon, oxiles of nitrogen (in high
concentrations), chlorine (in high concentrations), ammonia, phosphororganic matters.
 SAPS of middle action, which cause development of symptoms of
intoxication during a hour. To this group are taken dynitrophenole,
dimethylsulfate, methybromide, methylchloride, oxychloride of phosphorus,
oxiles of nitrogen, chlorine, oxide of ethylene, bisulphid, three-chlorous
phosphorus, phosgene, chloride of sulphur, ethylene-chlorhydrine.
 SAPS of retarded-action, for which is characteristic development of
symptoms during period of time over 1 hour (methyl-alcohol).
After a chemical structure there are selected the separate groups of SAPS.
To main of them belong: mineral and organic acids (sulphuric, HCl, phosphoric,
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vinegar acids et al); bases (caustic Na, K, solutions of ammonia); alcohols (methyl, butyl- et al) and aldehydes of acids; organic and inorganic nitro- and
aminocompounds (aniline, nitrobenzol, nitrotoluol); phenols, cresols and their
derivatives; heterocyclic connections; phosphor-organic pesticides (chlorophos,
carbophos); chlor-organic pesticides (DDT, hexachlorane); mercury-organic
matters (methylmercury); derivatives of phenol-acetate acid, dipiridil (paraquat).
After a danger all SAPS are divided into 4 classes of danger:
 class 1 – extraordinarily dangerous matters;
 class 2 – highly dangerous matters;
 class 3 – mildly dangerous;
 class 4 – low dangerous matters.
The class of danger of matter is set depending on indexes, such as:
 maximum possible concentration;
 an average mortal dose at getting into a stomach;
 an average mortal dose at at getting on a skin;
 middle mortal concentration in an air;
 area of sharp action.
Ability of SAPS to make the defeat of organism has the name toxicness. The
degree of influence of SAPS on an organism shows up as a toxic action or toxic
effect. A toxic effect can show up itself like:
 sudden acute worsening of health, including death;
 a disease at systematic influence of HCHS;
 decline of work capacity.
A toxic effect can be valid for one occasion at single influence of SAPS and
frequent, which shows up at frequent influence. A toxic effect can show up at once
after influence of SAPS, and as in a prospect terms of life of one generation and in
life of next generations. A toxic effect depends on:
 physical and chemical properties of HCHS;
 concentrations of SAPS or closeness of contamination;
 time of influence of SAPS on an organism.
A concentration of SAPS is an amount of matter, which is contained in unit of
volume of air or liquid. A concentration can be:
 mass Cm, which means mass of matter in unit of volume, and is measured in
kg/m3, kg/l;
 molar CM, which means the amount of matter in molls in the unit of volume,
is measured in moll/m3, moll/l;
 volume CV, which determines the volume of matter in the stakes of unit or in
percents.
A closeness of contamination of SAPS is an amount of matter, which is on
the unit of the infected surface, is measured in kg/km2.
Time of influence of SAPS or exposure is time of action of SAPS on an
organism, measured in minutes.
Amount of matter, which got into an organism and causes the certain degree
of defeat of organism, is named a toxic dose. Toxic dose is measured depending on
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the way of getting of SAPS into an organism. For the estimation of toxic action of
SAPS the quantitative indexes of toxicness are set, such as:
 indexes of mortal action;
 indexes of threshold action;
 indexes of danger of matter;
 maximum possible concentration.
To the indexes of mortal action belong:
 absolute (CL100 ) or average (CL50 ) mortal concentration in an air – the
concentrations of matter, which result in death according to 100% or 50%
people in the case of 2-, 4-hour influence on the organs of breathing;
 absolute (DL100) or middle (DL50) mortal doses – the amount of matter,
which gets into an organism through a stomach, in a calculation on one
kilogram of weight and causes death according to 100% or 50% people.
The indexes of threshold action characterize the primary action of SAPS on a
man. As a result of influence they are divided on:
 indexes of general threshold action – the minimal concentration or dose of
matter, which causes changes in an organism;
 indexes of specific action – the minimal concentration or dose, which causes
the changes of separate parts of organism or organs.
The indexes of danger of SAPS characterize the danger of origin of negative
effects in the real terms of influence. They are divided into two groups:
 indexes of potential danger, which characterize a potential possibility of
getting of SAPS into an organism;
 indexes of the real danger, which characterize a possibility of organism to
defend itself against the action of SAPS.
Maximum possible concentration (MPC) is a concentration of harmful
matters in an air of working area, which during working hours does not cause
diseases or rejections of the state of health.
A contaminated chemical area (CChA), which is formed by SAPS, includes
the area of overflow (extras) on territory, above which a pair and aerosols of
poisonous matters spread. Within the limits of CChA there can be defeats of
people both as a result of direct action of SAPS and through the infected objects,
water, food products.
The hearth of chemical defeat is named a territory, within the limits of
which, as a result of failure on ChDO there were mass defeats of people and
agricultural animals.
To the medically-tactical signs of hearth of chemical defeat (HCHD) belong:
suddenness, speed and mass character of origin of defeats; contamination of
environment; origin of lot of heavy defeats; presence of the combined defeats
(intoxication of SAPS + burn, intoxication of SAPS + mechanical trauma and
others like that).
During a failure is not excluded the possibility of distribution of several
toxic agents, which can appear as a result of the secondary chemical reactions. At
the combined action of a several poisons, a toxic effect can increase (synergy),
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decrease (antagonism) or summarized (adaptive action). Most dangerous are first
10 min of development of failure, when there is an intensive evaporation of SAPS.
It is set that in this period as a primary cloud in an atmosphere gets up to 30% of
the total amount of matters. On this stage a sizes of primary cloud and direction of
its motion has non-indefinite character. Therefore at prognostication of distribution
of cloud of SAPS there must be select the area of vagueness, the radius of which
can exceed a 1 km. After getting of SAPS on a surface outside the capacity of its
storage, there a period of its gradual evaporation and forming of the secondary
cloud begins. The cell of contamination by SAPS engulfs the area of failure (of
chemically dangerous object) and the area of contamination by primary and the
secondary clouds.
Depending on duration of contamination of locality and time of display of
striking action, there are select 4 types of hearths of defeat by SAPS:
- hearth of defeat by unsteady fast-acting matters. It happens on condition of
infecting by hydrocyanic acid, acrylonitril, by the monoxide of carbon and others
like that;
- hearth of defeat by unsteady SAPS of retarded-action (phosgene, chlorpicryn,
nitric acid and others like that);
- hearth of defeat by stable fast-acting matters (aniline, furfurol, some phosphororganic matters (PhOS).
- hearth of defeat stable matters of retarded-action (sulphuric acid, tetraethyllead
and others like that).
To the features of hearths of defeat, formed by fast-acting matters, belong:
- onemomentary (during minutes, tens of minutes) defeat of a lot of people;
- rapid motion of intoxication with advantage of heavy defeats;
- deficit of time at the organs of health protection for the change of existent
organization of work and prepare them in accordance with a situation, which arose
up;
- necessity of grant of medicare directly in hearth of defeat (a decision value is
acquired by self- and partnership help) and on the stages of medical evacuation in
maximally short time;
- rapid evacuation of staggered from a cell for one trip.
To the features of hearth of defeat of retarded-action belong:
- forming of sanitary losses takes place gradually, during a few hours;
- there is a presence of some float time for correcting of work of organs of health
protection taking into account their position;
- a necessity of perform of measures on the active exposure of injured persons
among a population;
- evacuation of staggered persons from a cell is carried out gradually, after their
exposure (in a few trips).
In the hearth of defeat by stable matters the danger of defeat is saved during
long time (more than hour). It is saved some time after an exit from a cell due to
the desorption of SAPS from clothes or as a result of contact with the infected
transport, different objects. There is neede leadthrough in the earliest possible dates
of partial sanitization in a cell, and in the case of arriving of staggered on the stages
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of medical evacuation – complete sanitization and degassing of clothes, shoes and
transport vehicles. A medical personnel during a contact with staggered, which
were not sanitized, works in gas-masks and facilities of defence of skin, but after
completion of work must be sanitized too.
The possible losses of population in HCHD depend on: the closeness of
population (amount of people, which live on 1 km2 territory); toxicness of SAPS;
depths of distribution of SAPS and areas of cell; the degree of protection of
population; meteorological terms (speed of wind, degree of vertical firmness of air
and others like that). During the stay of people in HCHD by SAPS on the open
territory without gas-masks, almost 100% population can get a defeat. In the case
of the complete providing of population with facilities of individual defence the
losses will not exceed 10-12%. In last case losses are possible because of not-intime use of facilities of defence or their break.
General principles of grant of medical help and treatment for staggered
persons by SAPS consist in:
- stopping of subsequent getting of SAPS into an organism;
- most rapid excreting of toxic matters and their poisonous metabolites
from blood and tissues;
- application of specific antidote therapy;
- providing of the normal functioning of vitally important organs and
systems;
- timely grant of medicare in place of defeat and treatment in the
specialized permanent establishment (hospitals);
- the prophylaxis of different complications.
Development of complex of measures on the leadthrough of organizational,
therapeutically-evacuation and therapeutically-prophylactic measures in a place of
contamination and on the stages of medical evacuation is based on estimation of
chemical situation, which happened as a result of failure on CHDO, and it in same
queue depends on character of object (type and method of storage of SAPS, their
amount), time of failure (daypart, season of year), meteorological terms (direction
and speed of wind, fallouts, humidity of air and other), and also degree of
contamination of territory.
2. An estimation of chemical situation in the cell of extraordinary situation.
During a failure on chemically dangerous, explosive- and fire-dangerous
objects into an atmosphere for the short interval of time a toxic gases and pairs get
as a cloud of the infected air. Moving after the ground wind, the cloud of SAPS
can form the area of contamination, with the danger of defeat of unscreened
people, animals and plants.
The area of chemical contamination are named such territory, which
includes the place of chemical contamination (the overflow of SAPS) and areas of
locality, which the cloud of SAPS appeared above (CChA).
An area of chemical infection is a component part of cell of chemical
contamination. The cell of chemical contamination after the presence of billows of
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depository equals the area of billowed territory. At absence of billowing, the
approximate calculation of area of contamination (in m2) is conducted on
condition, that SAPS covers ground with a layer not more than 0,05 m in thickness
after a formula:
where: Sp – is an area of chemical infection, m2;
m – weight of matter, which spilled, tons;
0,05 – approximate thickness of layer of spilled SAPS during a failure
in depositories, which do not have a billows, m;
ρ – is a closeness of SAPS, tons/m3.
For determining of the amount of SAPS, which spilled, during a failure in
depositories, which do not have a billows there is applied a formula:
m = Sp · 0,05 · ρ
where: m is mass of matter, which spilled, in tons;
0,05 – approximate thickness of layer of SAPS, that spilled, in m;
ρ is a closeness of SAPS, tons/m3.
There are distinguished the area of possible chemical contamination and area
of actual chemical contamination. They are characterized by the scales of
distribution of primary and secondary clouds of contaminated air. The area of
chemical contamination is divided into primary and secondary.
A primary area of chemical contamination is territory, on which direct
distribution of SAPS happened (a place of pouring of liquid, splashing, under
pressure flow out of gas).
The secondary area of chemical contamination is territory, above which a
distribution of steam of SAPS happened.
The secondary area has considerably bigger sizes than primary area of
chemical contamination and is formed by primary and secondary clouds:
A primary cloud is vaporous part of SAPS, which is present in any capacity
above the surface of the fluidized chemical matter and which passes to the
atmosphere at destruction of capacity directly.
The secondary cloud is a cloud, which appears as a result of evaporation of
flowed out matter.
A primary cloud appears only in the case of destruction or damage of
capacities, which contain SAPS under pressure. It contains the high concentrations
of SAPS, which exceed mortal doses at brief influence. A cloud, formed by SAPS
with a closeness, which exceeds air density, partly fills dales, low-laying areas,
basements of houses, etc. The concentration of steam of SAPS in the secondary
cloud is considerably lower, than in a primary cloud. Duration of action of the
secondary cloud is determined sometimes by evaporation of source and sometimes
by maintenance of stable direction of wind. In same queue, speed of evaporation of
matter depends on its physical properties (molecular mass, pressure of the
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saturated steam at the temperature of evaporation), area of pouring and speed of
the ground wind.
A depth of area of chemical contamination (DAChC) is the biggest distance
from the hearth of defeat, on which the striking concentration of SAPS is saved. It
depends on the following factors: amounts of SAPS, which went out in an
atmosphere; conditions of exit of SAPS (flowing out or instant extras); vertical
firmness of atmosphere; temperatures of air; speeds of wind; physical and chemical
properties of SAPS; character of locality.
Analysing factors, which influence on the depth of area of chemical
contamination, it is possible to do such conclusions:
 if SAPS flows out slowly, the depth of area of chemical contamination will
diminish, and duration of chemical contamination will be increased;
 than greater amount of SAPS will pass to the environment, the greater will
be a depth of area of chemical contamination;
 the value of depth of area of chemical contamination will depend on
vertical firmness of atmosphere;
 than higher temperature of air, the SAPS will evaporate more quickly; as
result the depth of area of chemical contamination will be increased, and
the term of action of SAPS will diminish;
 than higher speed of wind, the lesser is depth of area of chemical
contamination and action of cloud of SAPS;
 than higher specific gravity of SAPS, the longer its poisonous action is
saved;
Vertical firmness of atmosphere is a change of temperature of atmospheric
air after a height. Are distinguished three degrees of vertical firmness of
atmosphere (VFA):
Convection is such state of the ground layer of air, at which the temperature
of surface of soil is higher than temperature of air on a height of 2 m from a
surface. It is observed in summer shining days (as a rule – in the morning), when
heated low layer of air goes up, and high layers, which are more cold and heavy,
go down. That is the vertical moving of air. Convection causes strong dispersion of
air, contaminated by SAPS. The concentration of SAPS quickly decreases below
striking level. Depth of area of chemical contamination in the case of convection is
the smallest.
Isotherm is such state of the ground layer of air, at which the temperature of
surface of soil is almost equal to the temperature of air on height at 2 m from a
ground. This is state of vertical equilibrium of air. It is arisen up in morning and
evening time at a stable weather. Isotherm is typical for a cloudy weather.
Cloudiness decreases a difference of temperature of air and soil in day and night
time and stabilizes the vertical firmness of air. The stable equilibrium of air in the
ground layer promote the protracted saving of area of chemical contamination. A
depth of area of chemical contamination is middle.
An inversion is such condition of the ground layer of air, at which the
temperature of surface of soil is lesser, than temperature of air on height of 2 m. It
is arisen up, as a rule, at night at unclouded sky, when the low layers of air give
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warm to ground and soil cools down quicklier. There is marked a vertical firmness
of air, as a result of increased temperature of its high layers and strong cooling of
soil. An unclouded sky promote the irradiation of heat into air space and the
difference of temperatures of surface of soil and adjoining layer of air can arrive at
a few degrees. If wind is absent, then the cooled layer of air stands too long near
ground surface. In the winter an inversion is possible in shine frost days. It hinders
to dispersion of the contaminated air and promote in the protracted maintenance of
high concentrations of SAPS in the ground layer. The depth of area of chemical
contamination is biggest.
With the purpose of determination of the unique order of prognostication of
chemical situation at failures on industrial objects and transport by general Order
of Ministry on questions of extraordinary situations and in cases of protecting of
population from the consequences of the Chornobyl catastrophe, Ministry of
agrarian policy, Ministry of economy, Ministry of ecology and natural resources
from 27.03.2001 N 73/82/64/122 was ratified “Method of prognostication of
consequences of outpouring (the extras) of hazardous chemical substances at
failures on industrial objects and transport.
A method is given as tables, which enables operatively to carry out a
prognostication of consequences of failure. It is intended for prognostication of
scales of contamination after failures with hazardous chemical substances (HCHS)
on industrial objects, motor, river, railway and pipeline transport and can be used
for calculations on a marine transport, if the cloud of HCHS at a failure on it can
arrive at an near-coast area, where a population lives. Hazardous chemical
substance, it is a chemical matter, the direct or mediated action of which can entail
death, acute or chronic disease or poisoning of people and inflict harm to the
environment. A method is used only for HCHS, which are saved in the gaseous or
liquid state and which in the moment of extras or outpouring passes to the gas
condition and create the primary and secondary cloud of HCHS. It foresees the
leadthrough of calculations for planning of measures on defence of population only
on heights up to 10 m above a terrene (in the ground layer of air).
A method foresees long-term (operative) and emergency prognostication.
Long-term prognostication is carried out preliminary for determination of possible
scales of contamination, forces and facilities, which are needed for a leadthrough
rescuer works, for developing of operatively-planning and other documents. For
long-term prognostication of possible chemical situation during a failure the
certain primary information are necessary.
Long-term prognostication is carried out preliminary for determination of
possible scales of contamination, forces and facilities, which will be attracted for
liquidation of consequences of failure, developing of plans of work and other longterm (certificate) materials. For long-term prognostication the following
information is used:
 a general amount of SAPS for objects, which are located in dangerous
districts (on a war-time and for seismic-dangerous districts). The overflow of
SAPS "freely" is accepted in this case;
15
 an amount of SAPS in a single capacity for other objects. In this case the
overflow of SAPS is accepted "in a pallet" or "freely" depending on the
terms of storage of SAPS;
 meteorological information: speed of wind in the ground layer – 1 m/sec,
temperature of air a 20oС, the degree of vertical firmness of air (VFA), - but
inversion, direction of wind are not taken into account, and distribution of
cloud of muddy air is accepted in a circle 360o;
 a middle closeness of population for this locality;
 square of area of possible chemical contamination;
 square of the forecast area of chemical contamination;
 the degree of filling of capacity (capacities) is accepted as 70% from
passport data volume of capacity;
 capacities with HCHS at failures fully collapse;
 for failures on the product pipelines (ammonia-lines and others like that)
amount of HCHS, which can be thrown out, sets to its amount between
compartments (300-500 tons);
 measures on defence of population are detailier planned on the depth of area
of possible chemical contamination, which appears during the first 4 hours
after the beginning of failure.
Emergency prognostication is carried out during the origin of failure from
data of search service for determination of possible consequences of failure and
order of actions in the area of possible contamination. For emergency
prognostication the following information is needed:
 a general amount of HCHS is in the moment of failure in a capacity / in
pipeline, which a failure was on;
 character of overflow of HCHS on a ground ("freely" or "in a pallet");
 height of billows (of the pallet);
 real meteorological terms: temperature of air, speed and direction of wind in
the ground layer, degree of vertical firmness of air (inversion, convection,
isotherm);
 a middle closeness of population for locality, which the cloud of HCHS
spreads above;
 square of area of possible chemical contamination;
 square of the forecast area of chemical contamination;
 prognostication is carried out on a term not more than on 4 hours, a
prognosis must be specified whereupon.
Prognostication of possible sanitary losses among a population. For
prognostication of possible sanitary losses among a population determine the area
of chemical defeat. For this purpose after the situation inflicted on a map determine
the possible area of defeat. The forecast sanitary losses will depend on the amount
of population, which is (lives, works) in the area of infection, material well-being
of population individual and collective facilities of defense. The structure of
sanitary losses can make: easy defeats – to 25%; defeat of middle weight – to 40%;
defeat with mortal consequences – to 35%. The amount of sanitary losses of
16
population, workers and office workers in the forecast area of chemical infection
depending on terms determines after a table 5.7 in percents to the general amount.
Table 2. Possible losses of population, workers and office workers in the
forecast area of chemical infection (in %)
In buildings or in
Supply by facilities of defence
On opened localities
simple depositories
Without gas-masks
90 -100
50
In gas-masks
1-2
To 1
In more simple facilities of defence
50
30-45
As a result of prognostication of quantity and structure of possible sanitary
losses there is accepted a decision in relation to the volume of necessary medical
help to the population.
3. Devices of chemical search and investigation.
Military device of chemical search and
investigation (VPKHR) – is intended for the
exposure of poisonous matters in an air, on
locality and on the surfaces of different objects.
With its help a poisonous matters (PS) are
determined in air, on locality, on military
equipment and other objects (zarin, zoman, iprit;
in air – steam of V-gases, of phosgene, of
diphosgene, of hydrocyanic acid, of chlorcyan
and BZ).
Device for chemical search and
investigation of medical and veterinary
service (PKHR-MV) – is intended for an exposure: in water – zarin, zoman, Vgases, sulfur and nitrous iprits, chlocyan, hydrocyanic acid and its salts, poisons
with arsenium, alkaloids and salts of heavy metals; in a feed-stuff - zarin, zoman,
V-gases, sulfur and nitrous iprits, lewizite, hydrocyanic acid, chlocyan, phosgene
and diphosgene; in an air and on different objects - zarin, zoman, V-gases, sulfur
and nitrous iprits, lewizite, hydrocyanic acid, chlorcyan, arsenic hydrogen,
phosgene and diphosgene. It allows to perform taking away tests of water, food
products, soil and other materials for their inspection in the chemical laboratory.
Device enables to execute the basic tasks of medical examination of water and
food. On one charge by test reagent materials it allows to conduct 80-90 analyses.
Medical device of chemical search and investigation (MPKHR) – is
accepted on rigging of medical service of Military forces instead of device of
PKHR-MV. The possibilities of determination of PS are the same, as well as in
PKHR-MV. In addition, MPKHR allows to define in air, in water and on the
objects such type of poisons as VZ. For this purpose in a complete set an indicator
17
tube is included with one brown ring. Supplied reagents in MPKHR, is calculated
on performing of 100-200 analyses.
Portable gas-alarm device «Oka» is intended for an exposure in air of
chlorine, methane, monoxide of carbon,
chlorous hydrogen, dioxide of sulphur,
propane,
hexane,
fluorine,
fluorine
hydrogen. It is work from an electric
accumulator at 9 volts. Dimensions: 160 х
90 х 40 mm.
Automatic gas-alarm device GSP11 – is intended for continuous control of air
with the purpose of determination in it the
presence of phosphor-organic substances. At the exposure of PhOS the device
gives light and voice signals. A device is set in chemical reconnaissance machines.
On the principle of action the GSP-11 is a photo-colorimetric device. An indicator
strip is subject of colorimetring after its moistening by solution and sucking
through it of air. At presence of PhOS in air a red color on a strip is saved to the
moment of control and the signal of safety is turn on. Sensitiveness: I-range – 5.1-5
g/m3, II- range - 2.1-6 g/m3.
Device of radiation and chemical search and investigation (PRKHR) – is
intended for providing of chemical reconnaissance machines with the purpose of
exposure, signaling and management by the system of collective defence: at a
gamma-radiation of radio-actively contaminated localities with measuring of
power of dose; at appearance in air of steams of poisonous matters. It contains four
functional diagrams. One of them, the chart of "O" is intended for the exposure of
poisonous matters in air out of tank-machine and delivery of the permanent light
and voice signaling. Work of chart is based on logging of changes of current of
ionization chamber with the internal source of ionization at of steams of poisonous
matters into detector. It allows to determine a presence in air, on locality and
technique of V-gazes, phosgene, diphosgene, hydrocyanic acid, chlorcyan, iprit. A
device is capable of working in the range of temperatures from -40 to +40°С. The
time of determination of OR is from 2 to 5 min. Weight of device without packing
is 2,2 kg.
Gas analyzer UG-2 – is intended for measuring of concentration of
hazardous chemical substances (gases, steams) in air of working area of rooms on
industry. It provides an exposure in air: of sulphuric anhydride, acetylene, oxiles to
the carbon, sulphuretted hydrogen, chlorine, ammonia, oxiles of nitrogen,
ethylspirit, petrol, benzol, toluene, xylol, acetone, carbonhydrates of oil.
Determination of concentration of gas (steam) of hazardous chemical substances in
air is carried out after the standards of colouring of indicators. Measuring is
performed 2-3 times and an estimation is carried out after an average values.
18
4. Facilities of individual, collective and medical defence.
Individual facilities of defence are used for protecting of man from
hazardous chemical and radio-active substances and bacteriological facilities and
after setting are divided into facilities of defence of breathing organs, facilities of
defence of eyes and facilities of defence of skin, complete sets of facilities of
individual defence.
The accumulation of facilities of individual defence is conducted for
providing of population, formings of civil defence, workers and office workers of
enterprises of different forms of ownership in the extraordinary situations of
peaceful and military time. They are saved on the specially equipped compositions
in obedience to the rules of storage and service. For delivery of facilities of
individual defence on industrial enterprises the points of delivery are opened out in
case of extraordinary situations. On principle of action there are distinguished filter
and insulating individual facilities of defence.
To the facilities of individual defence belong filtration and insulating gasmasks of breathing organs, protective chambers for children, and respirators.
A filtration gas-mask is intended for protecting of organs of breathing,
eyes, skin of person from influence of poisonous, radio-active and some hazardous
chemical substances and bacterial facilities, and also from different harmful
admixtures, which are in an air.
Such filtration gas-masks are used in the system of civil defense: for a adult
population — GP-5; GP-7, GP-7В, GP-5М; for children — PDF-D, PDF-SH,
PDF-2D, PDF-2PI, KZD (a protective children chambers).
Fig. Filtration gas-masks (from the left to right:
GP-5; GP-7, GP-7В, GP-7B); filtering cartridges.
Two basic elements in the complete set of
civil filtration gas-mask enter: facial part and
filtration-absorptive box. Inwardly filtrationabsorptive boxes are an antiaerosol filter and charge.
Cleaning of air from aerosols is carried out by an antiaerosol filter. It is a
pressed paper (cellulose), with 3 gravimetric percents of asbestos in it. A filter is
located as a vertical accordion or concentric placed layers. Due to the features of
placing, the square of antiaerosol filter is 2000 cm2. The fibers of filter form a thick
19
net with at ultrafine windings intervals (canals). Asbestos creates the small-hole
structure of filter.
Poisonous matters in form of steam and gas do not stay too long an
antiaerosol filter. Cleaning of air from them happens in the layer of the granular
activated coal-catalyst (charges) due to adsorption, absorption, capillary
condensation, chemosorption, catalysis, reactions of oxidization, recovery and
creation of complex systems.
An absorbent carbon is made from anthracite (anthracite coal) or from birch
coal by the special treatment in the special stoves by the pair of water and
ammonia at a high temperature. As a result of these processes coal rids of resinous
volatiles, and in it a plenty of holes and spaces appear, which have a considerable
total surface (1 g of coal has a surface up to 1000 – 2000 m2). The presence of
plenty of holes and considerable total surface substantially promote specific
absorptive ability of coal. Majority of modern high-toxic OR in the vaporous and
gaseous state can be absorbed in a gas-mask during stakes of second.
In addition, a gas-mask is completed by a bag for storage and transference
and box with tapes, which not sweat up. Facial part is a helmet-mask, made from
natural or synthetic rubber. In a helmet-mask there is mounted an ocular knot and
valvular box, which has one valve for inhalation and two — to exhalation, — and
serves for distributing of streams of air. Tapes, which are not sweat, are made from
cellulose and have a one-sided gelatin coating. They can be inserted from the
internal side of glasses of gas-mask by the gelatin coatings to the eyes and can be
fixed by clamping rings. Gelatin evenly adsorbs the condensed moisture, what
transparency of tape is saved due to. In an order to use of filter gas-masks for
protecting of breathing organs from all SAPS the special attachments, which are
fastened to the gas-mask box, are foreseen.
For protecting from the monoxide of carbon, during the concentration of it in
surrounding air up to 0,25%, which can’t be absorbed by the charge of modern
gas-mask boxes, a hopcalith cartridge is appointed. A cartridge is a cylinder box,
equipped by a hopcalith and drier. Passing air, contaminated by the monoxide of
carbon, through a hopcalith cartridge, rids from water steam in the layer of drier
and, passing through the layer of hopcalith cartridge, grows into nonpoisonous
carbon dioxide. A hopcalith consists of grains, which contain 60% MnО2 and 40%
CuO. These matters catalytically accelerate an oxidization of CO into CO 2 due to
oxygen of air (2СО + O2 +catalizer = 2СО2). A cartridge can be used in place of
gas-mask box, if in an air there is only an monoxide of carbon, or can be added to
the gas-mask box, if other harmful admixtures together with CO are present in an
air. A cartridge is fully used, if it was in-process during 80-90 min., or if its weight
was increased on 20 g. At subzero temperatures the protective action of cartridge
considerably goes down and is fully halted at -15oС.
Rules of using a hopcalith cartridge:
 to prepare a hopcalith cartridge and take out a gas-mask box from a bag;
 to hold breathing, unscrew connecting tube from a gas-mask box and screw
on that tube to the hopcalith cartridge;
20
 to screw on a gas-mask box to the hopcalith cartridge and put it back into the
bag;
 to do strong exhalation and restore a breathing.
For protecting of breathing organs only from the monoxide of carbon a
hopcalite cartridge can be added directly to facial part of the gas-mask without an
antigas-box.
An additional cartridge (DP-2) is intended for protecting from a radio-active
dust. It can work in the complete set of all gas-masks.
The application of facilities of individual defence of organs of breathing of
injured persons and patients needs special attention during medical evacuation. The
method of defence of injured persons depends on character and weight of their
trauma. In this connection there are select 4 groups of injured and patients:
 which are able independently to put on a gas-mask and to use them;
 which are able to use a gas-mask, but they need some help at putting it on;
 those, which need putting on of helmet for head injuries;
 those, which have contra-indication to the use of gas-masks and must take
place in collective facilities of defence.
Absolute contra-indications to application of filter gas-masks are comma,
shock, collapse; lung, nasal, stomach bleeding; continuous vomiting; cramps; acute
heart-vessel and lung insufficiency; opened pneumothorax; edema of lungs,
shallow breathing; fresh cases of strokes; a concussion of the head brain in an
acute period.
An insulating gas-mask is intended for the use in the cases, when volume part
of oxygen in an air is below 17%, and also at the high concentrations of hazardous
chemical substances. It is applied for work in the difficult of access places with the
limited space (in cisterns, wells, basements, pipelines and others like that). In such
cases an insulating gas-masks are used, which provide protecting of organs of
breathing, eyes, skin of person from any SAPS regardless of features and
concentration. They allow to work even wherein fully absent oxygen in air. Some
insulating gas-masks (Sh-46m and Sh-5) allow to execute small works under water
on a depth up to 7 m.
Fig. Insulating gas-masks: IP-6, IP-5, IP-4M
21
Principle of work of this gas-mask is based on an excretion of oxygen from
chemical matters during absorption of carbon dioxide and humidity, which a man
breathes out. A helmet-mask protects breathing organs from influence of external
environment, supply air, which is exhaled, into a regenerative cartridge and gives
cleared from carbon dioxide and oxygen-rich gas mixture to the organs of
breathing, and also protects eyes and face. A helmet-mask consists of glasses,
obturator and connecting tube with a valve. It has a labial part and a nasal clamp
for implementation of works under water.
A regenerative cartridge absorbs carbon dioxide and moisture from air, which is
exhaled, gives oxygen. In a regenerative cartridge the chemical reactions of
absorption of carbonic acid and moisture from air, which is inhaled, are performed,
with a selection of oxygen. A reaction is exothermic.
2Na2 O4 + 2CО2 = Nа2 SO3 + 3О2 + 103,4 kkal
2Na2 O4 + 2Н2 Oh = 4NаОН + 3О2 + 44,6 kkal
A starting device consists of the starting preform, ampoule with sulphuric acid
and device for brake an ampoule. A starting preform serves for providing of organs
breathing in the first minutes of using a gas-mask and for activation of regenerative
cartridge.
A sack for breathing serves as a reservoir for breathing out gas mixture and
oxygen, which is exhaled by a regenerative cartridge. On it there is located a part,
which a regenerative cartridge and valve of surplus pressure are connected to. The
valve of surplus pressure frees a superfluous amount of air from the system of
breathing, and also serves for maintenance in the respiratory sack of necessary
volume of gas under water. In the gas-masks of Sh-46m and IP-5 in the case of
lack of gas mixture at works under water, there are foreseen additional device for
supply of oxygen on inhalation.
A bag is intended for storage and transference of the gas-mask. Helmet-mask of
insulating type does not have thermo-defensive facilities. That is why the work
with it is recommended with the hood of protective suit, dressed on a head.
Oxygen in a regenerative cartridge allows to execute works in an insulating gasmask at the heavy physical loadings during 45 min, at middle – 70 min, at the easy
loadings or in a state of relative rest – 3 hours. Wearing of insulating gas-masks
with the change of regenerative cartridges is assumed up to 8 hours. Gas-masks of
IP-46, IP-46m reliably work in the interval of temperatures from -20°С to +40°С,
and gas-masks of Sh-4 and Sh-5 from -40°С to +40°С.
Insulating hose gas-masks PSH-1С, PSH-1B, PSH-20 – are one-canal hose
respiratory cleansing systems without pressure, under facial part of which the air
goes on a hose in the process of breathing of worker and intended for work in an
atmosphere with content of free oxygen lesser than 18% and with the hazardous
chemical substances of unknown composition and concentrations, and in other
cases, when there is impossible application of filtration gas-masks. Gas-masks of
PSH-1С, PSH-1Б, PSH-20 provide safety of works on repair and cleaning of
different capacities for storage of chemical products (cisterns, tanks, cauldrons),
wells, underground pipelines, flues, basement and other apartments, where can be
saved hazardous gaseous substances. There are made the hose gas-masks of two
22
types: with supply of air by self-suction or with the hand supply of air from the
uncontaminated area. A gas-mask consists of facial part, two consistently united
corrugated tubes, reinforced hose long 10 m or 20 m; filtrating element for
cleaning of air; pin for fixing of end of hose with a filtration element in the area of
clean air and equipment, which includes a lifebelt with shoulder straps and alarmlace. It is made in two variants: PSH-1С (bag), PSH-1B, PSH-20 (drum). Time of
protective action of gas-mask is unreserved. Weight is not more than 10 kg.
A protective children chamber (KZD) – is intended for defence of children
under age 1,5 year. They consist of framework (on which a rubberized cover with
windows is draw on), a gas-mask box
and the sack pump. In a protective
children chamber KZD-1, the air for
breathing of child is pumped by a sack
pump, what is cleared up in a filter
gas-mask box. In protective chambers
as KZD-6, KZD-4 a a diffuseabsorptive elements are used. KZD
can be carried on hands, what straps
are for, and also set on the
undercarriage
of
baby-carriage.
Weight of chamber is 4,5 kg, sizes –
112х43х49 cm. Time of stay of child
in a chamber is: 0,5 hour at the
o
temperature of external air -20…-15 С; 1 hour at the temperature of external air 15… -10oС; 6 hours at the temperature of external air -10… +26oС; 3 hours at the
temperature of external air +26…+30oС; 2 hours at the temperature of external air
+30… +33oС; 1,5 hours at the temperature of external air +33… +34oС; 0,5 hours
at the temperature of external air +34…+35oС.
Helmet for injured in a head (SHR) – is intended for defence of organs of
breathing of a victim with the damage (wound) of head. A wound in a head creates
specific terms, which are opposite to the use of regular gas-masks: pain, presence
of bandage from filter material, which bothers pressurizing, etc. Therefore for
defence of injured in a head persons are used the special helmet for injured in a
head as a helmet of enough considerable sizes with the glasses, respiratory valves
and corrugated tube mounted for him. In the underbody of helmet an obturator is
placed, which is made from thin elastic rubber, with the help of which pressurizing
of helmet is carried out in the area of neck. For diminishing of idle space three
pairs of laces, which are strung behind, are used. SHR joins in with a filtration box
of the gas-mask. Putting a helmet on injured person does not exceed 1,5 minutes,
and the primary pressurizing is created during 10-30 seconds.
Injured in a head person, who is dressed on of SHR, needs systematic
observation. It is necessary to watch for color of skin and for the state of pupils, to
control frequency of pulse and breathing. At appearance of vomiting and
contamination of respiratory valves by the vomiting masses a helmet must be
substituted. In the case of their low quantity, for prevention of contamination of
23
valves – a helmet must be displaced in other side or there have to be changed a
position of injured person. In the uncontaminated area a helmet is taken off in an
opposite order: are disconnected the corrugated tube from a box of the gas-mask,
are unstrapped the fabric ribbons, unfasten the hook-fastening and collar of
obturator and, straightening edges wedge-shaped to the valve, trick into under an
occluder, and stretching it carefully take off a helmet from a head. For the repeated
use it is washed by water with soap, wipe with tampons, which are moistened by a
2% solution of chloramine or ethylalcohol and dry out. At the contamination of
helmet by a drop-fluid type of poisonous matters, it has to be degassed by boiling
in a 2% solution of the calcinated soda during 2 hours. After such degassing
operating the qualities of helmets go down, especially in the places of hit of drops
of PS. Therefore after degassing and ventilation, they are checked for durability,
stretching and are observed on a light, and in necessary cases produce necessary
repair. To keep a helmet for injured in a head it is needed in a clean and dry place.
Filtration facilities of defence of skin are made as cotton clothes and linen,
impregnated by the special chemical matters. They protect from a steams and
aerosols of PS, poisonous smokes and powder-like compounding and a little bit
from liquid PS. An impregnation by the fireproof compounding gives to firmness
of clothes against the fire. The steam of PS get to porous fabric together with air,
here air goes through fabric, and PS is sorbed by the special matter, which clothes
are saturated with. The impregnation of absorptive and chemosorptive types is
used. In first case PS are dissolved in the components of impregnation
"absorbents", in the second - enter into chemical co-operation and such are
decontaminated. Under the action of sunlight a protective properties go down. That
is why the repeated impregnations are needed.
Military complex protective suit (ZKZK). It is intended for the complex
protection from a light radiation and radionuclides, steams and aerosols of PS and
bacterial aerosols. It consists of jacket, trousers, protective linen, cap, underhelmet, made from fabric with the special impregnation. It is put on under a
protective coat. A suit differs from a table uniform by its construction and presence
of protective linen with a peak for defence of hands.
Protective Suit (KZS) is made from net fabric, intended for the increase of
level of defence of skin from burns of the light radiations at dressing it on over of
ZKZK or uniform. It is used as a camouflage mean. KZS is the facility of the
periodic carrying. At contamination by drop-liquid PS it, as a rule, is not
decontaminated, but destroyed.
Military protective complete set (ZZK) consists of protective coat, protective
stockings and protective gloves. A Military protective complete set, as a rule, is
used with an impregnated uniform and gas-mask. It can be used: as a sham (at the
unexpected application of PS); dressed at a sleeve (at driving in the opened cars on
the contaminated areas of locality, at implementation of works from the special
treatment; as a kind of combination clothes (during the leadthrough of works from
repair of technique, engineering works, rescue works or at actions in a walk order
on the contaminated locality).
24
A protective suit from film (KZP) is used together with filter facilities of
individual defence of skin. After a contamination by poisonous matters it is
destroying. KZP consists of protective coat with a hood, protective stockings with
boats. Together with KZP there are used a protective gloves.
The special insulating
clothes are used for the
high
levels
of
contamination of locality
by hazardous chemical
substances, in case of the
threat of outpouring of
high-toxic matters and at
implementation
of
degassing, decontamination
and disinfecting works.
Insulating facilities are
impenetrable for air. They
are made from textile
absorptive
fabrics,
on
which on either side
sheeting from polymeric
material (synthetic rubber,
resins, etc.) is inflicted,
what
are
proof
to
penetration of poisonous
matters.
Easy protective suit (LI) – is made from
rubberized fabric, consists of jacket with a hood, trousers with stockings, twofingers mittens and under-helmet, bag for transporting and spare pair of mittens.
Suits are made of three sizes: I – growth is up to 165 cm, II – from 165 to 172 cm,
III – higher then 172 cm. Protective ability – up to 1,5 hours, weight is 3,3 kg.
Facilities of collective defence. Protective buildings (depositories) belong to
them. They are used if there is impossible realization of evacuation of plenty of
people during short period of time. Protective buildings are the special buildings
for protecting of population from failures on APS, chemically and explosive
objects; against nuclear, chemical, biological weapon and ordinary soldiery types
of weapon. Protective buildings depending on protective qualities are divided into
depositories, radioactive shelters (RAS) and simplest shelters — cracks. In case of
absence of protective buildings in the case of threat of application of weapon, their
construction is foreseen from the prepared build materials or constructions:
concrete, wood, bricks et al. There is possible to use as a shelter the basements,
mines and other deepening apartments, and also construction by population of
simplest shelters from the improvised materials.
25
A depository is engineering building of air-tight type, which is intended for
defence of people at failures on nuclear power plants with the extras of
radionuclides, at failures on chemically- and explosively-dangerous enterprises, in
case of application of weapon of mass defeat by an opponent.
In depositories people can be for a long time, even in heaped up — during a few
days. Reliability of defence is made due to durability of bordering constructions,
and also due to creation of sanitary-hygienic terms, which provide a normal stay in
depositories. The capacity of depositories is determined by the sum of places for a
seat (on the first tier) and lying (on the second and third tier). Depositories can be
built-in or separate. Built-in depositories are most widespread. As depositories are
used the basement or semi-basement floors of production, public and housings
houses.
Amount of objects of collective defence of population is determined in
accordance with belonging of it to the groups: working change; population, which
lives in dangerous areas; other cases in accordance with operating normative
documents. All objects of collective defence are subject to the account in the
organs of local self-government and provided with the proper registration
documents (passports). Responsibility for an account and maintenance of objects
of collective defence depends upon the organs of local self-government.
Placing of facilities of collective defence must be foreseen in the places of
biggest concentration of people. Distance from buildings to the separately built-up
objects of collective defence must be not lesser than heights of these buildings. In
settlements and on the objects of economic activity on a concordance with the
territorial organ of management on questions of extraordinary situations the using
of facilities of collective defence is allowed for economic, cultural and domestic
necessities with the condition of use not more than 60 % from the general area of
shelter without dismantling of the special equipment and by possibility of bringing
it over in readiness in obedience to normative time.
In the districts of locality, which is located in the area of possible chemical,
biological and radiation defeat, using of depositories’ facilities not on purpose is
forbidden.
The apartments of depositories are provided by the devices of doze-metric
control, devices of radiation and chemical search and investigation, complete sets
of protective clothing, instruments, supply of water and food stuffs, sanitary
property, which are contained in the suitable to the use condition. In every
depository there must be a document, which contains its description, charts of
external and internal networks with pointing of places of disconnecting, a journal
of verification of the technical state of depository and other documents.
Depositories are provided by sanitary knots in accordance with the requirements of
normative documents.
In apartments, adjusted as depositories at the mode of filter-ventilation, an
operating pressure of air must be not lesser than 5 kgs/cm2. The technical state of
depositories must be checked not lesser than once on a year to complex verifications and
periodical special reviews with registration of the proper act. Protective properties of
buildings against folding-in of external air is tested in 2 stages: there is a test of building
26
on hermetizing; a test of building and systems of air-supply on possibility of support of
the surplus pressure of air as it is set in a project.
In the apartments of depository for defence of people, must be set devices of
control for:
 concentrations of carbon dioxide (maximum possible concentration
3%);
 humidity (maximum possible is 80%);
 temperatures of air (maximum possible is 31°С).
Depository must answer to the requirements of normative documents.
Depositories must have not lesser than two entrances, placed in opposite sides,
with the calculation of direction of motion of basic streams of people and always
contained free. A built-in depository, except for two outputs, must have an alarm
exit, located in the distance not lesser than half of height of house, which the
located depository is in. From depositories, which stand separately, one output,
placed out of area of possible obstructions, is assumed. An alarm exits it follows to
be placed higher than level of ground. Entrances in depositories are made as two
sluice-chambers, dissociated from a basic apartment and partitioned off between
itself by air-tight doors.
For depositories from 300 to 600 persons an entrance is assumed through a
capacity one-chamber platform-sluice, and in case of more than 600 persons through a double-chamber platform – sluice. From outside an entrance must be
equipped by metallic protective air-tight doors, which can restrain pressure of
shock wave of any type of explosion. The norms of area and volume of apartments
for placing of people in a depository are determined from a calculation not lesser
than 0,5 m2 of square of floor and 1,5 m3 of internal volume on one person. A
height of apartments of depositories must be not lesser than 2,2 m. In apartments
for placing of people it is necessary to set two- or three-high benches-beds for a
seat with a size 0,45 х 0,45 m and by shelves for lying 0,55х1,8 m – on one man. A
width of passage-ways between plank beds must be not less than 0,7 - 0,85 m,
basic passage-ways – 0,9-1,2 m. Distance from overhead layer to ceiling must be
not lesser than 0,75 m.
Diesel electric-station must be placed at the external wall of depository and
to dissociate from other apartments by a noncombustible wall with the degree of
fire-resistance not lesser than 1 hour. The entrance into the apartment of diesel
power-station is executed through a platform with two air-tight doors, which are
opened into direction of apartment of shelter.
A depository must be air-tight and eliminate possibility of penetration inside
of its apartments of poisonous matters, radio-active dust, biological aerosols,
gaseous products of burning during fires and getting-in of air shock (explosive)
wave. Air, which enters into apartment of depository, is subject to filtration by the
special equipment.
For the exception of penetration of subsoil and superficial waters all walls
and floor of depository must have water-isolation. For maintenance of threshold
temperature, humidity and gas parameters of air during all time of stay in them of
people, a depository is equipped by the mechanical systems of reveal and reveal-
27
drawing ventilation. Systems of ventilation of depositories must be in the capable
working condition and to provide normal work in the mode of clean ventilation
during 48 hours and in the mode of filtrating ventilation – along 12 hours. The
system of supply of air must be verified of serve of air in a depository in a
necessary amount in all modes:
 mode of clean ventilation, at which external air clears up from a radio-active
dust;
 mode of filtrating ventilation, at which an external air clears up from a radioactive dust, poisonous and biological matters;
 mode of complete isolation with the regeneration of internal air, application of
which must be foreseen in depositories, placed on territory, where is possible
gassed air by poisonous matters or fire. For this mode there must be foreseen
regeneration of air and serve of oxygen for breathing from the special
oxygen bulbs, set in the apartment of filter-ventilating equipment.
For providing of order and exploitations of equipment in a depository,
observing after work of the filter-ventilating equipments, there must be appointed
by an order the attendant (commandant) and service team. Regeneration of internal
air in a depository is assumed to conduct by regenerative cartridges or regenerative
devices of convection type.
A water-supply and sewage system of depository is carried out from general
plumbing and sewage networks. The pipes of water-supply must be painted in a
green color. Independently from the presence of external networks, in a depository
the emergency stock of water must be done in capacities, which provide long
duration of its storage. The minimum supply of water must be created from a
calculation 6 liters for drink and 4 liters for sanitary-hygienic necessities on one
man. Capacities for a drinking-water must be annually checked by sanitaryepidemiology organs. On all term of stay of people in a depository by a capacity
600 persons and more, additionally against fire there is created a supply of water at
amount 4,5 m3.
Heating of apartments of depositories is executed from the general system of
the heating system of building and is painted in a brown color. The power supply
of depositories must answer the requirements of Rules of arranging of electric
equipment and is provided from the external electric system and from an
autonomous electro-source (diesel power-station) and others like that. In the case
of violation of power supply, depositories must be provided with portable electric
torches, storage batteries and diesel power-station with a supply of fuel-lubricating
materials with calculating on 3 days. A depository must have a phone connection
with the point of management of object and facilities of receipt of urgent reports
(subscriber radio-point of the wire broadcasting, radio receiver of the broadcasting,
television receiver).
After a capacity the depositories are classified on little, which are counted
on 150-600 persons, middle – on 600-2000 persons, and large — for more, than
2000 people. Depositories are characterized by the coefficient of weakening of
radiation and firmness to surplus pressure of shock wave.
28
Facilities of medical defence are intended for prophylaxes of defeats by
chemical matters and grant of the first medical aid. They are divided into groups
after the use:
 individual facilities of medical defence – given out to the population and
personnel of the unmilitarized formings in the case of threat of origin of
extraordinary situations. To them belong:
o individual first aid kit AI-2;
o individual anti-chemical pack IPP-8;
o individual bandaging package IPP;
 group facilities of medical defence – intended for rigging of the medical and
failure-rescuing formings. To them are taken the sets, complete sets and
others like that).
The individual anti-chemical
pack IPP-11- is intended for the
prophylaxis of defeats by drop-liquid
poisonous and chemically-dangerous
matters through the opened areas of
skin, and also for neutralization of
these matters on a skin and clothes of
man and instruments in the interval of
temperatures from +50oС to -20oC. In
case of early apply on a skin a
protective effect is saved during 24
hours.
Form of issue: air-tight (hermetic) package, contains a tampon from the
unwoven material, saturated with an anti-chemical substance. On one treatment of
the opened areas of skin one package is used.
Individual anti-gas pack IPP-8 is used for a partial sanitization and
degassing of the opened areas of skin and adjoining to them clothes in the case of
hit on them of some PS (SAPS) in drop-liquid and the steam-like condition, and
also against bacterial facilities. A package contains a small bottle with universal
decontaminator of OP (SAPS). There are added four bandage-gauze tampons. Due
to rapid suction of PhOS and some other PS and SAPS there is needed maximally
to reduce the term of beginning of treatment (it is desirable during 5 min).
Individual bandaging package – is
intended for imposition of bandages on
wounds, burns, and also for stopping of
some types of bleeding. Shows by itself a
sterile bandage with two wadding-gauze
pillows (one is fixed on the end of
bandage, second is movable), which are
contained into the air-tight packing with
rubberized fabric.
An individual first aid kit of medical defence – is intended for the grant of
the first medical aid in the conditions of liquidation of consequences of
29
extraordinary situations. Is used for treatment of small wounds, is a heterospecific
prophylaxis at acute poisonings, for prophylaxis of defeat by radionuclides and
acceleration of their excretion from an organism. Medications are put in a case,
which allows to provide the permanent holding of it on a belt by the special
fastening. A case is made from materials, proof to the action of mechanical,
physical and chemical factors. A medicine pack contains:
1. Butarfanol tartrat, 0,2% solution in a syringe – an anaesthetic remedy, is
used at the sharp and chronic pain syndrome of middle and strong intensity
for the prophylaxis of pain shock.
2. Doxicyclin hydrochloride, 0,1 in capsules – is an antibiotic of wide spectrum
of action, for the leadthrough of urgent heterospecific prophylaxis of
infectious diseases.
3. Iodide of kalium in pills – for performing of prophylaxis of defeats of
thyroid gland by a radio-active iodine at failures on APS and other radiation
dangerous objects.
4. Pills of “BioStarr” – for the decline of negative influence of radionuclides on
the organism of man and acceleration of processes of excreting of them and
connections of heavy metals from an organism, increasing of the immune
state.
5. Validol in pills – for the grant of help at the attack of stenocardia and as an
easy sedative mean.
6. Activated coal (carbon) in pills – enterosorbtive drug for fastening and
excreting from the organism of toxins and chemical poisonous matters.
7. A bactericid plaster – for aseptic bandages at insignificant superficial
traumas.
8. A sterile bandage – for imposition of bandages.
9. Aquatabs – for the disinfection of individual supplies of drinking-water and
preparation of solutions for washing of vegetables and fruits.
An individual first aid kit AI-2 is
intended for the prophylaxis of defeats of
people by poisonous and radio-active
matters and bacterial facilities. It contains
medications
for
prevention
or
neutralization of influence on the organism
of man of ionizing radiation, poisonous
matters
and
biological
facilities.
Medications in a syringe and pencil-cases
are placed in the specially selected nests of
plastic pack.
A syringe is contained by a narcotic
analgesic and intended for anaesthetizing
in the case of wound, burns and
considerable traumas. By a left arm to take
the ribbed rim, by right – for the tube – and
to turn it clockwise. Then to take off a
30
disperser, which protects a needle, and holding a syringe a needle upwards, to
stamp from it an air to appearance of drop of liquid on the tag of needle. After it,
not touching needles by hands, to enter it in top-external part of buttock and inject
the content of syringe. Getting out a needle, not weakening the fingers. In urgent
cases an injection can be done through clothes.
There are 15 pills of sulfodimethoxine in a large white pencil-case, as an
antibacterial mean. It is applied with appearance of gastroenteric disorders, which
often arise up after a radiation influence. In the first days – to accept 7 pills per one
time, and in next two days — 4 pills per day.
In the pencil-case of red color there are pills of antidote for prevention
(weakening) of defeat by PhO poisonous matters. An antidote is used as one pill
after a signal "chemic alarm". At growth of signs of poisoning it is necessary to
accept another pill. After the reception of the first pill it is necessary to dress on a
gas-mask. Second it is possible to accept not before, than after 5-6 hours 6 pills of
cystamine are placed in the octahedral pencil-case of pink color — radioprotective
mean № 1. It would be accepted 6 pills for one reception at the threat of
irradiation. At the new threat of irradiation, but not before, than after 4-5 hours
after the first reception, it is recommended to accept 6 pills more.
There is an antibacterial mean in two white identical tetrahedral pencil-cases
(antibiotic of wide spectrum of action). Must be taken 5 pills per one reception at
an instant danger or bacterial infection and also at wounds and burns. Through 6
hours after the first reception it follows to accept 5 pills more.
In a round white pencil-case there are 10 pills of radioprotective mean № 2
— iodine potassium. Must be accepted one pill daily during 10 days after the fall
of radionuclides. The drug is effective, if it enters into an organism before 30-60
min to the irradiation or use of muddy meal and water by the radionuclides.
Protective properties are saved during 5-6 hours from the moment of reception.
The pencil-case of blue color contains antivomit drug — ethaperazin (5
pills). Must be accepted one pill at once after an irradiation or with appearance of
nausea after the trauma of head (the concussion of the brain) with the purpose of
warning of vomiting. If nausea proceeds, then through 3-4 hours – to accept 1 pill
more.
For the children up to 8 years the drugs of individual first aid kit it follows to
give ¼ of pills, except of radioprotective drug № 2; for the children from 8 to 15
years — ½ pills, and anaesthetic and radioprotective drug № 2 — fully.
31
Rescue bedspread.
It is made from polyether
with metal of silver and
gold color from both sides.
It is intended for protecting
of victim from overcooling
or overheating during 20
hours, and also guards him
from weather fallouts.
Material of bedspread is
neutral to tissues of
organism, does not stick to
the wounds and burns,
capable to hold the weight of man at the hand transporting. A bedspread makes
easier a visual and radio-locative search of people due to a bright mirror-like
surface. Weight is 60 gr. Sizes – 2100 x 1600 mm.
32
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Г. А. Сокольского . -М. :Воениздат, 1990. -271с.
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