Summary of Major Theoretical Paradigms
Paradigm
functional
Orientation
macro-level
conflict
macro-level
symbolic
interaction
micro-level
Image of Society
system of interrelated parts that is
relatively stable because of
widespread agreement on social
norms and values; each part has a
particular function (consequence) in
society as a whole
system based on social inequality;
each part of society benefits some
categories of people more than others;
social inequality leads to conflict,
which in turn, leads to social change
ongoing process of social interaction
in specific settings based on symbolic
communications; individual
perceptions of reality are variable and
changing
Focus of Analysis
relationships among the parts of society;
how these parts are functional (have
positive consequences) or dysfunctional
(have negative consequences)
Key Terms
structure
function
(manifest, latent)
dysfunctions
equilibrium
Core Questions
How is society integrated? How are these
parts interrelated? What are the
consequences of each part for the overall
operation of society?
struggle for scarce resources by groups
in society; how dominant elites use
power to control the less powerful
inequality
power
conflict
competition
exploitation
symbols
interaction
meanings
definitions
How is society divided? What are the major
patterns of social inequality? How do some
categories of people try to protect their
privileges? How do other categories of
people challenge the status quo?
How is society experienced? How do human
beings interact to create, maintain, and
change social patterns? How do individuals
try to shape the reality that others perceive?
How does individual behavior change from
one situation to another?
face-to-face interaction; how people use
symbols to create social life
Summary of Basic Research Methods
Method
experiment
Application
for explanatory research that specifies relationships among
variables; generates quantitative data
survey
observational
studies
for gathering information about issues that cannot be directly
observed; useful for descriptive and explanatory research;
generates quantitative or qualitative data
for exploratory and descriptive study of people in a “natural”
setting; generates qualitative data
Advantages
provides the greatest ability to specify causeand-effect relationships; replication of research
is relatively easy
sampling allows surveys of large populations
using questionnaires; interviews provide in-depth
responses
allows study of “natural” behavior; usually
inexpensive
secondary
analysis
for exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory research whenever
suitable data are available
saves time and expense of data collection;
makes historical research possible
Limitations
laboratory settings have an artificial quality;
unless research environment is carefully
controlled, results may be biased
questionnaires must be carefully prepared and
may produce a low return rate; interviews are
expensive and time consuming
time consuming; replication of research is
difficult; researcher must balance roles of
participant and observer
researcher has no control over possible biases
in data; data may not be suitable for current
research needs