SAN DIEGO MESA COLLEGE
SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES
General Biology Lecture (BIOL 107); Instructor: Elmar Schmid, Ph.D.
Study guide for exam preparation
-
In preparation for the scheduled exams (see syllabus) make yourself very familiar with
following terms, key topics and concepts
the listed units and chapters refer to the lecture course-required textbook “Biology:
Concept & Connections”; Campbell, Mitchell, Reece; 3rd or 4th edition
Unit I:
Chapter 2: The chemical Basis of Life
Know:
1. The definition of matter
2. The names and abbreviations of the 6 most abundant chemical elements in living organisms
3. The names and nature of the subatomic components of chemical elements (= electron,
proton and neutron) and how they relate to atomic number and atomic mass number
4. Be familiar with the core statements of the atomic theory, know Bohr’s atomic model
5. Be familiar with the rule of eight (=octet rule) and how it relates to covalent and ionic bond
formation
6. The Bohr model of the carbon atom, understand the term sp2 orbital and how it explains
the tetraeder structure of the carbon atom,
7. The electron shells, trace elements, differences: ionic bond, covalent bond, hydrogen bond,
octet rule, stereoisomers
8. isotopes: definition, examples, e.g. 14C
Chapter 3: Molecules of the Cell:
1. Know that water is a polar molecule and be able to explain why:
- chemical structure, properties of water, including heating capacity, adhesion, cohesion,
capillarity, explanation for water’s polarity (difference in electronegativity numbers of
hydrogen and oxygen)
- Consequences of polarity  hydrogen bond formation
- Significance of hydrogen bond formation for living organsisms
2. Know the meaning of functional groups and be able to name examples, e.g. hydroxyl group
- know the functional groups in the four important carbon-based classes of biomolecules =
carbohydrates, fatty acids, amino acids and nucleotides
- be able to explain dehydration synthesis, monomer, polymer formation
3. Know examples and biological functions of important monosaccharides and
polysaccharides, e.g. cellulose, glycogen, starch
4. What are lipids and fats? Structures and functions, Differences: hydrophil, hydrophob,
polar, unpolar,
5. What are steroids? Know important examples and their biological functions.
6. What are amino acids? Know examples, similarities and R-group differences, peptide bond
formation, primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure, quartenary structure,
forces and mechanisms mediating protein-protein interactions (Van der Waals, disulfide
bond formation), X-ray crystallography and study of proteins
7. What are nucleotides? What are nucleic acids? Know the differences between RNA and
DNA, regarding composition, structure and location, rehearse the structure of the DNA
double helix,
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SAN DIEGO MESA COLLEGE
SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES
General Biology Lecture (BIOL 107); Instructor: Elmar Schmid, Ph.D.
8. Know examples and biological functions of important cellular signaling molecules, such as
insulin, adrenaline, plant auxines, nitric oxide.
Chapter 6(pp96-103): Enzymes
1. Know what enzymes are made up from, what they are doing in living organisms
2. Know how the terms: activation energy, active site, co-factors, co-substrates, substrate,
product, relate to enzymes and enzyme function
3. Know the different forms of enzyme inhibition (feedback, competitive, non-competitive,
allosteric) and be able to name prominent examples of enzyme inhibitors (heavy metals,
aspirin, ibuprofen)
4. Rehearse how knowledge about enzymes relates to toxicology, experimental drug design
and drug testing
Chapter 4: A Tour of the Cell
Know:
1. the basic statements of the cell theory
2. the major differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
3. examples of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
4. the major organelles of eukaryotic cells and their unique biological function within the
cell (incl. rER, sER, Golgi apparatus, mitochondrion, chloroplast, lysosome,
peroxisome)
5. the path of a newly synthesized protein from the point of origin (= ribosome) to the
surface of a cell
6. the core statements of the endosymbiotic theory and rehearse the evidences which
support it
7. the three major fibrous protein components of the cytoskeleton and its monomeric
proteins
8. at least one biological function of the microfilaments, microtubules and of the
intermediate fibers
9. the difference and similarities between cilia, flagella and villi
Chapter 5: Energy & The Working Cell
Know:
1. the two laws of energy
2. the definition for energy
3. the different forms of energy and their manifestation in biological organism (name at
least one example for each form of energy)
4. the difference between an endergonic and exergonic chemical reaction
5. the meaning of “free energy coupling” in living organisms
6. the three major components of the ATP molecule
7. the exergonic chemical reaction ATP undergoes to release free energy
8. the abbreviation for redox
9. the difference between oxidation and reduction
10. the structures and functions of important cellular redox molecules as they apply to
catabolic and anabolic chemical reactions
(incl. NAD+, NADP+, FAD, ubiquinone, heme-iron, iron-sulfur)
11. important examples and the function of cellular antioxidants, incl. vitamin E and
vitamin C
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SAN DIEGO MESA COLLEGE
SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES
General Biology Lecture (BIOL 107); Instructor: Elmar Schmid, Ph.D.
12. the chemistry of dehydrogenation reactions and the function of dehydrogenase enzymes
Chapter 6: Cellular Respiration
1. Be able to explain the meaning heterotrophic
2. Know the difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration
3. Know how physiological respiration (breathing) relates to cellular respiration
4. Be able to write down the net equation of cellular respiration (input versus output)
5. Know the cellular location of glycolysis
6. Know the cellular uptake mechanism for glucose and the important role of the hormone
insulin
7. Be able to name the first glycolytic enzyme = hexokinase/glucokinase and the chemical
reaction it catalyses
8. Know the end product of the preparative phase of glycolysis by name; how many
carbon atoms does it have?
9. Know the final end product of glycolysis by name; how many carbon atoms does it
have?
10. Know the net ATP production number of glycolysis per one molecule of glucose
11. Know how many NADH + H+ molecules are generated during glycolysis for each
molecule of glucose catabolized
12. Rehearse the chemical reaction which links glycolysis with the Krebs cycle; also
rehearse the role of the enzyme (= pyruvate dehydrogenase) which catalyses this
important step
13. Be able to name the first chemical reaction and the first chemical product of the Krebs
cycle
14. Know how many NADH + H+ as well as FADH2 molecules are generated per each
cycle of the Krebs cycle
15. Be sure you know where within a cell the Krebs cycle takes place
16. Understand the role of the molecule coenzyme A within the Krebs cycle
17. Know at which step of the Krebs cycle ATP is generated; how many molecules per
cycle?
18. Know the enzymatic step within the Krebs cycle where FADH2 is generated and name
the enzyme which catalyses this unique chemical reaction
19. Know the name of the carbon waste product of the Krebs cycle (= CO2) and rehearse
the steps within the cycle where it is released; how many molecules per each cycle?
How many molecules of carbon dioxide are released for each molecule of glucose
catabolized?
20. Know the meaning of decarboxylation reaction and how it relates to the release of
carbon dioxide during the Krebs cycle
21. Know the alternative name for the Krebs cycle (= citric acid cycle); where does this
name come from?
22. Understand the ultimate role of the electron transport chain regarding the electron and
proton-loaded redox molecules NADH + H+ and FADH2
23. Know where within the mitochondria the electron transport chain (ETC) is located
24. Rehearse the four major complexes of the ETC and their basic position within the
chain; which complex becomes reduced by NADH + H+; which complex becomes
reduced by FADH2
25. Be able to describe the basic statement of the chemio-osmotic theory; what does this
theory explain? who developed the core idea of this theory?
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SAN DIEGO MESA COLLEGE
SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES
General Biology Lecture (BIOL 107); Instructor: Elmar Schmid, Ph.D.
26. Know the important role of ubiquinone (Q10) within the ETC; what does this
mitochondrial redox molecule do?
27. Be able to name the final electron acceptor molecule of the ETC; what is the ultimate
chemical end product forming at complex 4 of the ETC (think of water)
28. Know the name of the enzyme which uses the proton gradient established across the
inner mitochondrial membrane to form (synthesize) ATP and rehearse the working
principle of the ATP synthase enzyme
29. Know some examples of important inhibitors of the ETC and be sure you understand
how their interaction with components of the ETC explains their toxicity and
biohazardous nature; how does cyanide work different to a so-called uncoupler
molecule, such as DNP or CCCP
30. Rehearse the consequences of lack of oxygen (anaerobic conditions) to cellular
respiration (which pathways are shut down; which one is primarily used to make ATP)
31. Compare lactic acid fermentation with alcoholic fermentation regarding end products,
NADH + H+ regenerating enzymes and consequences for the anaerobic cell
32. Be able to name important applications and uses of anaerobic fermentation in
biotechnology, industry and our world cultures
Chapter 7: Photosynthesis: Using light to make food
1. Understand the meaning phototrophic
2. Be able to name some phototrophic organisms, including cyanobacteria, diatoms and
algae
3. Know the location of photosynthesis within a plant cell
4. Know the location of photosynthesis within a thylacoid
5. Know the net equation of photosynthesis! (Input – Output)
6. Be able to name the different components of a thylacoid
7. Rehearse the dual nature of light as an electromagnetic form of energy as well as a
photon
8. Understand how and with which pigments light interacts during photosynthesis
9. What are chlorophylls? How many are there in green plants?
10. What means chlorophyll excitation?
11. Rehearse which qualities of light are absorbed by chlorophyll
12. Understand the difference between light and dark reaction of photosynthesis regarding
location, components and products
13. What is a photosystem? (be able to name the three components)
14. How many photosystems are there in a plant cell and where are (these two) located?
15. Know the input and output of photosystem I and II
16. Know where and how ATP is generated during the light reaction of photosynthesis
17. Which enzyme do plant cells use to make ATP?
18. Know what plant cells are doing with (most) of the ATP generated during the light
reaction of photosynthesis
19. Be able to name the necessary chemical components for the dark reaction (rehearse the
role of ATP, carbon dioxide and NADPH + H+ in this reaction)
20. Rehearse the major steps of the Calvin-Benson cycle (CBC) as the most important
chemical reaction pathway of the dark reaction
21. Know the important role of Rubisco enzyme in the CBC
22. Which chemical reaction does Rubisco enzyme catalyze?
23. Know the number of spins of the CBC to make one molecule of glucose
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SAN DIEGO MESA COLLEGE
SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES
General Biology Lecture (BIOL 107); Instructor: Elmar Schmid, Ph.D.
24. Know the name and total numbers of the 3-carbon end product of the Calvin-Benson
cycle
25. Know the difference between a C3, C4 and CAM plant regarding their uptake and
fixation of carbon dioxide during photosynthesis
26. Know examples for C3, C4 and CAM plants
27. Know the meaning of photorespiration and its consequences for agricultural plants
28. Rehearse the meaning “uncoupler” substance in the context of ATP production in plant
cells (proton gradient destruction, inhibition of ATP synthesis, herbicides)
29. Understand how “oxidative stress”, caused by certain herbicides such as paraquat or
ozone interferes with photosynthesis
Unit II:
Chapter 8: Mitosis & Meiosis: The cellular basis of growth, reproduction and inheritance
1. Know the different phases of the cell cycle
2. Know how a cell can be triggered to prepare for cell division ( growth factors,
hormones)
3. Know where in your own body continuous cell divisions take place (hint: skin, bone
marrow) and which cells are responsible for this (hint: stem cells)
4. Be familiar with the terms: chromatin, sister chromatids, centromer, centrosome,
MTOC, microtubules, kinetochore, spindle apparatus, spindle poles, cleavage furrow,
actin ring
5. Be able to identify the different phases of mitosis and be able to name the major events
6. Understand how uncontrolled mitosis relates to the development of cancer
7. Know examples of mitosis blockers (hint: colchicine, taxol, vinblastine) and be able to
explain why some are used for treatment of certain forms of cancer
8. Know the difference between somatic and reproductive cells regarding biological
function, chromosome number
9. Be able to define and explain the terms: haploid, diploid, zygote, oocyte,
spermatogonia, sperm, gonads, gametes
10. Know the major differences between plant cell and animal cell mitosis (hint: cell plate,
aster, cleavage furrow)
11. Know where meiotic cell divisions (meiosis) takes place in a human male and female
body; what is the name of the cell which is starting and undergoing meiosis?
12. Be able to name the key hormones in male and female humans which trigger and
control meiosis (hint: FSH, testosterone, progesterone)
13. Know the major cell events during meiosis I and meiosis II
14. Be able to define and explain the terms: synapsis, tetrad formation, crossing over,
recombinant chromosomes, mutation, deletion
15. Be able to name the events during meiosis which contribute to increased genetic
variability
16. Know what chromosomal aberrations are and understand how they relate to “cellular
accidents” during meiosis I and/or meiosis II
17. Rehearse prominent examples of human disorders that are caused by chromosomal
aberrations (hint: trisomy 21, Klinefelter syndrome)
18. Be able to define the explain the terms: karyotyping, karyogram, amniocentesis,
chorionic villi sampling (CVS)
19. Understand and discuss factors which may lead to chromosomal aberrations in humans
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SAN DIEGO MESA COLLEGE
SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES
General Biology Lecture (BIOL 107); Instructor: Elmar Schmid, Ph.D.
Chapter 9: Genetics: Patterns of Inheritance
1. Know the name of the pioneering scientist who is considered to be the founding
father of the scientific subdiscipline of genetics; With which biological organisms
did he work when he discovered the fundamental laws of genetics?
2. Be able to explain the term “true-breeding” variety in the context of genetics
3. Be able to define and explain the terms: dominant, recessive, allele, monohybrid
cross, dihybrid cross, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype and genotype
4. Rehearse the core ideas and statements of Mendel’s principles (dominant/recessive
alleles, allele segregation, independent assortment of alleles)
5. Know the core idea of the chromosomal theory of inheritance
6. Be able to use a Punnett square to predict the outcomes of breeding experiment and
to solve genetic problems
7. Know prominent dominant and recessive heritable traits in: the garden pea (petal
color, seed color), corn (kernel color, kernel shape), the fruitfly Drosophila (eye and
body color) and in humans (eye color, widows peak, PTC tasting, etc.)
8. Know the meaning of incomplete dominance and be able to name prominent
examples for this variation of Mendel’s principle (hint: snap dragons, orchids)
9. Understand why the observation of incomplete dominance in the inheritance of
certain traits in biological organisms does not disprove Mendel’s principles of
heredity (be familiar with the term “blending hypothesis” & J.B. Lamarck)
10. Be familiar with prominent examples of incomplete dominant inherited traits in
humans (hint: think of too high cholesterol)
11. What is polygenic inheritance? Be able to name examples.
12. What is pleiotropy in genetics? Know at least one example in the human
population.
13. What is codominance in genetics? Be able to name a prominent example in human
genetics (hint: think of blood transfusion)
14. Be familiar with the genetics of the ABO blood types and the Rhesus factor. How
many alleles are there for the heritable trait “blood type” in the human population?
How many blood type alleles does a human individual have?
15. Be able to use a Punnett square to solve a paternity or criminal case based on the
knowledge of blood types
16. Be familiar with the working principle of a typical blood test. (Know the meaning
of the terms: antigen, antibody, antiserum, agglutination)
17. Understand how and why the Rhesus factor (Rh) can cause complications during
pregnancy in a human female.
18. Know the difference between autosomes and sex (or gender) chromosomes
19. Know the chromosomal complement and karyotype of a human male and female
20. Know how many gender chromosomes there are in a human somatic cells and in
human gametes
21. Understand the inheritance patterns of X- or sex-linked inheritance in the fruitfly
Drosophila and in humans
22. Be able to name prominent examples of X-linked inherited traits and/or conditions
in humans
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SAN DIEGO MESA COLLEGE
SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES
General Biology Lecture (BIOL 107); Instructor: Elmar Schmid, Ph.D.
Chapter 10: DNA, DNA replication, DNA transcription and protein translation
DNA Replication:
1. Rehearse the basic chemical composition and structure of DNA and RNA; know that both
biological macromolecules are polynucleotides or so-called nucleic acids
2. Know the 4 nucleotides that cells use to build-up (= synthesize) DNA and RNA molecules
3. Know the names and abbreviations of the 5 nucleotides cells use to make DNA and RNA.
Which nucleotides are found in DNA? Which one in RNA molecules?
4. Rehearse the role of hydrogen bonding in the formation/maintenance of the DNA double
helix. Are hydrogen bonds strong or weak bonds?
5. Know during which phase of the cell cycle DNA replication occurs
6. Know where on the DNA strand in a cell DNA replication (or duplication) begins (hint:
ori)
7. Know the first event during DNA replication. Which one is it and which enzyme is
involved?
8. Know the name of the enzyme which adds the new nucleotides to the leading and lagging
DNA strand.
9. Know the name of the short RNA snipplets/pieces which are necessary for successful
initiation of DNA replication (hint: primers). Rehearse their function. Why are they needed
for successful DNA replication!
10. Know the second function of the DNA polymerase enzyme during DNA replication (think
of repair and control)
11. Be able to define and explain following terms: replication fork, Okazaki fragments, lagging
strand, leading strand, replication bubbles,
12. Be familiar with the term “mutagen” and know some prominent examples (hint:
benzo(a)pyren, nitrosamines, mustard gas); understand how certain mutagenic molecules
can interfere with the normal (otherwise smoothly running) DNA replication process
13. Understand why the cellular DNA replication mechanism leads to two (almost) identical
DNA daughter strands
14. Know which enzyme is responsible to guarantee a stunningly low error rate during DNA
replication
15. Understand why (despite proof-reading of the copied DNA) DNA replication may lead to
rare point mutations and plays a significant role in the (slow) change of genetic material
over periods of time! Discuss the contribution of replication errors happing during DNA
replication to evolutionary change on planet Earth.
DNA Transcription:
1. Know the definition of DNA transcription
2. What is the name of the transcribed molecule
3. Know which enzyme is responsible for DNA transcription in prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells
4. Know the place/location within a cell where DNA transcription takes place
5. Know the three phases of DNA transcription by name (hint: initiation, elongation,
termination) and be able to describe the major events occurring during each of these phases
6. Know the name of the piece of RNA one observes in cells after DNA transcription.
7. Know what happens to the pre-mRNA after DNA transcription in eukaryotic cells
(keyword: RNA processing)
8. What is an operon in bacterial cells? What advantage does it give bacteria? Know one
prominent example of a bacterial operon (hint: think of milk and lactose)
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SAN DIEGO MESA COLLEGE
SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES
General Biology Lecture (BIOL 107); Instructor: Elmar Schmid, Ph.D.
9. Be able to define and explain following terms: intron, exon, RNA splicing, transcription
factor,
10. What is the advantage of RNA splicing one observes in eukaryotic cells?
11. Rehearse the important role of the nuclear pores for the transport of mRNA out of the
nucleus into the cytosol
12. Understand why mutations or dysregulation of certain transcription factors, such as myc or
NFkB, can contribute to the development of cancer
Protein translation & Genetic code:
1. Know the names of the three RNA molecules which are necessary for successful translation
of genetic information on a gene into a protein
2. Know the place within a cell where protein translation takes place
3. Where do you find the ribosomes in eukaryotic cells? Where in bacteria?
4. Of how many protein sub-units is a ribosome made up from?
5. Know the difference between aminoacyl-tRNA and tRNA. Which of the two ones binds to
the ribosome and which one usually leaves a ribosome?
6. Be able to name the three phases of protein translation (hint: initiation, elongation and
termination) and know the major events at the ribosome during each of these phases.
7. Be able to define and explain following terms: P-site, A-site, small sub-unit, large sub-unit,
rRNA, mRNA, codon, anti-codon, transpeptidylation reaction, releasing factor (RF),
translocation
8. Who the heck was Marshall Nirenberg? What did he and his team achieve in the 1960s?
9. Understand why the genetic code of all forms of life on planet Earth is based on a triplet
code and not on a binary code. (compare the genetic code of life with the binary code of
computers)
10. Know how to read and interpret the genetic code table.
11. Know which amino acid is encoded by the codon ATG
12. Be able to define and explain following terms: stop codon, start codon, redundancy of the
genetic code,
13. Know how many codons are actually coding for an amino acid
14. Know some famous and infamous ribosomal toxins and poisons which prevent cellular
protein translation (hint: cycloheximide)
15. Understand why many bacteria target the cellular “protein translation complex” with the
help of released toxins. Be able to name one.
16. Understand why and how DNA mutations, e.g. point mutations, deletions, insertions, can
lead to aberrant or mutated proteins after protein translation
17. Be able to name some factors and/or chemicals that are known to cause DNA mutations
18. Understand why and under which circumstances DNA mutations can lead to cancer
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SAN DIEGO MESA COLLEGE
SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES
General Biology Lecture (BIOL 107); Instructor: Elmar Schmid, Ph.D.
Unit IV:
Chapter 16: Origin of life theories: The Origin and Evolution of Microbial Life
1. Have a basic understanding of the Earth eras and periods and their time lines
(Eras: Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic; Periods: Cambrian, Ordovician,
Silurian, Jurassic, Cretaceaus, Tertiary)
2. Understand the role of isotopes in dating of rock sediments and fossils
3. What are stromatolithes and cyanobacteria? What is the connection?
4. How old are the oldest know fossils of forms of life on planet Earth? What kind of
organisms were these?
5. Know whether the ancient Earth’s (primordial) atmosphere was filled with oxygen (=
aerobic) or was oxygen-less (= anaerobic)
6. When did the oxygen level rise and due to which activity or event?
7. Who the heck are Oparin, S. Miller, T. Czech and L. Orgel?
8. Be able to explain the Miller-Urey experiment and its outcome.
9. What do the Panspermia theory and the Organic Evolution theory try to explain?
10. Understand what Archaea bacteria are, where they usually live and discuss how these
prokaryotic organisms might have contributed to the evolution of life on planet Earth
Chapter 17: Plant kingdom: Fungi, Plants, and the Colonization of Land
1. Know the hallmark features and characteristics of fungi (cell type, metabolism,
reproduction, ecological function)
2. Understand how the fungi as a relatively old form of life on this planet may have
contributed to the early colonization of land by primitive plant ancestors
3. Be able to define and explain the terms: symbiosis, mycorrhiza, mycelium, hyphae, spore,
chitin
4. Be able to define a plant (morphologically, regarding its energy household, reproduction)
5. Be able to name the shared characteristics of green algae and modern land plants and be
able to explain these findings in the context of the evolutionary theory (common descent
part of the theory)
6. Be able to recall the names of fossilized early land plant ancestors (hint: Rhynia,
Cooksonia) and know their characteristic features
7. Be able to name the major phases, events and plant structures involved in sexual
reproduction of the four major plant groups = bryophytes (e.g. mosses, liverworts),
pteridophytes (e.g. ferns, horsetails), gymnosperms (e.g. conifers) and angiosperms (=
flowering plants)
8. Which group of plants were the first vascular plants on land? Which form of
vascularization (conducting vessels) did they have?
9. Be able to name the two major conducting vessels in land plants and their function
10. Be able to define and explain following terms: alternation of generations, sporophyte stage,
gametophyte stage, archegonium, antheridium, gametes, capsule, rhizoids, sporangium,
gametangium, prothallium, sori, gynecium, androecium, cone, pollen, seed, fruit, ovules,
ovary, overy wall
11. Know which of the plant generations is (regarding their chromosome complement) haploid
and which one is diploid
12. Know the names and functions of the female reproductive parts of a flowering plant
13. Know the names and functions of the male reproductive parts of a flowering plant
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SAN DIEGO MESA COLLEGE
SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES
General Biology Lecture (BIOL 107); Instructor: Elmar Schmid, Ph.D.
14. What is the function and location of macrospore and microspore mother cells in a
flowering plant
15. Which cell builds the embryo sac in flowering plants?
16. What is the function of the pollen tube cells and the generative cell in gymnosperm and
angiosperm pollen grains?
17. Know which part of a flower head of an angiosperm plant becomes the later fruit after
pollination
18. Understand the importance of flower colors and shapes in the attraction of pollinators
19. Be able to explain the advantages of animal pollination over wind pollination and how it
relates to the evolutionary success of angiosperms on planet Earth
20. What are secondary metabolites in plants? Be able to discuss known or hypothesized
functions of secondary plant metabolites for plant reproduction and survival
21. Know some names of important secondary plant metabolites as they relate to human
nutrition, life style habits and good health (hint: fruits, wine, tobacco, coffee, perfumes,
aspirin, St. John’s wort)
Chapter 18: Animal kingdom - The evolution of animal diversity
1. Be able to name the hall mark features and characteristics of an animal
2. Rehearse the early embryonic phases of an animal, and know the sequence of events of it
3. Be able to define and explain following terms: heterotrophic, zygote, morula stage, blastula
stage, gastrula stage, tissues, organs
4. Know the names and prospective function of the three embryonic tissue layers = endoderm,
ectoderm, mesoderm
5. Rehearse the idea of the evolution of animal life forms from a single-celled heterotrophic
protist (= protozoan)
6. Rehearse the animal taxonomy and make yourself familiar with the hall mark features and
characteristics (incl. body symmetry, tissues, presence of coelom, segmentation, type of
skeleton, nerve fibers, brains, organs) of following 9 animal phyla:
sponges (porifera)
jelly fishes (cnidaria)
flatworms (platyhelminthes)
roundworms (nematode)
segmented animals (annelida)
arthropods
mollusks
echinoderms
vertebrates
7. Know the difference between digestive cavity and digestive system, Which animal phyla
have which?
8. Understand the term “coelom” and its importance to animal evolution. What is the
biological function of a coelom in modern animals? How is a pseudo-coelom different from
a ‘real’ coelom? Which animal phylum has a pseudo-coelom?
9. Know the names of the three body parts of an insect and their biological function
10. Understand why slow, less mobile animals tend to be hermaphrodites
11. Know the general function and major differences of endo- and exoskeletons. Which animal
phyla have an exoskeleton? Which ones have an endoskeleton?
12. Of which major biological molecule is the exoskeleton of animals made up from? Is it
made up from live cells?
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SAN DIEGO MESA COLLEGE
SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES
General Biology Lecture (BIOL 107); Instructor: Elmar Schmid, Ph.D.
13. Of which major biological molecule is a bony endoskeleton of animals made up from? Is it
made up from live cells?
14. Know the difference between molting and metamorphosis. Know animal phyla and
representatives which perform them.
15. Rehearse the respiratory organs in insects, clams, land snails and land mammals
16. Know the unique body characteristics of a vertebrate animal
17. Be able to define and explain following terms: notochord, vertebrae, vertebral column, gill
pouches, gill arches, gill slits, post-anal tail, jaw bones, skull, backbone
18. Rehearse the vertebrate animal evolution considering lancelets, placoderm fishes,
ostracoderm fishes, cartilaginous fishes, bony fishes, amphibians, reptiles, marsupials and
mammals
19. Be able to coincide major animal transitions with major geological and/or cosmic events on
planet Earth, e.g. fish – amphibian transition, amphibian – reptile transition
20. Be able to name the major adaptations of amphibians and reptiles to their unique
environments
21. Be able to define and explain following terms: lateral line system, amphibian skin, scales,
amniotic egg, external fertilization, internal fertilization, ectothermal
22. Be able to name the advantages of internal fertilization (performed by reptiles and
mammals) over external fertilization (fishes and amphibians)
23. Who the heck was Archeopterix?
24. Know the differences of the embryonic development between reptiles, marsupials and
mammals. How are the embryos nourished in these three different animal groups and
where do they develop? Which role does the monotreme animal Platypus play in this
context?
25. Know the difference between deuterostome and protostome animals. Be able to give the
names of some prominent members in each group.
Unit III:
Chapter 13: Evolutionary Theory: How populations evolve
1. Be sure you know the names of the major contributors to the development of the modern
evolutionary theory (classical and synthetic)
2. Know the four basic statements and core ideas of the evolutionary theory as introduced by
Darwin in 1859
3. Know which further ideas and statements have been added to the theory in the 1940s by E.
Mayr and T. Dobzshansky in the so-called “synthetic theory”
4. Understand and be able to interpret the phrase “survival of the fittest” in the context of the
evolutionary theory; what does “fit” mean in a Darwinian sense?
5. Know how the Lamarckian idea about how species evolve is different from the Darwinian
concept
6. Know the age of the evidently earliest life forms of planet Earth; what is the name of the
fossils of these organisms?
7. Know the name of the ordered array of fossils in rock sediments; be sure that you have a
basic understand understanding of stratigraphy.
8. Know which isotopes of which chemical elements can be used for radiometric dating of
fossil findings. What is meant under half-life of an isotope?
9. Know the names of important “transition animals”, e.g. from fishes to amphibians,
amphibians to reptiles, reptiles to birds, reptiles to mammals and mammals to whales.
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SAN DIEGO MESA COLLEGE
SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES
General Biology Lecture (BIOL 107); Instructor: Elmar Schmid, Ph.D.
10. Understand the meaning of these fossil findings to the common descent idea of the
evolutionary theory
11. What is meant in the evolutionary theory by the term “speciation”?
12. How is a species defined according to the synthetic evolutionary theory?
13. Know examples of factors and events which can lead to speciation
14. Rehearse examples of important geological, cosmic and tectonic events on planet Earth
which are considered to may have contributed to species separation, speciation or
extinction
(Key words: Pangaea super continent, Galapagos island, Hawaiian islands, Alvarez
hypothesis, Madagaskar, rift valley)
15. What is a vestigial organ or structure in biological organism and how do these relate to the
evolutionary theory?
16. Understand the term “selective pressure” in the context of adaptation as part of the
evolutionary theory
17. Understand the term “artificial selection” and how this relates to the rise of the new
phenotypes and species
18. Understand why and how reproductive isolation can trigger speciation
19. Understand which events can lead to reproductive isolation of a species
20. Be able to define and explain following terms: genetic drift, bottle neck effect, founder
effect, gene flow, allopatric, sympatric, reproductive isolation
21. Know the importance of the term “population” for the synthetic evolutionary theory. What
is a population?
22. Know the difference between microevolution and macroevolution
23. Rehearse the outcomes of different selective pressures put upon a population and know the
names of the different forms of selection. What is the difference between diversifying and
directional selection?
24. Know examples of human activities which can lead to reproductive isolation of species
Unit VII:
Chapters 34, 36 & 38: Biosphere, communities, ecosystems & Conservation biology
1. Know the levels of organization within the biosphere on planet Earth
2. What is the difference between a community and an ecosystem?
3. Know the names and characteristics of important ecosystems on planet Earth regarding
climate, geography, soil conditions, species diversity, and hall mark species
4. Rehearse population structures and dynamics regarding. What is the difference between
exponential and logistic growth? Know examples for both growth dynamics.
5. Know examples for biotic and abiotic factors and how they relate to ecosystems and
populations
6. Know the difference between biome, ecosystem and habitat
7. Rehearse the importance of environmental factors on distribution and stability of biological
organisms, e.g. plants and animals
8. Know the names of the top predators for important terrestrial, fresh water and marine
ecosystems. What is the name of the (four-legged) top predator in the Anza Borrego desert?
9. Know examples of important symbiotic relationships in terrestrial ecosystems (hint:
lichens, E.coli, mycorrhiza
10. Know examples of parasitic relationships in ecosystems (hint: mistle toe, tape worms)
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SAN DIEGO MESA COLLEGE
SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES
General Biology Lecture (BIOL 107); Instructor: Elmar Schmid, Ph.D.
11. Understand how species density in certain biomes relates to energy flow. Which of the
terrestrial ecosystems has the highest species density? Which of the marine ecosystems has
the highest known species density?
12. Know the difference between a food chain and a food web in ecology
13. Be able to define the meaning of a “trophic structure” and be able to name essential
components of the food pyramid. What would be a primary consumer in a typical canyon
of Southern California?
14. Be sure that you understand the core statement of the “competitive exclusion principle”
and how this relates to an “ecological niche” of a biological organism in an ecosystem
15. Be sure you understand the term “succession” in the context of ecology. What are “pioneer
plants” and how do they relate to plant succession after natural catastrophes (hint: Mount
St. Helens)
16. Have a conceptual understanding how and why human overpopulation negatively
correlates with species diversity in affected ecosystems
17. Rehearse energy flow and chemical cycling. Be able to name crucial components and
involved biological organisms in the global nitrogen and carbon cycle.
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