Chapter 1
Introduction: Theories of Social Development
Chapter Outline
INTRODUCTION: THEORIES OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Bet You Didn’t Know That . . . Newborns Can Recognize Their Mothers by Smell
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: A BRIEF HISTORY
CRITICAL QUESTIONS ABOUT S OCIAL DEVELOPMENT
1. How Do Biological and Environmental Influences Affect Social Development?
Insights from Extremes: Genie—A “Wild Child”
2. What Role Do Children Play in Their Own Development?
3. What Is the Appropriate Unit for Studying Social Development?
4. Is Development Continuous or Discontinuous?
5. Is Social Behavior the Result of the Situation or the Child?
6. Is Social Development Universal across Cultures?
Cultural Context: Parenting Advice Around the Globe
7. How Does Social Development Vary across Historical Eras?
Research up Close: Children of the Great Depression
8. Is Social Development Related to Other Developmental Domains?
9. How Important Are Mothers for Children’s Social Development?
10. Is There a Single Pathway of Social Development?
11. What Influences How We Label Children’s Social Behavior?
12. Do Developmental Psychologists “Own” Social Development?
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVES
Freud’s Theory
Erikson’s Theory
Psychodynamic Perspectives: An Evaluation
Into Adulthood: Fatherhood and Generativity
TRADITIONAL LEARNING THEORY PERSPECTIVES
Classical and Operant Conditioning
Learning Theory Approaches: An Evaluation
COGNITIVE LEARNING PERSPECTIVES
Cognitive Social Learning Theory
Beyond Modeling: Reciprocal Determination and Self-Efficacy
Cognitive Social Learning Theory: An Evaluation
Learning from Living Leaders: Joan E. Grusec
INFORMATION-PROCESSING PERSPECTIVES
Social Information Processing
Information-Processing: An Evaluation
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVES
Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory
Piaget’s Theory: An Evaluation
Social Cognitive Domain Perspective
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
Vygotsky’s Theory: An Evaluation
Learning from Living Leaders: Barbara Rogoff
SYSTEMS THEORY PERSPECTIVES
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory
Ecological Systems Theory: An Evaluation
BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
Ethological Theory
Ethological Theory: An Evaluation
Evolutionary Developmental Theory
Evolutionary Developmental Theory: An Evaluation
Learning from Living Leaders: David Bjorklund
Human Behavior Genetics
Human Behavior Genetics: An Evaluation
LIFE SPAN PERSPECTIVE
Life Span Perspective: An Evaluation
A VARIETY OF THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES
Chapter Summary
Key Terms
At the Movies
Learning Objectives
1. Describe what the study of social development entails.
2. Summarize the historical foundations of the study of social development.
3. Understand the critical questions of social development (biological and environmental
influences; role children play in their own development; appropriate unit for studying social
development; continuous and discontinuous development; role of the situation vs. the child;
universality of social development; variation across historical eras; social development as
related to other domains; importance of mothers vs. others; single vs. multiple pathways of
development; influences on judgments of children’s social behavior).
4. Understand each of the theoretical perspectives presented in this chapter.
5. Describe the strengths and weaknesses of each theoretical perspective.
6. Explain why several complimentary theories are needed for the study of social development.
Student Handout 1-1
Chapter Summary
Social Development
 The field of social development includes descriptions of social behaviors, individual
differences in social behavior, and changes in social behavior with age as well as
explanations for these changes and differences.
Social Development: A Brief History
 The scientific study of social development began with Darwin’s work in the 1800s.
Subsequently, competing views were expressed in Watson’s behaviorally oriented theory,
Freud’s biologically inspired theory, and Gesell’s maturational theory.
Critical Questions about Social Development
 How do biological and environmental influences affect social development? Modern
developmental psychologists recognize the importance of both biological and environmental
influences and are concerned with discovering the ways in which these factors interact to
produce developmental differences.
 What role do children play in their own development? Most developmental psychologists
believe that children actively shape, control, and direct the course of their own development.
 What is the appropriate unit for studying social development? Although researchers have
typically focused on individual children, they have increasingly recognized that other units
such as dyads, triads, and social groups are also important.
 Is development continuous or discontinuous? Some theorists view social development as a
continuous process whereby change takes place smoothly and gradually. Others see
development as a series of qualitatively different stages or steps. The more closely we
examine development, the more we see ebbs and flows in the acquisition of social skills.
 Is social behavior the result of the situation or the child? Most developmental psychologists
stress the complementary roles of situational factors and child differences.
 Is social development universal across cultures? Most developmental psychologists agree
that cultural contexts should be considered but believe that universal aspects of development
such as emotions, language, and communication coexist with cultural variations.
 How does social development vary across historical eras? Both abrupt and gradual changes
in society influence social development.
 Is social development related to other developmental domains? Social development
influences and is influenced by emotional, cognitive, language, perceptual, and motor
development.
 How important are mothers for children’s social development? Although mothers are clearly
important in children’s social development, other people including fathers, siblings,
grandparents, peers, teachers, and religious leaders also are important influences.
 Is there a single pathway for social development? Children may start out at a similar place
but end up at very different points (multifinality), or they may follow different paths but end
up at the same point (equifinality).


What influences how we label children’s social behavior? Three sets of factors—
characteristics of the child, the adult, and the context—influence social judgments and, in
turn, how social behaviors are labeled.
Do developmental psychologists own social development? Scholars in a variety of fields
including pediatrics, psychiatry, anthropology, economics, law, and history have made
valuable contributions to the field of social development.
Theoretical Perspectives on Social Development
 Theories help organize and integrate knowledge into a coherent account of how children
develop and foster research by providing testable predictions about behavior. Historically,
grand theories reflected attempts to account for all aspects of development. Modern theories
tend to be more narrowly focused attempts to explain specific aspects of social development.
Psychodynamic Perspective
 In Freud’s psychodynamic theory, basic biological drives motivate the child. Early
experiences are essential for determining later behavior.
 Erikson expanded Freud’s theory to include social and cultural influences on development.
 His psychosocial theory is organized around a series of fundamental personal and social tasks
that individuals must accomplish at each stage.
 Psychodynamic theories helped shape many concerns of modern social development,
including the effects of early experience in the family and the psychological roots and
importance of aggression, morality, gender roles, and attachment. However, the central
claims of the theories are difficult to test empirically.
Traditional Learning Perspective
 Traditional learning theories emphasize how new behaviors are acquired through a gradual
and continuous process of learning. The theories had important applications and have been
used in homes, schools, and clinics to reduce children’s behavior problems. Their lack of
attention to developmental changes is a limitation.
Cognitive Social Learning Theory
 Bandura focused attention on observational learning. The notions of reciprocal determinism
and self-efficacy were important additions to this theoretical position. The lack of attention to
developmental issues, the limited ecological validity of the findings, and the limited
recognition of the roles of biology and culture are shortcomings of the theory.
Social Information-Processing Theory
 This approach focuses on how children take in, use, and remember information to make
decisions about social actions. The lack of developmental focus, the limited role allocated to
emotion, and the heavy emphasis on deliberate decision making rather than automatic or
habitual responding are limitations of this perspective.
Cognitive Developmental Perspective
 In Piaget’s theory of development, children actively seek new experiences and from them
construct mental structures. They assimilate new information into existing structures and
accommodate structures when the information doesn’t fit. Piaget’s focus on stages has been
questioned, and his lack of emphasis on emotions, culture, and social behavior make his
theory of limited use in the field of social development.
Social Cognitive Domain Theory
 This perspective focuses on how children learn to make social judgments about their world.
 According to this approach, children’s social judgments are domain specific.
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
 This theory focuses on the contributions of social and cultural factors to children’s
development. Children grow and change as a function of their own efforts and the guidance
of more skilled others. The theory does not describe how interactions change over the course
of development.
Systems Perspective
 According to systems theories, other elements or members of the system influence an
individual’s behaviors.
 Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory stresses the importance of relations between the
child and environmental systems, such as the family, school, community, and culture.
Development involves the interplay between the child and the microsystem, mesosystem,
exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. Lack of developmental focus as well as limited
information about the processes that govern cross-level linkages are limitations of this theory.
Biological Perspective
 Ethologists observe behaviors in natural settings and study patterns of behaviors across
human and infrahuman species and across human societies and cultures. The theory is largely
descriptive.
 Evolutionary psychology asserts that social behaviors reflect survival needs and processes of
human evolution. It focused attention on parental investment as a way to ensure
intergenerational continuity of genes and on the adaptive value of immaturity. The approach
has limited relevance for addressing issues associated with rapid changes. Many explanations
are post hoc.
 Behavior genetics addresses the relative contributions of heredity and environment to social
development and the interdependence between environmental conditions and whether and
when genes are expressed in behavior. The particular genes or clusters of genes that account
for social outcomes are still poorly understood, and the way in which the environment is
measured is often very general.
Life Span Theory
 This theory emphasizes development over the entire life course. Changes can be traced to
normative age–graded events including entry into school, nonnormative events such as
divorce, and historical or cohort-related events such as the Great Depression or the Vietnam
War.
 The impact of this perspective is limited by the fact that much of the theorizing has involved
older adults.
Variety of Theoretical Perspectives

Social development can be approached from a variety of perspectives and it is often helpful
to draw on several theories to explain children’s development.
Student Handout 1-2
Key Terms
GLOSSARY TERMS
age cohort
People who were born in the same time period
and share historical experiences.
accommodation
Modifying an existing schema to fit a new
experience.
assimilation
Applying an existing schema to a new
experience.
chronosystem
The time-based dimension that can alter the
operation of all other systems in
Bronfenbrenner’s model, from microsystem
through macrosystem.
classical conditioning
A type of learning in which a new stimulus is
repeatedly presented with a familiar stimulus
until an individual learns to respond to the new
stimulus in the same way as the familiar
stimulus.
cognitive social learning theory
A theory that stresses the importance of
observation and imitation in the acquisition of
new behaviors, with learning mediated by
cognitive processes.
critical period
A specific time in an organism’s development
during which external factors have a unique
and irreversible impact.
desensitization
Classical conditioning therapy used to
overcome phobias and fears through exposure
to increasingly intense versions of the feared
stimulus.
domain specificity
Processes of development are different for
different types of behavior, for example, moral
judgments, manners, and peer relationships.
drive reduction theory
A version of learning theory suggesting that
the association of stimulus and response in
classical and operant conditioning results in
learning only if it is accompanied by reduction
of basic primary drives such as hunger and
thirst.
ecological theory
A theory stressing the influences of
environmental systems and the relations
between the systems on development.
ego
In Freud’s theory, the rational component of
the personality, which tries to satisfy needs
through appropriate, socially acceptable
behaviors.
egocentric
Tending to view the world from one’s own
perspective and to have difficulty seeing things
from another’s viewpoint.
Electra complex
According to Freud, girls blame their mother
for their lack of a penis and focus their sexual
feelings on their father.
equifinality
The convergence of developmental paths in
which children follow very different paths to
reach the same developmental end point.
ethological theory
A theory that behavior must be viewed in a
particular context and as having adaptive or
survival value.
exosystem
In Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, the
collection of settings that impinge on a child’s
development but in which the child does not
play a direct role.
generativity
A concern for people besides oneself,
especially a desire to nurture and guide
younger people and contribute to the next
generation.
id
In Freud’s theory, instinctual drives that
operate on the basis of the pleasure principle.
macrosystem
In Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, the
system that surrounds the microsystem,
mesosystem, and exosystem, representing the
values, ideologies, and laws of the society or
culture.
maturation
A biologically determined process of growth
that unfolds over a period of time.
mesosystem
In Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, the
interrelation among the components of the
microsystem.
microsystem
In Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, the
context in which children live and interact with
the people and institutions closest to them,
such as parents, peers, and school.
multifinality
The divergence of developmental paths in
which two individuals start out similarly but
end at very different points.
object permanence
The realization in infancy that objects and
people do not cease to exist when they are no
longer visible.
Oedipus complex
Freud’s theory that boys become attracted to
their mother and jealous of their father.
operant conditioning
A type of learning that depends on the
consequence of the behavior; rewards increase
the likelihood that a behavior will recur, but
punishment decreases that likelihood.
psychodynamic theory
Freud’s theory that development is determined
by innate biologically based drives shaped by
encounters with the environment in early
childhood.
psychosocial theory
Erikson’s theory that each stage of
development depends on accomplishing a
psychological task in interactions with the
social environment.
social dyad
A pair of social partners, such as friends,
parent and child, or marital partners.
social information-processing theory
An explanation of a person’s social behavior in
terms of his or her assessment and evaluation
of the social situation as a guide deciding on a
course of social action.
sociocultural theory
Vygotsky’s theory that development emerges
from interactions with more skilled people and
the institutions and tools provided by the
culture.
superego
In Freud’s theory, the personality component
that is the repository of the child’s
internalization of parental or societal values,
morals, and roles.
systems
Developmental contexts made up of interacting
parts or components, for example, a family.
transactional
Ongoing interchanges between social partners
such as a parent and child across time that
result in modifications of the social behavior of
each.
zone of proximal development
The difference between children’s level of
performance while working alone and while
working with more experienced partners.
OTHER IMPORTANT TERMS IN THIS CHAPTER
collective efficacy
continuity
discontinuity
diverse disciplinary perspectives
domains of development
historical events
non-normative events
normative events
person factors
reciprocal determinism
self-efficacy
sensitive period
situation factors
social judgments
species specific
unit of analysis
Student Handout 1-3
Theorist/Theoretical
Question 1:
Question 4:
Question 5:
Question 6:
Perspective
Biology (B)
Continuity (C)
Situation (S)
Universal (U)
versus
versus
versus
versus
Environment (E)
Discontinuity (D)
Individual (I)
Cultural (C)
Freud
Erikson
Learning
Cognitive social
learning
Information
processing
Piaget
Vygotsky
Ecological
Ethological
Evolutionary
Behavior genetics
Life span
Practice Exam Questions
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. People who are born within the same time period and share historical experiences are called:
(a) a population (b) *an age cohort (c) a normative event cohort (d) a social dyad
2. Liz has learned how to print her name with both a crayon and a pencil. Which of the following
illustrates assimilation? (a) *Her mother gives her an ink pen and Liz immediately begins to
print her name (b) Her mother gives her an ink pen and Liz ignores it, keeping the pencil
instead (c) Her mother gives her a brush and paint and Liz learns to place the brush into the
paint before trying to print her name (d) none of the above
3. Which of the following is not emphasized by cognitive social learning theory? (a)
*reinforcement of observed behavior (b) observation and imitation of behavior (c) motivation
to reproduce or imitate behavior (d) attention and retention of observed behaviors
4. A theory that stresses the importance of the relations between organisms and environmental
systems and the relations between the systems themselves is: (a) sociocultural theory (b)
*ecological theory (c) ethological theory (d) evolutionary developmental theory
5. The fact that children follow very different paths to reach the same developmental end point is
referred to as: (a) multifinality (b) *equifinality (c) domain specificity (d) age cohorts
6. Generativity is a goal included in: (a) Freud’s psychodynamic theory (b) Bronfenbrenner’s
ecological theory (c) Bandura’s cognitive social learning theory (d) *Erikson’s psychosocial
theory
7. In Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, the context in which children live and interact with the
people and institutions closest to them, such as parents, peers, and school, is the: (a)
macrosystem (b) mesosystem (c) *microsystem (d) exosystem
8. The concept of object permanence was first identified by: (a) Vygotsky (b) *Piaget (c) Freud
(d) Erikson
9. Which of the following best illustrates operant conditioning: (a) a parent tells a child he did a
good job after he completes his homework early (b) a parent will not allow a child to watch TV
because she broke a house rule (c) a parent makes sure to reward a child’s prosocial behavior at
least some of the time (d) *all of the above
10. The zone of proximal development refers to: (a) *the difference between a child’s level of
performance while working alone and while working with a more experienced partner (b) the
difference between a child’s performance while working with an equally experienced partner
and while working with a more experienced partner (c) the difference in performance between
a child working with an experienced partner and another child working alone (d) the difference
in performance between a child working with a age-appropriate task and a task that is intended
for children at other ages
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1. List the levels of analysis in Bronfenbrenner’s theory and give an example of each.
2. Discuss the role that cognitive development plays in social development.
3. Unidirectional models in which adults are the main drivers of children’s social development are
no longer adequate. Why not and what models have replaced them?