Supplementary Information
1. Stratigraphic and archaeological information for Levels III and IV Gorham’s Cave, Gibraltar.
1
2
7
3
8
4
5
6
9
(a) Upper Palaeolithic, Level III. Magdalenian (13950-10800 yr BP); Solutrean (18600-16300 yr BP) (1-8 Solutrean). 1 flake
with abrupt retouch; 2 blade with abrupt retouch; 3 bifacial projectile point with non-carinated peduncle; 4 point with convergent
plane retouch; 5 shouldered point with abrupt retouch; 6 transverse distal scraper; 7 distal scraper; 8 bifacial point. 9
Magdalenian: biserial bone harpoon
1
2
4
7
5
3
6
8
(b) Late Mousterian, Upper Level IV (33340-23040 yr BP). 1 pseudo-levallois flake; 2 centripetal core; 3 denticulate; 4 inverse
scraper; 5 centripetal bifacial core; 6 levallois flake; 7 levallois denticulate; 8 levallois flake
1
2
6
3
7
4
5
8
(c) Basal Mousterian, Lower Level IV (>50000-41890 yr BP). 1 flake from centripetal core; 2 levallois flake; 3 levallois flake; 4
levallois flake with retouch; 5 levallois flake; 6 levallois point scraper; 7 levallois point; 8 levallois point with retouch
Supplementary Figure 1: Representative lithic material from Levels III and IV, Gorham’s Cave.
4
Supplementary Figure 2: Photograph of Mousterian hearth location (see
Fig.1 in the print version of the paper)
5
2. Geochemical and Mineralogical Analyses
Cave deposits often have a complex sedimentation and the possibility of mixing of
sediments cannot be discarded. With the aim of checking the homogeneity of
stratigraphic levels and conditions in Gorham’s Cave (Gibraltar), an initial study was
conducted in which representative samples from each level were analysed, both
geochemically and mineralogically. The resulting data have been used as proxies to
establish a sedimentary regime and conditions within the cavity.
Materials and Methods
Site description
Gorham’s Cave is located at the foot of the Gibraltar Promontory, oriented to the southwest (360 07’ N 50 21’W; 14 m asl). Sediments at this cave consist of limestone
fragments, calcareous sandy-clay, carbonated nodules and silty clay. Level III consists
of a sandy sediment with dark brown clay in a sandy matrix. It has a strong organic
component that includes discrete lumps of charcoal. Fallen fragments of angular
limestone and speleothem are a feature of the middle part of this level. Level IV is a
beige-coloured pure clay horizon with an abundance of discrete lumps of charcoal and a
hearth. The four stratigraphical levels (I-IV) were sampled. Sediment samples were
dried and homogenized in agate mortar for mineralogical and geochemical analyses.
Split sediment sections have been taken in Level IV and IIIB.
Mineralogy
Bulk mineral compositions were obtained by X-ray difraction (XRD) following the
international recommendations compiled by (Kirsch 1991). X-ray difractograms were
obtained using a Philips PW 1710 difractometer with Cu-K radiation and automatic
6
slit. Resulting difractograms were interpreted using Xpowder software (Martin-Ramos,
2004).
Geochemical analyses
Major element measurements (Mg, Al, K, Ca, Mn and Fe) in samples from Gorham’s
Cave were obtained by atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) (Perkin-Elmer 5100
spectrometer) with an analytic error of 2% in the Analytical Facilities (CIC) of the
University of Granada. Al, K, Ca, Ti, Mn, Fe, Cu and Sr have also been quantified using
an X-Ray Fluorescence scanner in the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and
Technology (JAMSTEC) laboratories. The XRF-core scanner TATSCAN-F2 was set to
determine bulk intensities of major elements on split sediment sections at intervals of
0.5 cm with an accuracy in standard powder samples of above 0.20 %(wt). A depth
correction was performed to compare AAS and XRF-scanner data indicating high
correlation between techniques. Analyses of trace elements including Ba were carried
out using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICPMS) after HNO3 + HF
digestion. Measurements were performed in triplicates by spectrometry (Perkin-Elmer
Sciex Elan 5000) using Re and Rh as internal standards. Variation coefficients
determined by dissolution of 10 replicates of powdered samples were over 3% and 8%
for analyte concentrations of 50 and 5 ppm, respectively (Bea et al. 1996).
Results
Bulk mineralogy
XRD revealed that the sediments sampled at Gorham’s Cave are predominantly
composed of clay minerals, calcite and quartz, with low quantities of dolomite, ankerite
and feldspar. By transmission electron microscopy (TEM) different mineral phases have
also been identified: illite, chlorite, muscovite, kaolinite, palygorskite, barite, zircon and
rutile. The carbonate fraction is composed of calcite and different types of magnesian
7
carbonates. Terrigenous sediments are composed mainly of the mineral clay association
know as “Terra Rossa”, originated by decarbonation of the Jurassic limestone that forms
the Gibraltar Promontory.
Major and trace elements
Some element/Al ratios have been used as terrigenous proxie, e.g. K/Al, related with
illite and K-feldspar, and Mg/Al related with chorite and magnesian carbonate content.
Their high contents and inorganic origin allow to these elements be used as
representative proxies of the detrital fraction. These ratios, grouped by range contents,
are in SupplementaryTable 1. The raw data for all elements are in Supplementary Table
2.
Supplementary Table 1: K/Al and Mg/Al ratios for Gorham’s Cave samples
from Levels I to IV
Sample
Location/Depth
Level
K/Al
Mg/Al
GOR-7
AA9
2.05 m
I
0.67
0.30
GOR-8
AA9
2.12 m
II
0.86
0.41
GOR-13
AA9
2.32 m
II
0.77
0.36
GOR-5
AA4
2.35 m
IIIA
0.78
0.40
GOR-10
AA9
2.35 m
IIIA
0.93
0.40
GOR-11
AA9
2.65 m
IIIB
0.69
0.30
GOR-14
AA6
2.65 m
IIIB
0.71
0.27
GOR-1
AA5
2.70 m
IV
0.55
0.17
GOR-12
AA9
3.05 m
IV
0.56
0.18
8
Supplementary Table 2: Total concentrations of major and trace elements
at different excavation fronts and depths; means + δ n=3). Al, Ca, Fe, K
and Mg are listed in % weight, others in ppm.
Levels
II
IIIA
IIIB
IV
Al
1.85
+ 0.10
2.17
+ 0.71
2.57
+ 0.45
4.76
+ 1.31
Ba
135.01
+ 8.27
122.58
+ 16.68
139.67
+ 9.24
260.17
+ 78.23
Be
0.89
+ 0.08
0.90
+ 0.15
1.00
+ 0.07
1.52
+ 0.28
Ca
5.69
+ 0.90
5.07
+ 1.17
5.76
+ 1.06
5.24
+ 0.04
Ce
25.82
+ 2.33
27.37
+ 5.84
31.56
+ 2.77
49.53
+ 9.42
Co
7.98
+ 0.03
8.73
+ 2.65
9.55
+ 0.98
16.27
+ 8.20
Cr
71.58
+ 1.60
77.44
+ 4.75
83.89
+ 8.39
109.76
+ 2.48
Cs
1.81
+ 0.06
2.00
+ 0.46
2.33
+ 0.22
4.37
+ 1.06
Cu
79.35
+ 16.25 82.26
+ 38.80
105.06
+ 30.66
103.91
+ 42.39
Dy
1.39
+ 0.08
1.64
+ 0.34
1.83
+ 0.26
3.00
+ 0.44
Er
0.71
+ 0.01
0.81
+ 0.22
0.94
+ 0.10
1.47
+ 0.26
Eu
0.46
+ 0.05
0.52
+ 0.10
0.58
+ 0.05
0.93
+ 0.22
Fe
1.30
+ 0.05
1.39
+ 0.27
1.63
+ 0.16
2.52
+ 0.47
Ga
6.15
+ 0.41
6.44
+ 1.14
7.52
+ 0.31
12.05
+ 1.69
Gd
1.87
+ 0.11
2.00
+ 0.45
2.32
+ 0.23
3.76
+ 0.56
Hf
0.72
+ 0.06
0.74
+ 0.16
0.84
+ 0.09
1.19
+ 0.12
Ho
0.27
+ 0.00
0.31
+ 0.09
0.38
+ 0.05
0.59
+ 0.09
9
K
1.50
+ 0.04
1.62
+ 0.23
1.70
+ 0.17
2.65
+ 0.71
La
12.78
+ 1.28
13.40
+ 2.71
15.34
+ 1.30
24.26
+ 4.60
Li
18.44
+ 0.57
19.73
+ 2.69
22.07
+ 1.56
31.80
+ 2.09
Lu
0.10
+ 0.01
0.12
+ 0.02
0.13
+ 0.02
0.20
+ 0.03
Mg
0.71
+ 0.01
0.73
+ 0.06
0.70
+ 0.08
0.85
+ 0.20
Mo
2.68
+ 1.61
1.92
+ 0.51
2.29
+ 0.15
5.26
+ 2.69
Nb
3.87
+ 0.21
4.09
+ 0.72
4.65
+ 0.18
7.27
+ 1.00
Nd
10.91
+ 0.96
11.67
+ 2.63
13.49
+ 1.55
21.99
+ 4.57
Ni
48.17
+ 0.65
48.72
+ 9.30
56.21
+ 3.69
138.65
+ 89.33
Pb
22.70
+ 10.56 18.31
+ 6.36
22.56
+ 4.70
22.00
+ 5.16
Pr
2.90
+ 0.21
3.12
+ 0.68
3.58
+ 0.38
5.77
+ 1.15
Rb
34.98
+ 1.34
37.42
+ 6.50
42.72
+ 2.46
74.65
+ 13.05
Sc
6.17
+ 0.82
6.04
+ 0.64
7.04
+ 0.69
11.04
+ 0.71
Sm
2.06
+ 0.16
2.22
+ 0.57
2.63
+ 0.30
4.37
+ 0.99
Sn
1.35
+ 0.46
1.16
+ 0.29
1.23
+ 0.15
1.94
+ 0.42
Sr
164.28
+ 13.24 165.17
+ 32.62
180.94
+ 22.10
192.06
+ 25.03
Ta
0.25
+ 0.01
0.28
+ 0.06
0.30
+ 0.04
0.47
+ 0.09
Tb
0.26
+ 0.01
0.30
+ 0.06
0.33
+ 0.05
0.55
+ 0.08
Th
3.22
+ 0.31
3.55
+ 0.96
4.62
+ 0.97
6.56
+ 1.52
Tl
0.18
+ 0.01
0.20
+ 0.05
0.23
+ 0.04
0.39
+ 0.00
Tm
0.11
+ 0.00
0.12
+ 0.03
0.15
+ 0.01
0.21
+ 0.04
U
1.65
+ 0.15
1.80
+ 0.62
2.18
+ 0.40
2.56
+ 0.08
10
V
43.66
+ 2.04
45.37
+ 7.65
52.81
+ 2.00
91.14
+ 4.12
Y
8.23
+ 0.39
9.10
+ 1.81
10.61
+ 0.86
17.12
+ 1.82
Yb
0.66
+ 0.06
0.77
+ 0.17
0.89
+ 0.10
1.35
+ 0.15
Zn
323.03
+ 43.17 344.23
+ 160.85 444.85
+ 118.87 923.87
+ 334.94
Zr
25.69
+ 0.25
+ 5.53
+ 2.15
+ 1.21
27.96
31.08
43.76
XRF-Scanner – TATSCAN-F2
A high resolution geochemical mapping has been elaborated using a XRF-Scanner in
sediments proceeding from level IV. Results indicate a sub-laminar sedimentation
slightly turbated by limestone dropstone, flint tools, fossil bones and carbonate nodules.
This confirms that sedimentation in level IV does not correspond to “breccia” or chaotic
deposits.
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(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Discussion
SiO2
CaO
Supplementary Figure 3: (a) Core GOR-3 collected in Level IV Square A9
(see Fig.1 in the print version of the paper). Top (left) of core is at depth of 3.19
metres from site zero reference point. (b) Core GOR-3 detail being scanned
with the XRF-scanner “TASCAN-F2” (JAMSTEC). (c) and (d) Core GOR-3 high
resolution geochemical mapping showing SiO2 and CaO % weight
concentration. Sublaminar deposition slightly turbated can be observed. Scale
in centimetres. See Sakamoto, T. et al., BS., 2006, Non-Destructive X-Ray
Fluorescence (XRF) Core Imaging Scanner, “TATSCAN-F2”, for the IODP
science, Scientific Drilling, Integrated Ocean Drilling Program, 2, 37-39 (2006)
12
Further geochemical studies are in course of preparation to characterize each of
the sediment cave inputs (e.g. aeolian, antrophogenic, biological). Geochemical ratios
can nevertheless be considered to be like a sediment fingerprint in each level. Changes
in geochemical ratios can be interpreted as variations in conditions or use of the cave.
Our results indicate that the geochemical ratio for each level is similar along the
excavation front. This indicates a homogeneity in the level composition along the
excavated area. Only few inconsistencies have been found between levels II and IIIA
(the upper part of Level III) and can be related with progressive change in conditions in
the cave or the presence of different conditions in similar levels that are based in colortextural-artifact properties/contents.
Levels IIIB (the lower part of Level III) and IV are clearly differentiated. Level
IV, especially, has a geochemical characterization that differs clearly from other levels
that contain close than twice Mg/Al and highest K/Al ratios. Between level IV and IIIB
we found a sharp change in every elemental ratio suggesting a sudden change in
occupational pattern or environmental conditions (Supplementary Tables 1 & 2).
Conclusions
Different stratigraphic levels defined in Gorham’s Cave can be considered as
geochemically homogeneous. The ratio of the terrigenous matter remains constant over
the levels studied. Sedimentation in the cave can be considered as continuous at least in
the lower levels and is corroborated by the absolute dates. Level IV has a particular
composition than differs from the rest of the Gorham’s Cave deposits. There is no
contamination from the upper levels. The boundary between Level IV and III is sharp
and clear, securing an adequate attribution of each sample to the corresponding level.
13
We have applied a cluster analysis to the pooled trace element data as a novel approach
to comparing levels (Supplementary Fig.4).
14
Supplementary Figure 4: Hierarchical Cluster Analysis of Gorham’s Cave
stratigraphic levels using data in Supplementary Information Table 2.
3. Taphonomy.
Supplementary Table 3: Taphonomic analysis of bone from Levels III and
IV, Gorham’s Cave
Anthropic activity.
TOTAL with
Total
%Total
rabbit
anthropic
anthropic
III (1228)
190
IV (472)
fractured
%Ft
Cutmarks %Cut
Burnt
%Bnt
16.8
144
11.7 37
3.3
35
3.1
54
11.4
37
7.8
8
1.7
18
3.8
TOTAL without
Total
%Total
rabbit
anthropic
anthropic
fractured
%Ft
Cutmarks %Ct
Burnt
%Bnt
III (645)
169
26.2
134
20.8 31
30
4.7
4.8
15
48
IV (333)
14.4
35
10.5 5
1.5
16
4.8
Carnivore activity
TOTAL with
rabbit
Carnivores
%carn
III (1228)
94
8.3
IV (472)
23
4.9
rabbit
Carnivores
%carn
III (645)
37
5.7
IV (333)
19
5.7
TOTAL without
4. AMS Dating
The 30 AMS dates presented in this paper were analysed by Beta Analytic Inc., Florida,
USA. All samples were pretreated to eliminate secondary carbon components. The
samples were first gently crushed/dispersed in deionized water. They were then given
hot HCL acid washes to eliminate carbonates and alkali washes (NaOH) to remove
secondary organic acids. The alkali washes were followed by a final acid rinse to
neutralize the solution prior to drying. Chemical concentrations, temperatures, exposure
times, and number of repetitions, were applied accordingly with the uniqueness of the
sample. Each chemical solution was neutralized prior to application of the next. During
these serial rinses, mechanical contaminants such as associated sediments and rootlets
were eliminated. This type of pre-treatment is considered a “full pre-treatment”.
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5. Ecology
Supplementary Table 4 Ecological characteristics of Level IV (Mousterian)
of Gorham’s Cave: (a) Faunal characteristics and inferred landscapes; (b).
Palynological characteristics and inferred vegetational landscapes from
different sources of palaeoecological evidence. In (b) 190 charcoal
fragments are likely to have been from plants collected close to the cave
itself by Neanderthals. Pollen in minerogenic sediment will have
accumulated in the cave from a wider area and will reflect a broader
landscape pattern. Pollen in coprolites will reflect an even wider regional
component due to the wide ranging behaviour of carnivores themselves.
In (a) amphibians and reptiles reflect local habitat, large mammals and
birds the broader landscape. It is the birds in particular that reflect more
distant environments such as the coast.
(a)
DOMINANT TAXA
AMPHIBIA/REPTILIA
MAMMALIA
AVES
Pelobates cultripes,
Oryctolagus cuniculus,
Milvus milvus,
Bufo bufo spinosus,
Cervus elaphus, Capra
Aquila chrysaetos,
Hemorrhois
pyrenaica
Gyps melitensis,
hippocrepis, Rhinechis
Falco naumanni,
scalaris, Natrix maura,
Falco tinnunculus,
Coronella girondica
Alectoris rufa,
Columba livia,
Apus apus, pus.
melba,
Ptyonoprogne
rupestris, Anthus
pratensis,
Pyrrhocorax
pyrrhocorax,
Pyrrhocorax
graculus
17
MINOR, BUT
Testudo hermanni,
Equus caballus, Bos
Gavia stellata,
ECOLOGICALLY-
Timon lepidus, Vipera
primigenius, Sus scrofa,
Calonectris
INDICATIVE
latasti
Monachus monachus,
diomedea, Sula
Ursus arctos, Canis lupus,
bassana,
Lynx pardina, Felis
Phalacrocorax
sylvestris, Crocuta crocuta
aristotelis,
TAXA
Plegadis
falcinellus,
Geronticus
eremita, Melanitta
nigra, Milvus
migrans, Buteo
buteo, Buteo
lagopus,
Haliaeetus albicilla,
Gyps fulvus, Falco
peregrinus,
Coturnix coturnix,
Numenius
phaeopus, Limosa
limosa, Calidris
maritima,
Himantopus
himantopus,
Pinguinus
impennis, Otus
scops, Galerida
cristata, Lullula
arborea, Hirundo
rustica, Motacilla
alba, Anthus
spinoletta, Anthus
campestris,
Prunella collaris,
Erithacus rubecula,
Phoenicurus
ochruros,
Oenanthe
hispanica, Ficedula
hypoleuca,
Emberiza citrinella,
Emberiza
18
INFERRED
Sandy areas, scrub
Scrub, open woodland and
Cliffs and rocky
LANDSCAPE
and open woodland
grassland mosaic in a
coast. Open
mosaic with rocky
warm
woodland and
outcrops and standing
Mediterranean/Temperate
scrub mosaic with
fresh water in a warm
context. Cliffs and rocky
(seasonal)
Mediterranean
coast.
wetlands in a warm
context.
Mediterranean
context.
(b)
CHARCOAL
DOMINANT TAXA
POLLEN IN
POLLEN IN SMALL-
MINEROGENIC
CARNIVORE
SEDIMENT
COPROLITES
Pinus pinea-
Pinus, Juniperus,
Pinus, Quercus, Juniperus,
pinaster
Poaceae, Asteraceae,
Poaceae, Ericaceae,
Ericaceae
Artemisia, Cistaceae
MINOR, BUT
P. nigra-sylvestris,
Quercus, Corylus,
Pinus pinaster, Taxus,
ECOLOGICALLY-
Juniperus,
Alnus, Fraxinus, Ilex,
Corylus, Ilex, Alnus, Acer,
INDICATIVE TAXA
Cistaceae,
Salix, Olea, Pistacia,
Castanea, Ulmus, Olea,
Fabaceae, Erica,
Viburnum
Fraxinus, Arbutus,
Olea
Pistacia, Myrtus, Buxus,
Calicotome, Maytenus,
Tamarix, Ephedra fragilis,
Genisteae
INFERRED
Parkland local
Semi-forested local
Shifting regional mosaic
VEGETATIONAL
landscape with
landscape with pines,
landscape from pine- to
LANDSCAPE
stands of
junipers, wild olives,
oak- to juniper-
Mediterranean and
lentiscs, hearths,
characterized savannahs,
montane pine
grasses, and a
patches of grassland and,
species, junipers,
diversity of other
less frequently, Artemisia-
wild olives and
shrubs and herbs,
dominated plains. Diversity
heath- and
including
of mesothermophilous
Cistaceae-
thermophytes.
Mediterranean scrub and
characterized
Evidences of nuclei of
broad-leaf trees, including
19
scrub and
riverine and forested
understorey
vegetation
phreatophytes