Building Capacity for Ecological-based Reasoning in Farmer Management of
Shaded Coffee in Central America
Haggar, J., Guhuray F., Monterroso, D., Staver, C., Aguilar A., Barrios M.,
Mendoza R., Monterrey J., Rugama R..
Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza, Managua, Nicaragua.
ABSTRACT
Central American coffee farmers have faced a series of environmental, ecological
and economic challenges over the past two decades. Green revolution technology
has offered little preparation for farmers, particularly small, to cope with these
challenges. Through participatory research agroecological diagnostic tools were
developed to help farmers understand the ecological relations in their coffee
systems and make better informed management decisions. These techniques have
been disseminated to over 9000 farmers and 240 technicians across Central
America, leading to reductions in pesticide use while maintaining yields. Current
challenges are to improve farmer decision-making in the economic management
and marketing of their produce in an environment of low world coffee prices.
INTRODUCTION
Farmers in Central America face variability and uncertainty. The past decades
brought hurricanes Mitch, Joan, and Gilbert among others, and at other times
droughts. Weather variability affects crop growth and alters the effectiveness of
cropping practices. The year with average rainfall is unusual. Irregular rainfall in
2000 and 2001 caused crop failure in the Pacific regions of Nicaragua, Honduras
and El Salvador. For farm families, weather variability means making decisions in
crop management under extreme uncertainty. Variability has manifested itself in
dimensions beyond weather. In recent decades new pests have been introduced
into the Isthmus. The arrival of berry borer (Hypothenemus vastatrix) in
Guatemala in 1971 and leaf rust (Hemileia vastatrix) in Nicaragua in 1976, which
subsequently spread though Central America, brought large changes. The greater
incidence of coffee rust under shade led to the removal or reduction of shade over
large areas of Central America. At the same time new varieties were being
promoted that provided substantially higher yields with high levels of fertilizer
application, but requiring high light environment. This change in the ecological
conditions under which coffee was being produced led to increased incidence of
previously unimportant diseases e.g. iron spot Cercospora coffeicola, and pests
such as leaf miner (Leucoptera coffeella), as well as increased weed growth that
required the use of herbicides to control (Samayoa and Sanchez, 2000). In some
cases, e.g. Pacific Nicaragua, the use of insecticides to control leaf miner resulted
in the resurgence of another pest, mealy bug (Planococcus citri), as their natural
predators were eliminated by the insecticide (Monterrey pers. com.). Prices of
agricultural products have also fluctuated wildly. International coffee prices have
fallen to below $50 per 46 kg sack twice, but have also surged to over $200 per
sack. Nevertheless, during the last decade the market has diversified into niche
products which were unknown a decade ago– gourmet, organic, fair trade, and
bird-friendly.
The new coffee production system thus required high use of pesticides to control
diseases, pests, weeds and high use of chemical fertilizers to promote high enough
yields to cover the increased costs of production. Under moderate to high market
prices, green revolution technology coffee production was more profitable per
hectare, but production costs may be 5-6 times higher than traditional production
(Clemens and Siman, 1993). Lack of credit for small coffee farmers in most of
Central America, except Costa Rica, has led to irregular application of green
revolution technologies where farmers have tried to apply them. Through analysis
with local specialists it was concluded that improvements in production were
possible through the implementation of better cultural practices, without
increasing use of inputs. Nevertheless, existing technological packages and
training and technical assistance programs were not enabling farmers to improve
their crop yields, which are a tenth that of high-tech farmers.
ECOLOGICAL-BASED REASONING FOR INTEGRATED PEST
MANAGEMENT
Since 1989 the Integrated Pest Management project run by CATIE, and funded by
NORAD, has been developing methods to provide an alternative technological
development pathway for small farmers. The limitations of chemical management
of pests individually has been seen in the history of coffee management, described
above. The objective of this project has been to improve small farmer decisionmaking in the management of their crops in a low agrochemical use environment
through a better understanding of the ecological relationships that determine the
environmental health and productivity of their coffee plantations. The program
started as an integrated pest management project, but through the 90’s expanded
its approach to include all aspects of coffee management including resistance to
pests as this closely relates to overall crop vigor. Furthermore, in the case of
coffee, pests were only one of several limitations to farmers’ increasing yields.
Management tools were developed within a participatory research framework
with groups of coffee farmers. Emphasis was given to the development of
diagnostic tools to help farmers make better informed decisions about the
management of their coffee.
One approach developed to reduce the use of pesticides is to monitor the
incidence of pests and only apply when levels were sufficiently high to justify
application, as opposed to calendarized applications to ensure pests do not
develop. Separate monitoring of all possible pests and diseases is laborious and so
an integrated pest scoring system was developed and tested in Nicaragua
(Guhuray et al., 2000). While conventional IPM may be relevant for medium to
large-scale farms which use pesticides regularly, the majority of small coffee
farmers in Central America apply pesticides irregularly with availability of money
being as important as the incidence of pests in determining their use. Furthermore,
for many resource poor farmers, the formats for integrated pest scoring are too
complex for them to use without assistance.
For the small farm sector the integrated scoring of pests has been combined with
the evaluation of other ecological characteristics of the coffee plantation to
promote a discussion with farmers on pest-environment interactions. The aim is to
identify a new ecological equilibrium in the system that requires lower use of
pesticides to sustain a healthy coffee production system (Staver et al., 2001).
Rather than promote regular scoring of pests this approach aims to enable farmers
to identify ecological conditions, particularly shade-levels, that minimize the
incidence of pests present in the system. It is based on analyzing the existing
variability in the coffee agroecosystem to identify the conditions that minimize
the incidence of pests. This can be done within a training event and does not
necessarily require farmers to undertake scoring or other diagnoses alone.
As part of a participatory research process with the Pikin Guerrero Cooperative of
Masaya in Nicaragua it was agreed to undertake an agroecological diagnosis of
the coffee plantations. The diagnostic tools were provided by the researchers
(Haggar and Staver, 2001), but the interpretation and management conclusions
drew upon the knowledge and experience of the farmers. To implement the
diagnosis the coffee plantation was divided into lots with different characteristics.
In each lot the farmers conducted a diagnosis of the shade cover, scored pests,
disease and weed incidence, and an estimated crop production (summarized in
Table 1). Analysis of the relationships between pests, shade and production in the
different lots enabled the farmers to come to the following management decisions.
a. In the Zapote lot, high incidence of coffee leaf rust and coffee berry borer
correlated with heavy shade, but there was also a high incidence of aggressive
weeds. Farmers conducted a light reduction of shade by pruning the trees.
b. In the Diamante lot, the high incidence of anthracnosis was attributed to
coffee plants stressed by low levels of shade, high incidence of grass weeds
and a moderate production. The farmers have planted evergreen shade in place
of the deciduous shade to reduce stress on the coffee.
c. Cola de Ardilla lot, although it exhibited acceptable average shade levels, it
had low estimated production, probably due to inherent low fertility of the
plot. The farmers have introduced evergreen legume shade trees to the plot to
improve soil fertility and in the long-term replace non-legume shade trees.
Table 1. Agroecological diagnosis done by the Pikin Guerrero Cooperative,
Masaya, Nicaragua.
El Diamante
Cola de
El Zapote lot
lot
Ardilla lot
Incidence of pests and diseases %
Leaves with leaf rust
0
0.5
5.2
Leaves with iron spot
0
9.5
8.5
Leaves with anthracnosis
6.8
1
0
Fruits with berry borer
0.3
0
2.6
Fruits with iron spot
1.7
0.9
5.7
Weed cover %
Grasses
29
6
24
Broad-leaved perennials
14
8
26
Broad-leaved annuals
12
8
10
Vines
13
0
12
Cover weeds
20
12
18
Litter
0
40
12
Soil
12
24
4
Shade levels %
Dry season
4
42
90
Wet season
46
64
90
Yield
Estimated production kg/ha
820
600
1700
INTEGRATED COFFEE SYSTEM MANAGEMENT
In the above case, an existing coffee plantation was redesigned primarily to
reduce pest and disease incidence. Nevertheless, design of the coffee
agroecosystem needs to take into account many more factors than just the
suppression of pests. The facilitation of the design of new coffee production
systems takes into account not just the agroecological conditions for coffee but
also the production aims of the farmer. Most small-scale coffee farmers produce
many different products from their coffee agroforestry systems, both for sale and
for home consumption (Schibli, 2001), most important are bananas and firewood.
With the Yasica Sur community we developed a process of participatory design
and management of new coffee plantations. This includes qualifying the
importance of the different services that are provided by the components of the
production system (Table 2). On the basis of this general evaluation the farmers
then drew on paper the planting scheme for the plantation, including details such
as the orientation of the planting lines compared to the slope. After planting of the
coffee and trees, periodically the farmers reported on the success of their
establishment including evaluations of coffee plant vigor and survival, as well as
incidence of pests and diseases. Analysis of these reports jointly by farmers and
researchers indicated that poor survival in the first year was mainly due to failure
to establish temporary shade. This was a result of various factors including poor
seed germination and late planting. In the second year farmers gave planting
shade priority together with replanting the lost coffee.
Table 2. Farmer evaluation and design of new coffee plantations in Yasica Sur,
Matagalpa, Nicaragua.
Type of tree or
Level of Benefit from Species
Number per ha
crop
Household Sale
Shade for Coffee decide by farmers
Bananas
High
High
High
156 (temporary)
Inga
High
Little
High
120
Oranges
High
High
Little
Avocado
High
High
Moderate
}5-20 of each
Water apple
High
Moderate Moderate
Spanish cedar High
High
Little
Salmwood
High
High
Little
}20 of each
Coyote
High
High
Moderate
Total
200 trees plus
160 bananas
One of the principal limitations identified with farmers is how to sustain the
fertilization of their coffee, which is often their principal cash investment in the
crop. Farmers had been experimenting with different kinds of organic fertilizers
including compost, bocashi, and worm-compost. With farmers in Yasica Sur we
compared production costs of these alternatives. Generally they did not have
sufficient on-farm supplies of two of the most important ingredients for the
compost: manure and coffee pulp. Although they were coffee farmers they only
produce a tenth of the amount of coffee pulp needed. Also they did not have
livestock. Demand for manure had created a market for it, and even when free,
transport costs were too high. Bocashi had even higher ingredient costs, though
transport costs were low due to the lower volumes of imported materials. The
general response of farmers was to produce small quantities of compost mostly
using the materials they had available and a minimum quantity of bought
materials. The quantity produced was generally a tenth of that needed to meet the
levels of application in organic coffee production manuals. Subsequently, we
analyzed with the farmers what other sources of organic material they had
available for making compost: banana stems, household waste, cut weeds, and
prunings from trees were amongst those identified.
Many other management issues have also been analyzed and alternatives tested by
farmers. These include the use of fermented organic mixes and mineral
suspensions for disease control, different pruning strategies to regenerate the
productive capacity of the plants, and application of fungal insecticides. Farmers
in the groups also keep registers of their activities and the amounts of labor and
materials used. At the end of each year costs and income are compared between
the farmers to identify successful cost-reduction practices. For example, in Yasica
Sur, farmers have concluded that by planting cover crops such as Canavalia
ensiformis in young coffee they can reduce the number of cleanings from 4 to just
2, a practice that many farmers have now adopted.
TRAINING IN THE WIDESPREAD USE OF AGROECOLOGICAL
DECISION-MAKING FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF COFFEE
Utilizing the experience developed in participatory research in 1999 the CATIE
“Program on ecologically based implementation of integrated pest management
and coffee agroforestry in Nicaragua and Central America” project implemented
widespread training of coffee extensionists in Nicaragua. The project was
implemented in collaboration with national institutions that form the Nicaraguan
Coffee Group, principally the National Agrarian University, the Nicaraguan
Union of Coffee Producers, and NGO’s. Over the last 3 years with national coffee
specialists, a training curriculum was defined for the major aspects of coffee
management. The curriculum content centers on the development of field
exercises to improve understanding of ecological and management interactions in
the coffee plantation. Training booklets and guidelines have been published
presenting these exercises.
The training is based on a process of feedback and reinforcement that draws on
the menu of training exercises available in the curriculum. The extensionists
receive an initial technical and methodological workshop followed by 4 or 5
reinforcing workshops during the year. The topics of each workshop are selected
in accordance with crop stage and coffee management during the following two
months. The extensionists use this material for the training workshops they
conduct with their farmer groups, the results from which they report back to the
next reinforcement workshop. The initial workshop with the farmers is to conduct
a diagnosis of the farmers production concerns and reach a consensus with group
about the topics to be addressed during the year. This provides feedback to adjust
the training curriculum of the extensionists in subsequent sessions. It is
considered that extensionists and farmers should participate in this process for
two years to cover the principal issues of coffee management.
Over three years some 135 extensionists from 45 institutions covering the 5
principal coffee growing areas of Nicaragua have completed a training program.
Each collaborating institution has it’s own policy for the promotion of changes in
the management of coffee (e.g. organic production), for which it is hoped the
principals of ecological decision-making aid in their effective implementation.
Subsequently pilot zones have been established in the other four Central
American countries to test these methods in different social and ecological
conditions (Table 3).
Table 3. Participation in training in different Central American countries
Nicaragua Honduras El Salvador Guatemala Costa Rica
1999-2001 2001
2001
2001
2002
Households 8,000
600
120
155
150
Technicians 170
40
10
15
20
Institutions 45
15
5
4
5
Total
9,200
240
84
At the beginning and end of each cropping cycle farmers complete a questionnaire
about their use of decision-making tools and the management of their coffee. One
of the primary changes in management by the 4,500 farmers in Nicaragua who
participated in training between 1999 and 2000 was a reduction in pesticide use
from 6.3 l/ha to 2.4 l/ha. This coincided with a slight increase, 8%, in production
from 1.75 t/ha to 1.90 t/ha against a 24% decline in national average yield during
the same period. Farmer practices that enabled them to achieve this included:
 68% removed berry infected by berry-borer before harvest and collected
berries left over after the harvest.
 63% conducted integrated pest scoring
 62% promoted natural soil cover plants
 55% planted shade trees
These changes were promoted by technicians from collaborating institutions who
were trained by the CATIE project. The following are the principal abilities
developed by extensionists in training farmers:
 90% conducted field exercises with farmers
 87% analyzed data with farmers about the incidence of pests and what
management decisions to take
 84% promoted interchanges of experience between farmers
 75% analyzed the benefits of shade trees and their management in the coffee
 72% promoted the participation of women in the events by inviting all
members of the family to attend, and soliciting participation from women.
THE NEXT STAGE: ENTREPRENUERIAL REASONING
The project is continually adapting and developing new methods based on the
needs of farmers, and CATIE and collaborator learning. The crash in coffee prices
over the last 2 years has created new urgencies among small coffee farmers. The
agroecological management of coffee has enabled some farmers to reduce cash
costs of coffee production while maintaining healthy coffee plantations. Many
small coffee farmers, due to financial constraints, have become almost by
accident organic farmers. Aware of the higher prices for organic coffee, farmer
groups are moving to certify their production as organic or eco-friendly.
Ecologically based decision making not only provides farmers with the technical
know-how to convert to organic coffee management, but also helps farmers
develop the routine of registering coffee production activities and costs that
certification requires. The current challenge is to develop a curriculum to increase
the capacity of farmers in the marketing of their coffee. Farmers need to improve
their knowledge of the quality and value added characteristics that the consumer
markets require and thus identify the potential market niches available to them.
Also the farmers need better organization to sell their coffee as a group rather than
individually in order to increase their negotiating power with coffee buyers. Skills
to negotiate product placement higher in the commercialization chain, would also
increase farmer income. Thus we hope to respond to the needs of the farmers to
adapt to the current ecological and economic conditions, but also increase their
capacity to face the challenges of the future.
REFEENCES
Clemens H. and Simon J. (1993) Tecnología y Desarrollo del Sector Cafetalero en
Nicaragua. Series CIES/ESECA 93.2, UNA, Managua, Nicaragua
Guhuray F., Monterrey J., Monterroso D., Staver C. (2000) Manejo Integral de
Plagas en el Cultivo de Café. Manual Técnico No. 44. CATIE, Managua,
Nicaragua.
Haggar J.P. and Staver (2001) Cómo determinar la cantidad de sombra que
disminuya los problemas fitosanitarios de café? Agroforestería en Las Américas,
8: 42-45.
Samayoa J. and Sanchez V. (2000) Enfermedades foliares en café orgánico y
convencional. Manejo Integral de Plagas (Costa Rica) 59:9-19.
Schibli C. (2001) Percepciones de familias productoras sobre el uso y manejo de
sistemas agroforestales con café en el norte de Nicaragua. Agroforestería en las
Américas. 8: 8-14.
Staver C., Guhuray F., Monterroso D., Muschler R. (2001) Designing pestsuppressive multistrata perennial crop systems: shade grown coffee in Central
America. Agroforestry Systems. 53: 151-170.
Corresponding author: Jeremy Haggar, CATIE, Nicabox 112, P.O. Box 52-7444,
Miami, Florida 33152. U.S.A.
Phone: (Nicaragua) 505 2657268, fax 505 2657114, jhaggar@ibw.com.ni
Paper submitted for oral presentation in Farming Systems Education and Training