Enabling technology futures:
a survey of the Australian
technology landscape
National Enabling Technologies
Strategy Expert Forum
Prepared by the Australian Institute for Commercialisation
For the Department of Industry, Innovation, Science, Research and Tertiary
Education
Enabling technology futures: a survey of the Australian technology landscape
Disclaimer
This report provides insight into the future of enabling technologies and areas of convergence. The Commonwealth,
its officers and employees do not guarantee, and accept no legal liability whatsoever arising from or connected to,
the accuracy, currency, completeness and relevance of the material contained in this report. This report is not meant
to constitute professional advice and any persons should seek competent professional advice. The Australian
Government accepts no liability whatsoever for any loss to any person resulting from the use of this material.
Copyright
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced
by any process without prior written permission from the Commonwealth. Requests and inquiries concerning
reproduction and rights should be addressed to the Department of Industry, Innovation, Science, Research and
Tertiary Education, GPO Box 9839, Canberra ACT 2601.
Reference
Department of Industry, Innovation, Science, Research and Tertiary Education (2012). Enabling technology futures:
a survey of the Australian technology landscape. DIISTRE, Canberra.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
Enabling technology futures: a survey of the Australian technology landscape
Table of Contents
1.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..................................................................................................1
1.1
Key Findings and Considerations .................................................................................2
1.1.1
Nanotechnology ....................................................................................................3
1.1.2
Biotechnology .......................................................................................................3
1.1.3
Synthetic Biology..................................................................................................4
1.1.4
Influences Affecting Adoption .............................................................................5
2. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................6
3. KEY TRENDS AND DRIVERS ..........................................................................................8
3.1
Globalisation .................................................................................................................8
3.2
Energy and the Environment ........................................................................................8
3.3
Resource Efficiency and Waste Management ..............................................................9
3.4
Ageing Population ........................................................................................................9
3.5
Changing Consumer Needs...........................................................................................9
4. ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES SUMMARY TABLE .....................................................11
5. NANOTECHNOLOGY ......................................................................................................15
5.1
Nanotechnology Global Market Overview .................................................................16
5.2
Nanotechnology Analysis ...........................................................................................19
5.3
Drivers.........................................................................................................................22
5.4
Opportunities...............................................................................................................23
5.5
Barriers ........................................................................................................................26
5.6
Risks............................................................................................................................29
5.7
Disruptive Potential ....................................................................................................30
5.8
Nanotools and Platforms .............................................................................................31
5.8.1
Global Demand and Applications .......................................................................31
5.9
Manufactured Nanomaterials and Components ..........................................................34
5.9.1
Global Demand and Applications .......................................................................35
5.9.2
Current and Emerging Developments .................................................................38
5.10 Nanodevices and Systems ...........................................................................................44
5.10.1 Global Demand and Applications .......................................................................44
5.10.2 Current and Emerging Developments .................................................................45
6. BIOTECHNOLOGY ..........................................................................................................50
6.1
Biotechnology Global Market Overview ....................................................................51
6.2
Drivers.........................................................................................................................52
6.3
Opportunities...............................................................................................................53
6.4
Barriers ........................................................................................................................54
6.5
Risks............................................................................................................................55
6.6
Disruptive Potential ....................................................................................................56
6.7
Emerging Biotechnology Techniques .........................................................................57
6.8
Biotechnology Applications........................................................................................63
6.8.1
Medical Biotechnology .......................................................................................63
6.8.2
Industrial Biotechnology.....................................................................................67
6.8.3
Agricultural Biotechnology ................................................................................75
6.8.4
Biotechnology and Nanotechnology Convergence .............................................83
7. SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY ...................................................................................................85
7.1
Synthetic Biology Global Market Overview ..............................................................86
7.2
Drivers.........................................................................................................................88
7.3
Opportunities...............................................................................................................88
7.3.1
Advancing Scientific Knowledge and Understanding ........................................89
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Enabling technology futures: a survey of the Australian technology landscape
7.4
Barriers ........................................................................................................................90
7.4.1
Scalability from Laboratory Trials......................................................................90
7.4.2
Underestimated Complexity ...............................................................................90
7.4.3
A Gap between Tools and Applications .............................................................91
7.4.4
Ethical Debates ...................................................................................................91
7.5
Risks............................................................................................................................92
7.5.1
Risks Associated with Renewable Energy Applications ....................................93
7.5.2
Risks Associated with Medical Applications .....................................................93
7.5.3
Risks Associated with Agricultural, Food, and Environmental Applications ....94
7.5.4
Biosecurity and Biosafety ...................................................................................94
7.6
Disruptive Potential ....................................................................................................96
7.7
Synthetic Biology Applications ..................................................................................97
7.7.1
Renewable Energy Applications .........................................................................97
7.7.2
Applications in the Food Industry.....................................................................100
7.7.3
Environmental Applications .............................................................................102
7.7.4
Convergence with Other Enabling Technologies .............................................103
8. CONTRIBUTION TO ADDRESSING AUSTRALIA’S MAJOR NATIONAL
CHALLENGES ........................................................................................................................106
8.1
Mining Boom ............................................................................................................106
8.1.1
Overview ...........................................................................................................106
8.1.2
The Role of Enabling Technologies .................................................................107
8.2
Climate Change .........................................................................................................108
8.2.1
Overview ...........................................................................................................108
8.2.2
The Role of Enabling Technologies .................................................................110
8.3
Increasing Demand for Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Sources ............111
8.3.1
Overview ...........................................................................................................111
8.3.2
The Role of Enabling Technologies .................................................................112
8.4
Sustainable Use of Natural Resources ......................................................................117
8.4.1
Overview ...........................................................................................................117
8.4.2
The Role of Enabling Technologies .................................................................118
8.5
Ageing of the Population and Health ........................................................................119
8.5.1
Overview ...........................................................................................................119
8.5.2
The Role of Enabling Technologies .................................................................121
8.6
Food Security ............................................................................................................127
8.6.1
Overview ...........................................................................................................127
8.6.2
The Role of Enabling Technologies .................................................................128
8.7
Biosecurity ................................................................................................................130
8.7.1
Overview ...........................................................................................................130
8.7.2
The Role of Enabling Technologies .................................................................130
8.8
Global Competitiveness and Productivity of Australian Industry ............................131
8.8.1
Overview ...........................................................................................................131
8.8.2
The Role of Enabling Technologies .................................................................133
8.9
National Defence and Security .................................................................................135
8.9.1
Overview ...........................................................................................................135
8.9.2
The Role of Enabling Technologies .................................................................136
8.10 Summary ...................................................................................................................139
9. INFLUENCES AFFECTING THE ADOPTION OF ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES ..146
9.1
Market-pull Commercialisation ................................................................................146
9.2
Absorptive Capacity..................................................................................................147
9.3
Government Support for Research and Enabling Technologies ...............................148
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Enabling technology futures: a survey of the Australian technology landscape
9.4
Convergence of Technologies...................................................................................148
9.5
Collaboration between Research and Industry Sectors .............................................150
9.6
Incremental, Radical and Transformational Innovation ...........................................150
9.7
Product Innovation versus Market Innovation ..........................................................151
9.8
Knowledge of Enabling Technologies ......................................................................151
9.9
Regulatory Environment ...........................................................................................152
9.9.1
Effects of Regulation on Innovation .................................................................152
9.9.2
Regulatory Barriers ...........................................................................................153
9.10 Intellectual Property Rights ......................................................................................153
9.10.1 Regulation and Legislative Environments ........................................................155
9.10.2 Commercialisation ............................................................................................156
9.11 Ethical Considerations ..............................................................................................157
9.11.1 Human Enhancement ........................................................................................157
9.11.2 Social Implications............................................................................................159
10. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...........................................................................................160
11. REFERENCE LIST ..........................................................................................................162
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In the next ten to twenty years, the bio- and nano-enabling technologies, converging
with information technologies and cognitive science, will have a significant impact on
society, industry and the consumer, both in Australia and globally. The enabling
technologies of nanotechnology, biotechnology, and synthetic biology (an advanced
form of biotechnology) are the subject of this report, Enabling technology futures: a
survey of the Australian technology landscape (ET Futures). They have the potential
to revolutionise science, health, energy, resources, the environment, consumer
products and manufacturing processes. These enabling technologies have the potential
to make a significant contribution to addressing the global challenges we face
however this can only be achieved through successful translation and
commercialisation of new products, services and systems. Enabling technologies also
raise specific challenges themselves—for government, industry and consumers—
which must be identified and addressed as these technologies become more readily
available.
The National Enabling Technology Strategy (NETS) was established in 2009 to
provide a framework to support the responsible development of enabling
technologies. Under the Strategy, an Expert Forum was established with the
responsibility to undertake foresighting activities to identify ways in which enabling
technologies might contribute to addressing major global and national challenges, and
to support the development of appropriate policy and regulatory frameworks.
This report, carried out under the auspices of the Expert Forum, provides a view of
the future of nanotechnology, biotechnology and synthetic biology, including areas of
convergence, and provides readers with insights into emerging applications that are
informing future strategies, products, markets and investment opportunities. These
three types of enabling technologies have been selected as they are considered
fundamental to research and development (R&D) across a wide number of areas,
including manufacturing, energy production and agriculture.
The technologies and their applications are described in terms of their stage of
development - horizon 1 (already being commercialised), horizon 2 (lab bench) and
horizon 3 (blue sky), with an emphasis on horizon 2 and horizon 3 developments.
ET Futures is supported by information and data on each of the enabling technology
areas including drivers, opportunities, risks, barriers, challenges and their disruptive
potential. Disruptive potential refers to impact of new technologies on existing
manufacturing processes, systems, industries and markets. The report then proceeds to
discuss factors influencing the adoption of enabling technologies and their potential to
address major national challenges.
Nanotechnology, involves the manipulation of matter on the nanometer scale (1nm to
100nm). The International Organisation for Standardization (ISO) defines
nanotechnology as ‘the application of scientific knowledge to manipulate and control
matter in the nanoscale in order to make use of size- and structure-dependent
properties and phenomena, as distinct from those associated with individual atoms or
molecules or with bulk materials’. It is a multidisciplinary field encompassing
biology, chemistry, physics and engineering. Nanotechnology researchers are
focusing on a range of issues to improve the performance, multi-functionality,
integration, and sustainability of products and systems for a variety of emerging and
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
converging applications. This will result in a suite of new manufactured
nanomaterials, nanodevices and nanosystems with unprecedented properties and
functionality. Research, particularly on manufactured nanomaterials, has shown the
potential to have a widespread impact in health, information, energy and many other
fields. However, there are many factors to be considered, and challenges to be
overcome, in adopting nanotechnologies: this study aims to highlight these
considerations.
Biotechnology is the application of science and technology to living organisms and
products of living organisms, to produce knowledge, goods and services. In the next
decade, advancements in biotechnology are expected to achieve significant advances
in genomic information and genetic engineering; new developments in therapeutics
and personalised medicine; increased yield of plant and animal foods; and the
development of a number of biological based products such as bioplastics,
biocatalysts and advanced biofuels. However, the biotechnology industry faces many
barriers to success, most important of which are those that affect the development of
appropriate research and technology transfer capability, including access to funding,
shortage of skills and regulatory issues.
Synthetic biology, an advanced form of biotechnology, is an emerging field of
research that combines elements of biology, engineering, genetics, chemistry, and
computer science. It converges with nanotechnology in that it involves molecular
engineering at the nanoscale. Whilst the timeframes for commercialisation are longer
than that of nanotechnology and biotechnology, the potential promise of synthetic
biology is immense, including applications in: clean energy and biofuels, pollution
control and remediation, agriculture and food, medicine and health, and biosensors.
While most of the outputs of synthetic biology remain in early stages of development,
some applications are expected to come to market within a few years. However, the
pace of acceleration of synthetic biology is likely to increase dramatically in the years
ahead, and is expected to impact many products and services.
1.1
Key Findings and Considerations
Australia possesses world-class enabling technology strengths—including world
leading research organisations—with the prospect to lead future developments and
market applications. For Australia to remain globally competitive against advanced
and emerging economies in research, scientific know-how and product innovation, it
will need to capitalise on its existing comparative advantages in these domains. The
development of new enabling technology applications, their translation into valuable
outcomes for business and society, and their subsequent adoption will require close
collaboration between government, industry and the broader community. In this
respect, it must be noted that underlying skills in enabling sciences such as physics,
chemistry and mathematics are vital for the development of enabling technologies and
their applications.
A number of major challenges are facing Australia, both locally and from a global
perspective. The key challenges discussed in ET Futures are:




Capturing opportunities from the mining boom
Impacts of climate change
Increasing demand for energy
Sustainable use of natural resources
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape




Ageing of the population and health
Food security with rising global demand for food
Biosecurity
Changing factors of global competitiveness aligned with major shifts in the global
geo-political economy
 National defence and security
These challenges will impact on the future growth and prosperity of Australia and will
need to be mitigated for the benefit and advancement of the nation. Many
applications, such as materials and energy production systems present challenges of
production cost and complexity and will require more time for adaptation. Australia’s
comparative advantage for enabling technologies may lie in areas of strength such as
minerals and agriculture.
1.1.1 Nanotechnology
Applications derived from nanotechnologies are expected to make a significant
contribution to diverse fields such as:

Water purification and treatment, which will become increasingly important in
urban areas, agriculture and mining, particularly as a result of the impact of
climate change
 Health care, involving applications in medicine, dentistry, pharmaceuticals and
diagnostics
 Energy efficiency and clean energy technologies, including improved battery
storage, improved solar cells, and micropower supplies for personal electronics
ET Futures examines these applications in terms of tools and platforms; component
materials and reagents; structures, devices and applications; and systems integration
and intelligence.
Nanoparticles occur naturally, but nanotechnology can involve engineering
nanoparticles to form manufactured nanomaterials, with a range of useful and novel
properties, which may pose risks through inhalation, dermal penetration or
environmental persistence. Research into nano-toxicology is needed to evaluate the
impact of these new technologies on the environment, ecological systems and human
health.
Nanotechnology can be used to address Australia’s national challenges in various
ways, including nanosensors for resource management and environmental
remediation; efficient energy production, storage and transmission; nanomaterials for
tissue engineering, medical imaging and drug delivery; agrosensors to monitor crop
and animal health; improved manufacturing methods; high-performance coatings;
sensors for the detection of chemical and biological threats; explosives and propulsion
systems; and robotic climbers for rough terrain.
1.1.2 Biotechnology
Although a more mature technology than nanotechnology, future innovation in
biotechnology—including industrial biotechnology—will continue to contribute in a
range of fields, including:



Agriculture; genetic modifications of crops and treatments of diseases and pests
Biofuels
Bioinformatics
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
 Chemical and plastics industry feedstock; replacing petroleum derived products
 Diagnostics
 Human therapeutics; stem cell therapies and regenerative medicine
 Reagents and other active molecules
As biotechnology is the application of technology to living organisms, it is subject to
extensive regulation which deals with both health and safety, and ethical issues.
Biotechnology faces considerable cost barriers for successful commercialisation
through clinical trials in medical biotechnologies, and comparative cost structures in
industrial biotechnology.
Biotechnology and nanotechnology are converging into a new field known as
nanobiotechnology. This field of study includes third generation DNA sequencing
that incorporates nanopores, and the development of bio-chips (lab on a chip)
involved in monitoring health.
Biotechnology has a role in addressing many of the Nation’s challenges, including
through bioremediation of contaminated sites; biohydrometallurgy and bioleaching
for enhanced mineral extraction; biorefining to create biofuels, platform chemicals
and plastics from non-fossil fuel sources; biosensors to monitor soil health; genetic
modification of crops to enabling adaption to a changing climate; personalised
therapeutics; regenerative medicine; plant diagnostics to detect diseases; marker
assisted selection for breeding of livestock; biomemetic security devices; and
biomaterials for enhanced performance and camouflage.
1.1.3 Synthetic Biology
Synthetic biology is an advanced form of biotechnology that incorporates and extends
nanobiotechnology, involving molecular engineering at the nanoscale. It combines
elements of biology, engineering, genetics, chemistry, and computer science.
Synthetic biology uses biochemical processes, molecules, and structures in novel and
potentially useful ways through the modification of biological systems and the design
and construction of biological systems not specifically found in nature. Research into
synthetic biology is only a decade old but it has the potential to impact on many future
applications, including:
 Biofuels; such as algae-based products
 Hydrogen fuel
 Biohydrometallurgy in mining
 Regenerative and personalised medicine; such as vaccines
 Food additives
 Environmental remediation
 Biosensors
 Genome engineering
Applications using synthetic biology raise new concerns about national security,
biosecurity, and the use of technology for the enhancement of human performance.
Although the technologies are still developing, synthetic biology could potentially
contribute to addressing Australia’s national challenges in ways such as harvesting of
coal bed methane through synthetic microbial digestion; development of high-yield,
disease-resistant plant feedstocks; enhanced enzymes for food production/processing;
genetic tagging for biosecurity; and the creation of enzymes to neutralise toxic agents.
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
1.1.4 Influences Affecting Adoption
The next decade promises the emergence of revolutionary enabling technologies that
have the potential to provide new opportunities, deliver new applications, influence
existing manufacturing practices, develop new products and services, and solve
complex societal challenges. However, to obtain significant value from enabling
technologies they must first be successfully translated, commercialised and adopted.
Therefore, a number of factors have been identified that influence the successful
adoption and utilisation of enabling technologies. These include:

Market-pull Commercialisation:
The need for demand driven commercialisation strategies that focus on developing
new products and services to address existing problems and challenges.

Absorptive Capacity:
The ability to recognise valuable new enabling technologies and apply them to
commercial ends.

Government Support for Research and Enabling Technologies
The need for continued Government support for research, infrastructure, training,
and collaboration.

Convergence of Technologies:
Increased interdisciplinary—particularly convergence with the cognitive
sciences—leads to challenges around regulation, funding requirements and skills
development.

Collaboration between Research and Industry Sectors:
The need to develop strong networks between research and industry sectors to
ensure public acceptance of new technologies.

Incremental, Radical and Transformational Innovation:
Innovation speed is a significant challenge for enabling technology based
companies who find issues such as scalability lead to long R&D cycles.

Product Innovation versus Market Innovation:
Business model innovation can allow firms to enter into new market spaces.

Knowledge of Enabling Technologies:
Promoting public awareness of enabling technologies and ensuring democratic
engagement with the wider community in decision making about technology
development.

Regulatory Environment:
The regulatory environment can influence the direction of research into enabling
technologies, the type of research that is commercially viable, and the costs of
research and development.

Intellectual Property Rights:
Protection of intellectual property is particularly important for enabling technology
investors because the research is capital intensive with long and costly lead times.

Ethical Considerations:
Technological advances are surrounded by ethical issues, such as how we can or
should change ourselves and our environments.
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
2. INTRODUCTION
The Australian National Enabling Technologies Strategy (NETS) Expert Forum is
focused on new forms of nanotechnology, biotechnology and synthetic biology. This
includes areas of technology intersection and those enabled by information and
communication technology (ICT) and cognitive science. These new enabling
technologies are also often referred to as NBIC (nano-bio-info-cogno) or GRIN
(genetics, robotics, information, nanotechnology) technologies in literature describing
this emerging field.
Although significant overlap and convergence exists between nanotechnology,
biotechnology and synthetic biology, each of these enabling technologies are
described, analysed and discussed through three separate perspectives, giving both a
global perspective, and relating this to the particular context of developments in
Australia.
ET Futures seeks to identity:
1. New and enabling technologies, providing a horizon scan of what is currently
commercialised (horizon 1)
2. What is currently under development (lab bench) with expected
commercialisation within the next decade (horizon 2)
3. Long-term (blue sky - greater than 20 years) technologies and applications
(horizon 3).
The document aims to outline enabling technology issues that may arise in terms of
drivers, opportunities, barriers, risks, and disruptive potential (the potential to disrupt
existing industrial processes, industries and markets). The document also aims to
examine the potential for the enabling technologies to address Australia’s major
national challenges including climate change, energy use, resource efficiency, health
and ageing, national security and leveraging the mining boom. ET Futures is intended
to help guide the development of a portfolio of priority national investments in these
enabling technologies to help sustain Australia’s global competitiveness in scientific
and technological knowledge, leading to the successful commercialisation of valueadded goods and services.
This report outlines possibilities (especially across horizon 2 and 3) which may or
may not be achieved. Potential benefits will need to be considered against any risk
and concerns, and the degree to which they can be appropriately managed.
The scope of this project includes a desktop review and foresight exercise to assess
the potential development, direction and adoption of new and converging enabling
technologies that are relevant both in Australia and internationally.
Key trends and drivers that influence the development and application of emerging
enabling technologies are outlined in Section 3. These include major international and
geopolitical trends, such as increased competition from emerging economies in the
technology sector, demographic trends such as changing consumer needs and ageing
populations, and climate change. Also addressed is the increased global pressure on
natural resources, and the need for improved and sustainable resource use and waste
management. A further trend is increasing consumer activism around ethics, the
environment, and health and safety issues associated with new technologies.
Sections 5, 6 and 7 provide a scan of enabling technologies, segmented by
nanotechnology, biotechnology and synthetic biology, respectively, with focus placed
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
on horizon 2 and horizon 3 developments. Major drivers, opportunities, barriers, risks
and disruptive potential are discussed for each segment. Increasing convergence of
disciplines was identified as a common theme among and between all technology
areas. The technology scan is compiled into a summary table of emerging
technologies in Section 4.
Both currently and continuing into the future, Australia is and will face a number of
major national challenges. Many of these challenges are global in their nature, but
will present unique problems for Australia. Addressing these challenges will be vital
to ensure the future growth and prosperity of the nation, and will require a response
that addresses Australia’s distinct national circumstances. Section 8 considers how the
enabling technologies identified in this document might make a significant
contribution to the major challenges faced by Australia. The discussion takes into
account the opportunities, risks and barriers specific to these new and emergent
enabling technologies. The major national challenges identified and considered in
Section 8 are as follows:
 Capturing opportunities from the mining boom
 Impacts of climate change
 Increasing demand for energy
 Sustainable use of natural resources
 Ageing of the population
 Food security
 Biosecurity
 Global competitiveness and productivity of Australian industry
 National defence
Section 9 presents a concluding discussion of the factors that influence the adoption
and utilisation of enabling technologies. It examines the challenges to uptake of
enabling technologies in Australia including the move from technology-push to
market-pull commercialisation and issues of absorptive capacity. The ability for these
technologies to provide new products and services, and address complex societal
challenges depends on major market barriers and drivers. Convergence of
technologies and disciplines, and collaboration between researchers, governments and
the private sector are also major themes in the successful commercialisation and
adoption of enabling technologies, and the subject of a range of government
initiatives that will impact on the uptake of the enabling technologies. Another major
factor is the regulation of the technologies to manage environmental health and safety
issues, which are being addressed by regulators through the Health, Safety and
Environment Working Group of NETS, and Australia’s active participation in major
international collaboration on these issues. Finally ET Futures will also examine
ethical issues that are likely to arise in relation to the application of the enabling
technologies to human enhancement, as well as to the treatment of genetic disorders,
disabilities, injury and degenerative diseases.
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
3. KEY TRENDS AND DRIVERS
Over the next ten to twenty years a number of key trends and drivers will influence
enabling technologies and their potential to revolutionise the way people, industry and
society will behave from an economic, social, cultural and environmental perspective.
Many broad societal factors will interact with enabling technologies. This will
significantly influence the development of new emergent and converging
technologies, products, and services to solve these broad societal issues and
challenges.
3.1
Globalisation
The global economy, although currently in a state of fluctuation, will continue to
grow and develop through the influence of developing nations such as China, India,
Russia and parts of South America. This will be predominantly driven by their
increasing demand for a number of commodities and products, including food,
energy, resources, minerals, water and consumer products. Many companies have
already shifted or will shift their focus towards the needs of these developing nations.
For example, the Chinese economy will continue to expand rapidly in the next decade
and its demand for food, water, energy, iron ore and coal will remain elevated.
The digital information economy has significantly changed the way communities
communicate, conduct business, educate people, track the movement of diseases and
monitor changing environmental conditions. The increased spread and speed of
knowledge transfer has further opened global markets and increased competition, thus
speeding the process of globalisation. As much of the research and advancement in
enabling technologies will occur beyond our shores, Australia will need strong
international research and industry partnerships to leverage the benefits of these
investments into Australia’s research community and industries.
The effects of globalisation play an important role in the formulation of policies to
support industry sectors such as those discussed in this report. Globalisation means
that Australian policy strategies cannot be developed in isolation of the global
economy. Insights into where Australia fits into the overall enabling technologies
value chain must be gained to better understand where Australian industry can
leverage its expertise to maximise value for the nation. In this respect, the creation of
high-tech labour forces may be advantageous to Australia’s position in the global
economy.
3.2
Energy and the Environment
Existing fossil fuel supplies are expected to diminish significantly over the next
twenty years. Therefore, increased demand for alternative energy sources will emerge
in order to power the needs of the increasing global population and the industries that
supply their products and services. Future alternative energy systems will be
characterised as predominantly clean, renewable in nature and possessing a low or
negligible carbon emission in the whole lifecycle of energy production.
Environmental responsibility through new regulations and society’s changing
attitudes for lower carbon emissions will have a significant impact on industry.
Society and governments will continue to demand increased environmental
responsibility from consumers and industry to reduce the impact of climate change on
the planet. Furthermore, protection of the natural environment, particularly
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
ecosystems that are currently under threat, will be a key focus in future business and
government decision-making, whereas in the past, many costs to industry associated
with pollution, environmental degradation and waste were externalised to be absorbed
by the natural environment. These costs are increasingly being factored into
production systems and human habitats.
3.3
Resource Efficiency and Waste Management
Organic and inorganic waste continues to grow and is becoming a significant burden
on local government authorities and a number of industries. As a result, new
regulations are emerging providing guidelines for managing and treating waste.
Future design for manufacture will need to take into consideration the full lifecycle of
new products, including packaging, recycling and reuse characteristics. Markets are
dictating a move towards minimal or no packaging and the use of biodegradable or
recyclable materials for new products. Organic waste has many beneficial uses if
managed and processed appropriately, including extraction of value-added bioactives,
fertiliser, and feedstock for energy production, such as biogas. Fast moving consumer
goods and other products and services will require redesign to minimise the waste
elements, maximise recycling and consider re-use using a “cradle-to-cradle” strategy
rather than a “cradle-to-grave” approach. Manufacturing businesses will increasingly
become more responsible for the management of waste emanating from the products
they develop.
3.4
Ageing Population
Australia’s ageing population will shift consumer demands, particularly towards
healthcare products and related applications. There is an emerging view that the flow
of funds needs to shift from stand-alone aged care facilities to ‘ageing in place’,
supporting older Australians to remain in their own homes and neighbourhoods while
receiving heath care and social support. The uptake of eHealth, telehealth and the
ability of new nano devices to monitor health in the home will support this shift.
Increased life expectancy among humans will also influence healthcare, through the
increased demand for medical products and services, including aged lifestyle and aged
care needs, particularly those associated with the management of chronic diseases that
increase with ageing. Furthermore, the ageing population is placing increased pressure
on pension funds, requiring new approaches to funding aged care services.1,2
3.5
Changing Consumer Needs
As the global population continues to grow and urbanise over the next ten to twenty
years, consumers will demand new leisure goods, telecommunications, electronics,
improved health products and services, mass transportation, basic commodities, food,
energy and water. Buyer behaviours will continue to influence global markets through
the ability of consumers to source products and services via the internet, resulting in
increased market competition and greater control of the value chain by consumers.
The demands for future food production stimulated by a growing global population
will require increased agricultural infrastructure and productivity. While food
1
Productivity Commission, Caring for Older Australians, June, 2011
DIISR, Report of the Industry Uptake Foresight Workshop: Enabling Assistive Technologies in Aged
Care, September, 2011
2
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
availability is not expected to cause too much concern within Australia, globally, food
shortages are expected to have a major impact. Satisfying the increased global
demand for food will require novel practices throughout the supply chain, particularly
in distribution.
Demand for raw materials to develop the products and services of the future will
increase, placing pressure on existing commodity prices. The shortage of rare earth
elements and diminishing essential raw materials will require replacement and
substitution that can only be achieved through revolutionary strategies.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
4. ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES SUMMARY TABLE
The NETS program was established in 2009 to provide a framework to support the
responsible development and uptake of enabling technologies. These enabling
technologies are expected to impact on and enable other technologies and applications
in many different industry sectors including manufacturing, agriculture and food,
energy, health, chemicals, plastics and pulp and paper. NETS’s aim has been to
improve the management and regulation of biotechnology and nanotechnology in
order to maximise community confidence and community benefits from the use of
new technology. As noted in the Strategy, issues related to the development of
enabling technologies straddle jurisdictional and portfolio boundaries, requiring
national coordination.
As enabling technologies span different industry sectors, and because their
commercial uptake is as yet in its infancy, to provide an overview of the enabling
technologies and their applications, the landscape of emergent bio- and nanoenabling technologies has been identified by conducting a comprehensive review of
academic literature, industry research databases, and publicly available reports from
relevant industry bodies, rather than through consultation with industry.
Major drivers, opportunities, barriers, risks, challenges and disruptive potential are
discussed for the three main technology segments: nanotechnologies, biotechnologies
and synthetic biology (which is a form of advanced biotechnology involving
molecular engineering at the nanoscale). Nanotechnologies, biotechnologies and
synthetic biology can enable other areas of science and technology, converging to
produce new research and technology developments for different and varied
applications.
Drawing on technology scans that focus on horizon 2 (lab bench) and horizon 3 (blue
sky), but also including horizon 1 (already being commercialised), a Summary Table
of these technologies and their applications has been developed to provide a ‘ready
reference’ for the range of developments in this rapidly emerging area of advanced
technology. In developing the ET Futures report some difficulty was experienced in
separating out horizon 2 and 3 technology developments and therefore a grey zone
exists between the two horizons resulting in potential overlap. ET Futures will help to
guide the development of a portfolio of priority national investments in these enabling
technologies.
For the purposes of this report, the enabling technologies are defined as having the
following characteristics:


Show high interdisciplinarity
Are transformative in nature and have the potential to disrupt or create entire
industries
 Have the potential for significant, systemic and long-lasting economic, social and
political impacts
 Have the potential for development of new capabilities that address existing
problems
 Open up new possibilities and markets Create new opportunities for responses
to global issues.
Although the ET Futures report focuses on nanotechnology, biotechnology and
synthetic biology, the enabling technologies are also converging with developments in
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
ICT and cognitive technologies in a range of fields that includes energy, medicine
education and human enhancement linked to strategic defence applications.
To assist in understanding the interdependent and overlapping nature of the
technologies and their applications, the framework of ET Futures adopts a four-stage
development, as outlined in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Enabling Technology Futures Framework
Source: AIC, 2011
Table 1 outlines a summary of ET Futures: providing a future outlook; highlighting
key horizon 1, 2 and 3 developments; and applications globally.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
12
Table 1: Developments and Applications in Nanotechnology, Biotechnology and Synthetic Biology
DEVELOPMENT AREA
HORIZON 1 - NOW
HORIZON 2 – 2011 TO 2020
Tools and Platforms
 Biological detection and analysis tools
 Nanolithography
 In silica modelling and simulation tools
 Nanofabrication tools
 Atomic force microscopy
 Molecular & genomic engineering
 Regenerative medicine
 RNAi and small RNAs
 Epialleles
 Whole genome selection
Components, Materials
 Nanoscale components
 Functional nanomaterials
and Reagents
 Nanomaterials
 Biomaterials
 Nano powders
 Biocatalysts
 Nanowires
 Nanomotors
 Thermoelectric devices
 Advanced stem cell technology
 Agrosensors
 Biohydrometallurgy
 Creation of functional organ
components and organs
Structures, Devices and  Passive nanoscale structures
 Synthesis of active nanostructures
Applications
 Biological detection devices
 Nanoscaffolds
 Stem cell therapies
 Smart medical devices
 Smart glazing
 Smart implants
 Nanostructured organic photovoltaics
 Nanoarrays
 Pest resistance and herbicide tolerance  Biosensors
 Marker assisted selection
 Composite structures
 Somatic cell nuclear transfer (livestock)  Advanced semiconductors
 Holographic memory
 Bioremediation
 Re-engineered metabolic pathways
 Crops with durable disease resistance
Systems Integration
 Bioinformatics
 Biological electronic interfaces (RFID)
and Intelligence
 Integrated energy storage systems
 Pharmocogenomics
 Solid state lighting
 Drug delivery systems
 Synthetic tissues
 Fuel cells
 Biofuels
 Bioplastics
 Cell-based therapies
 Nanohydrogen production and storage
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012

HORIZON 3 – BEYOND 2020
Biomolecular engineering and design
tools
Genomic engineering




Engineered functional genomes
Metamaterials
Biocompatible nanomaterials
Advanced enzymes





















Functional biological nanostructures
Self-powered devices
Nanomachines
Nanorobots
Advanced composite ceramics
Nano-based semiconductors
Nanotribology
Nanojoining
Nanosensors
Microbial enhanced oil recovery
Increased yield potential in crops
Disease resistant transgenic livestock
Biomimetic design processes
Biofabrication templates
Directed self-assembly systems
Tissue engineering systems
Metabolic pathway engineering
Nanoinformatics
Nanocomputing
Geoengineering
Nanobiotechnology

13
DEVELOPMENT AREA
HORIZON 1 - NOW

HORIZON 2 – 2011 TO 2020
Personalised medicine and
therapeutics

HORIZON 3 – BEYOND 2020
Cognitive science integration
Source: Australian Institute for Commercialisation, 2011
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
5. NANOTECHNOLOGY
There is on-going international debate and discussion about the correct definition of
nanotechnology, however, according to the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO), nanotechnology is defined as: the application of scientific
knowledge to manipulate and control matter at the nanoscale level to make use of size
and structure dependent properties and phenomena distinct from those associated with
individual atoms or molecules or with bulk materials. Further information can be
found in: ISO/TS27687 (Nanotechnologies - Terminology and definitions for nanoobjects) and ISO/TS80004 (Nanotechnologies - Vocabulary).
The nanoscale is the size range from approximately 1nm to 100nm.3 At this size
range, the laws of physics operate in unfamiliar ways, and it is this that determines
both the constraints and the opportunities of nanotechnologies and nanoscience.4 The
potential opportunities associated with nanotechnologies have led to significant
investment by governmental institutions, public research centres, universities and
firms throughout the world.5 Nanotechnologies encompass the production and
application of physical, chemical, and biological systems. Horizon 3 forecasts
promise widespread applications of nanotechnology as an enabling technology in
various industries and converging disciplines.
As highlighted by Roco et al (2010), the development of nanotechnology has come to
encompass a rich infrastructure of multidisciplinary professional communities,
advanced instrumentation, user facilities, computing resources, formal and informal
education assets, and advocacy for nanotechnology-related societal benefit. 6 This
infrastructure is critical to further drive R&D to help realise the opportunities
embedded within nanoscience.
Nanotechnology exhibits a strong degree of convergence with many other disciplines,
such as the information and communications technologies (ICT) industry. ICT will
interface neatly with biomedicine and nanoscience, with applications in areas such as
drug delivery, therapeutics, imaging and diagnostics. The opportunities and products
arising from technology convergences like these are difficult to predict, and have
great potential to transform and disrupt everyday living.7,8 Products and technologies
arising from nanoscience have the potential to not only improve livelihoods, but help
address national and global challenges.
The aim of this chapter is to survey the landscape of emerging nanotechnologies,
segmented by the following areas of application: nanotools and platforms,
manufactured nanomaterials and components, and nanodevices and systems, which
3
Miles, J., (2010) Nanometrology and Documentary Standards for Nanotechnology, Nanotechnology
Work Health and Safety Symposium September 2010.
4
Foresight Horizon Scanning Centre, (2010) Technology Annex, Technology and Innovation Futures,
Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, London.
5
Salerno, M., (2007) Designing foresight studies for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (NST) future
developments, Technological Forecasting & Social Change.
6
Roco, M.C., Mirkin C.A. & Hersam, M.C. (2010) Nanotechnology Research Directions for Societal
Needs in 2020, Retrospective and Outlook, Springer.
7
Foresight Horizon Scanning Centre, (2010) Technology Annex, Technology and Innovation Futures,
Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, London
8
The Royal Society & The Royal Academy of Engineering (2004) Nanoscience and nanotechnologies:
opportunities and uncertainties.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
are addressed in Sections 5.8, 5.9 and 5.10 respectively. Section 5.1describes the
global nanotechnology market, followed by an analysis of nanotechnology segmented
by drivers, opportunities, barriers, risks and the disruptive potential of
nanotechnology in Sections 5.2 to 5.7.
5.1
Nanotechnology Global Market Overview
Nanotechnology is a multidisciplinary field with significant disruptive potential.9
Because of the substantial opportunities associated with the development of
nanotechnologies, governments worldwide have shown significant interest in
nanotechnology research and development. By the end of 2008, nearly USD $40
billion had been invested by governments in nanoscience, with a further USD $9.75
billion invested in 2009. The Australian Government has made investments in large
scale nanotechnology infrastructure projects such as the Australian Synchrotron and
the OPAL Research Reactor. Other key governments globally investing in
nanoscience include:10
 China
 European Union
 Japan
 Russia
 United States
Regardless of the large investment from government, private investment is expected
to exceed public investment. In 2008, Cientifica11 estimated that corporations across
the globe would spend USD $41 billion on nanotechnology R&D in 2010, focussing
on sectors such as semiconductors, pharmaceutical and health care, aerospace,
defence and food.
Figure 2 highlights the many different applications of nanotechnology and the
segmentation of R&D funding towards each application in 2007, while Figure 3Figure
3 highlights the expected breakdown in 2015.
9
Barton, C. (2007) NANOTECHNOLOGY: Revolutionizing R&D to develop smarter therapeutics and
diagnostics. Business Insights, London.
10
Cientifica Ltd. (2009). Nanotechnology Takes a Deep Breath... and Prepares to Save the World!
Global Nanotechnology Funding in 2009. Cientifica Ltd.
11
Ibid.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
Figure 2: Applications of Nanotechnology, 2007
Source: Business Insights, 2007
Figure 3: Applications of Nanotechnology, 2015
Source: Business Insights, 2007
BCC Research estimated that the global market for products incorporating
nanotechnologies was approximately USD $15.7 billion in 2010, with forecasts to
grow to USD $26.7 billion by 2015 (a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 11.1
per cent from 2010 through 2015).12 Figure 4 illustrates an estimate of the global
value of sales for products incorporating nanotechnologies. These figures include
well-established commercial nanomaterials applications, such as nanocatalyst thin
films for catalytic converters, as well as new technologies, such as nanoparticulate
fabric treatments, rocket fuel additives, nanolithographic tools, and nanoscale
electronic memory. Table 2 segments the global nanotechnology market by product
type, highlighting the dominant market share of nanomaterials, and the expected rapid
growth rates for nanodevices through to 2015.13
12
13
BCC Research. (2010). Nanotechnology: A Realistic Market Assessment.
Ibid.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
Figure 4: Global Market for Products Incorporating Nanotechnologies, Through to 2015, (USD $
Million)
Source: BCC Research, 2010
Table 2: Global Nanotechnology Market by Type, Through to 2015 (USD $ Million)
Nanomaterials
9,027.2
9,887.9
19,621.7
CAGR%
2010–15
14.7
Nanotools
2,613.1
5,797.2
6,812.5
3.3
31.0
35.4
233.7
45.9
11,671.3
15,720.5
26,667.9
11.1
NANOTECHNOLOGY
Nanodevices
TOTAL
2009
2010
2015
Source: BCC Research, 2010
As highlighted within this section, healthcare and pharmaceutical applications for
nanotechnologies is an area expected to witness rapid growth, with estimated that the
industry will assume around 17 per cent of the global market for nanotechnologies by
2015. The three key areas where industry experts expect nanotechnology to have the
greatest opportunities and impact within the healthcare and pharmaceutical industry
are: diagnosis, drug delivery systems and health monitoring.14
Nanotechnology, although largely associated with future technologies and
opportunities, has already made significant contributions to society. In 2007, the
Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded for the technology that is used to read data on
hard disks, enabling the radical miniaturisation of hard disks. This technology is based
on Giant Magnetoresistance or GMR. The GMR effect was discovered thanks to new
techniques developed during the 1970s to produce very thin layers of different
materials. If GMR is to work, structures consisting of layers that are only a few atoms
thick have to be produced. For this reason GMR can also be considered one of the
first real applications of the promising field of nanotechnology.15
14
Barton, C. (2007) NANOTECHNOLOGY: Revolutionizing R&D to develop smarter therapeutics
and diagnostics. Business Insights, London.
15
NobelPrize.Org Website, Accessed 05/03/2012, Available at:
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2007/press.html.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
5.2
Nanotechnology Analysis
Nanotechnology encompasses many different technologies, each of which have a
broad and growing number of applications in numerous industries. As
nanotechnology further develops, it will enable the creation and advancement of
innovative areas of research such as synthetic biology, nanobiotechnology, costeffective carbon capture, quantum information systems, geoengineering, and other
emerging and converging technologies.16 The idea that nanotechnology can enable
other areas of science and technology is expressed in the concept of ‘converging
technologies’: the combination of two or more broad areas, such as biotechnology,
ICT, nanotechnology and cognitive science.17 Converging technologies have blurred
the boundaries between existing industry sectors, and this trend will continue into the
future with further development in technological fields. It is the convergence of
technologies and blurring of boundaries that will create opportunities for
nanotechnology and maximise its disruptive potential.
Table 3 highlights some of the basic building blocks of nanotechnology and potential
end-use products. This list is by no means exhaustive, and is continually growing, as
R&D continues. The technologies highlighted in this list provide an indication of
some of the products that are expected to be commercialised from nanotechnology.
Table 3: Building Blocks of Nanotechnology Used, Components and Final End-Use Products
BUILDING BLOCK
COMPONENTS
END-USE PRODUCTS
Metal/Organometallics
Catalysts
Fuels, Chemicals
Metal Oxides
Nanoparticle coatings, UV
Sunscreens, Cosmetics,
Block Dispersions, Chemical High performance coating,
Mechanical Polishing (CMP) CMP slurries
slurry additives
Quantum dots
Films and encapsulation
Solar cells, in vitro
diagnostics, Gene
expression assay, Medical
imaging
Nanowhiskers
Fabric coating
Moisture wicking apparel,
Stain resistant apparel
Nanotubes
Scanning probe tip, Field
Aerospace, Displays
emitting devices, Polymer
(experimental), Sporting
additives, Carbon composite goods, Electronics, Nonfillers, Electrodes,
volatile memory,
Transistors
Automobiles, “Super”
capacitors, Atomic force
microscope
Inorganic Nanostructure
Coated thin films, 2D sheets Solar cells, Displays
(e.g. graphene)
Organic Molecules
Self-assembling structures
Molecular memory, Solar
cells
Gold core
Reagents
Bio-defence, in vitro
oligonucleotides
diagnostics
Nanoscale porous
Medical implants
Drug delivery, in vivo
silicon
diagnostics
Source: Global Industry Analysts, 2010
16
Roco, M.C., Mirkin C.A. & Hersam, M.C., (2010) Nanotechnology Research Directions for Societal
Needs in 2020, Retrospective and Outlook, Springer.
17
Foresight Horizon Scanning Centre, (2010) Technology Annex, Technology and Innovation Futures,
Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, London.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
Existing and emerging innovative nanotechnologies will be applied to a growing field
of applications. They are expected to have both an evolutionary and potentially
disruptive impact on existing industries in terms of manufacturing processes,
applications and products, particularly in the areas of health, life sciences, water
management and clean technology. Emerging nanotechnologies will also have
impacts on government policy and international trade. Table 4 outlines emerging end
user markets and a timeline for commercialisation of new technologies.
Nanotechnology techniques, such as the use of silicate nanoclays, metal oxide
nanoparticles, and carbon nanotubes are emerging as key technologies currently being
commercialised into a number of end user markets. These end user markets include:
food and beverage packaging, catalytic converters, coatings, electrostatic body panel
painting, fuel cell electrodes, hygiene products, nanocomposite plastics, photographic
films and sunscreens to name a few.18
18
Global Industry Analysts (2010) Nanobiotechnology.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
Table 4:
End Use Application - Commercialisation Time Grid (2010)
APPLICATION /
TECHNIQUE
APPLICATION AREA
Food and Beverage
Biotechnology
Health and Life
General Applications
Food Packging
0-2
years
X
Edible Wraps
TIMELINE
3-6
7-10
years
years
X
Nanocodes
X
Gallium Nitride
Nanotubes
Polymers for Fluorescent
Probes
Nanoengineered
Prosthetics
Self-powered devices for
in vivo applications
Nanotubes (select
applications)
X
X
X
X
X
X
Nanorobots
Sensors
Electronics and
Communications
Carbon Nanotubes
X
Nanocomputing
X
Quantum Computers
X
Carbon Nanotubes
X
Bar Coded Beads
(microbeads)
X
Magnetic Stamps
X
Memory and Display
Systems
Semiconductor/Electri
city
Nanochips and Biochips
Electricity
Thermoelectricity
Energy
High Efficiency Solar
Energy Cells
Transportation and
Other Applications
10+
years
X
X
X
X
Fuel Conversion
X
Fuel Cells
X
Source: Adapted from Global Industry Analysts, 2010
Other disciplines that are expected to emerge from convergence with nanotechnology
include spintronics, plasmonics, metamaterials, and molecular nanosystems. The
establishment of nanoinformatics as a new field for communication, design,
manufacturing, and medicine in nanotechnology will also be important.19 These
emerging fields are addressed further throughout this chapter.
Nanotechnology has fostered the convergence of fundamental and applied R&D and
requires expert input from the fields of physics, chemistry, engineering, and biology.
This poses a number of challenges for future research structures, technology transfer
and intellectual property expertise, as well as for the future training of researchers,
19
Roco, M.C., Mirkin C.A., Hersam, M.C., (2010) Nanotechnology Research Directions for Societal
Needs in 2020, Retrospective and Outlook, Springer.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
who not only have to remain experts in their own field, but must also improve their
literacy in neighbouring fields.20 Further, concern has been raised that patent offices
will prove unable to appropriately handle requests to patent nanoscience
developments, due to this interdisciplinary nature.21
5.3
Drivers
The key driver of research into nanotechnology is the enhanced properties exhibited
by nanosized particles and materials. These properties have widespread potential
applications across a variety of industries.22 Research, particularly on nanomaterials
will have a widespread impact in health, information, energy and many other fields
where there is a major economic benefit to the commercialisation of new
technologies.
Major drivers for the uptake of nanotechnologies in the energy industry include the
need for security and sustainability of energy supply, and growing consumer and
government awareness of the implications of climate change. Climate change drivers
for nanotechnology R&D encompass efforts to improve energy storage in green
technologies, decoupling energy production from fossil fuels and decoupling from
economic growth; carbon pricing and an increased global market for alternative
energy technologies.
Inefficiencies of energy supply through the current power grid also drive
technological innovation. Losses of between six and eight per cent of power produced
during electricity transmission and distribution are currently considered normal, with
traditional coal plans only capturing 30-35 per cent of the energy in coal as
electricity.23
Energy industry concerns will continue to drive R&D of nanotechnologies for
applications in various systems, including energy conversion (hydrogen fuel cells and
thin film and organic photovoltaics), energy storage (batteries, hydrogen storage and
supercapacitors), energy transmission (superconducting systems), and energy use
(insulation, solid state lighting, reduction of vehicle weight and improved combustion
of fossil fuels).24 Manufactured nanomaterials will enable the development of new
energy generation systems based on nuclear, solar and renewable sources.
Climate change is also driving nanotechnology applications in the environmental
remediation industry, including the water and wastewater treatment industry. Growing
numbers of communities are living in areas of severe water stress, driving the need to
be more sustainable in their use and associated treatment of water. Driven in response
20
GENNESYS Whitepaper (2009) A New European Partnership between nanomaterials science and
nanotechnology and synchrotron radiation and neutron facilities, Max-Planck-Institut für
Metallforschung, Stuttgart.
21
Sylvester, D.J., Bowman, D.M., (2011) Navigating the Patent Landscapes for Nanotechnology:
English Gardens or Tangled Grounds? Methods in Molecular Biology, 1, Volume 726, Biomedical
Nanotechnology, Part 2, Pages 359-378.
22
Frost & Sullivan, (2011) Opportunities for Nanotechnologies in Electronics–Technology Market
Penetration and Roadmapping, Technical Insights.
23
ABB (2007) Energy Efficiency in the Power Grid.
24
Lu, M., & Tegart, G., (2008) Energy and Nanotechnologies: Strategy for Australia’s Future,
Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering (ATSE).
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
to issues like these, nanotechnologies are beginning to gain greater use in water
systems.25
The rapid ageing of the population will drive the uptake of nanotechnology in the
development of point of care medical devices and sensors to support ‘ageing in place’,
the ability to monitor many medical conditions in the home through the integration of
point of care devices with telehealth and electronic health records management
(eHealth). The increase in chronic diseases, such as diabetes, asthma, high blood
pressure, etc., combined with the cost of hospital care, and risk of infections in
hospital, will further drive health treatments in the home. Nanomaterials will also
contribute to the development of new drugs, therapies, and cures for currently chronic
and fatal illnesses. Important areas of focus will be the application of nanomaterials in
tissue engineering and medical imaging. Further, the application of nanotechnologies
has immense capability and promise for advanced diagnostics, improved public health
and new therapeutic treatments.26
5.4
Opportunities
Nanotechnology has been described as complementary, not competitive, meaning that
by itself, it is not an industry; instead nanotechnology complements and enables new
and existing industries by providing new products and processes. Opportunities and
new markets enabled by nanotechnologies are potentially numerous and include
opportunities in the health, energy, and the environmental remediation markets.27
Environment
Opportunities for nanotechnologies in the environmental remedial industries are
numerous, with applications in environmental remediation, protection, maintenance
and enhancement. From a global perspective, nanotechnology research, services and
products applied to environmental protection is expected to present the largest
opportunities for nanotechnologies, followed by environmental remediation.28
Nanotechnologies applied to environmental protection will serve to facilitate and
expedite ongoing remediation efforts, via the significant reduction of source
pollutants. Strategies for environmental protection that include nanotechnologies
encompass improved prevention and containment of toxic compound spills into soils,
highly effective recycling and green technologies, along with wide-ranging and
efficient improvements in energy conservation and generation. A number of
environmental protection technologies are included under the clean technology
discussion below.
Nanotechnology-based remedial applications developed for use in the environment
might have important positive impacts that may directly affect human health. Air
quality remediation, water quality remediation and contaminated soil remediation are
areas where nanotechnology enabled solutions have numerous opportunities.
25
OECD (2011) Fostering Nanotechnology to Address Global Challenges: Water.
GENNESYS Whitepaper (2009) A New European Partnership between nanomaterials science and
nanotechnology and synchrotron radiation and neutron facilities, Max-Planck-Institut für
Metallforschung, Stuttgart.
27
Binks, P., (2007) Nanotechnology & Water: Opportunities and Challenges, Victorian Water
Sustainability Seminar.
28
Boehm, F., (2009) Nanotechnology in Environmental Applications: The Global Market, BCC
Research.
26
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
Water
Water is a very important resource in Australia, as many important industries
contributing to the Australian economy rely heavily on having access to a secure
source of clean water. In many industries that are heavily reliant on water, such as
agriculture and mining, processed water can be used in a variety of applications. The
market for nanotechnologies used in water and wastewater applications worldwide
reached USD $1.6 billion in 2007, with filtration applications dominating the market,
according to the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD).29
Managing and securing access to clean water is a major challenge, not only in
Australia but globally. Both in developed and developing countries, water shortages
can have a tremendous impact, not only on health, but on industries such as
agriculture, manufacturing, mining and power production. Over three billion people
were living in areas of water stress in 2005, more than half a billion of those in severe
water stress areas, presenting a major opportunity for nanotechnology to address this
issue.30
Further development of nanotechnologies for water remediation has been identified as
a high priority area as clean water is an essential human development need.31 The
water industry in Australia already applies nanotechnologies for the detection and
treatment of contaminated water.32 Nanotechnologies are expected to also play a role
in water resource management, for example in industries such as mining and
agriculture. Agriculture is by far the largest user of water, and is responsible for many
cases of water pollution. Precision farming, using wireless nanosensor technologies
will provide users with water management systems featuring high accuracy rapid
response rates, robustness and small size, as well as potentially combining sensing
and feedback, for example in measuring levels of contamination and treating them.
Water management in agriculture will be significantly improved in the future through
the effective application of emerging nanotechnologies. 33
Into the future, nanotechnologies are envisaged to be particularly efficient for three
key water handling purposes: treatment and remediation, sensing and detection, and
pollution prevention. In this respect, nanotechnology has the potential to satisfy the
water filtration needs of industrial, commercial, residential and personal consumers.34
Agriculture
Nanotechnology is poised to alter the face of the agribusiness sector significantly over
the next decade. Opportunities for nanotechnologies in the agriculture sector will
result through the convergence and integration of nano enabled innovations stemming
29
OECD (2011) Fostering Nanotechnology to Address Global Challenges: Water.
Ibid.
31
Hillie T., et al (2009) Nanotechnology, Water, and Development, Commissioned by Meridian
Institute’s Global Dialogue on Nanotechnology and the Poor : Opportunities and Risks.
32
Binks, P., (2007) Nanotechnology & Water: Opportunities and Challenges, Victorian Water
Sustainability Seminar.
33
OECD (2011) Fostering Nanotechnology to Address Global Challenges: Water.
34
Boehm, F., (2009) Nanotechnology in Environmental Applications: The Global Market, BCC
Research.
30
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
from the agrochemical, agrobiotech, sensor, telecommunications, global positioning,
automation, computing, and modelling and display industries.35
Emerging applications of nanotechnologies for the agricultural and food production
industry include nano formulated agrochemicals (e.g. fertilisers, pesticides, biocides,
veterinary medicines) for improved efficacy, better control of applications (e.g. slow
release pesticides), safer and more nutritious animal feeds (e.g. fortified with nanosupplements, antimicrobial additives; detoxifying nanomaterials), and nanobiosensors for animal disease diagnostics.
One example of nanotechnology R&D for agricultural applications include
polystyrene nanoparticles with polyethylene glycol linker and mannose targeting
biomolecules that can potentially bind and remove food-borne pathogens in animal
feed.36
Food
Like other sectors, recent developments in nanosciences and nanotechnologies are
offering numerous new opportunities for innovation to food and related sectors
globally. The potential applications of nanotechnology in the food industry include
the advent of a range innovative tastes and textures, a potential reduction in the
dietary intake of fat, salt and other food additives, improved absorption of nutrients
and supplements, preservation of quality and freshness, better traceability and security
of food products, and disease treatment delivery systems.
While nanotechnologies incorporated into food packaging are already becoming a
commercial reality, most other potential applications of nanotechnologies for use in
the food and beverage industry are still in the R&D stage. The most promising growth
areas identified for the near-future include ‘Active’ and ‘Smart’ packaging, and health
and functional food products.37
Clean Technology
The clean technology field holds numerous opportunities for nanotechnology based
energy harvesting and generation applications. These applications may include
batteries for electric vehicles, clean energy storage, solar cells, clean hydrogen
generation and storage, fuel-cell catalysis and efficient, inexpensive micropower
supplies for personal electronics, and many more.
Opportunities for nanotechnologies in the clean technology sector are driven by issues
like climate change and peak oil (the point where world oil production reaches its
maximum and begins to decline). Many major oil and power companies are investing
in nanoscience R&D to enable new energy applications. Also driving these
opportunities is increased investment and consumer demand for "green" and "clean"
alternatives,38 which is supported through various government initiatives.
35
Boehm, F., (2009) Nanotechnology in Environmental Applications: The Global Market, BCC
Research.
36
Chaudhry., Q, & Castle, L., (2011) 595 – 603, Food applications of nanotechnologies: An overview
of opportunities and challenges for developing countries, Trends in Food Science & Technology 22.
37
Ibid.
38
Frost & Sullivan, (2007) Impact of Nanotechnology in the Energy Industry.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
Healthcare and Pharmaceuticals
An ageing population with growing healthcare needs represents an enormous
opportunity for nanotechnology products. Nanotechnology will have major
applications in medicine, dentistry, pharmaceuticals and diagnostics. For example, the
integration of nanotechnology within cancer research promises to increase current
understanding about how cancer progresses. The identification of biomarkers will
help predict disease susceptibility and precancerous lesions, while multifunctional
nanoscale devices could potentially simultaneously detect and treat cancer.39
5.5
Barriers
There are many challenges and barriers to be considered and overcome to enable the
responsible uptake of nanotechnologies across the different industry sectors where
they promise to make a significant contribution to productivity and efficiency. Many
of these challenges are interrelated and include:40,41





Development of useful applications for nanoscale phenomena
Regulatory, legal, political and ethical issues
Competition with established microscale technologies
License of proof-of-concept nanotools, delivery systems and products
Intellectual property protection, and skilling of patent and technology transfer
offices
 Potential internal reluctance to embrace nanotechnologies and nanotools within
businesses
 Undertaking nanotechnology R&D in a way that pro-actively and meaningfully
engages with society
 Large-scale production cost challenges
 Cost premium over existing products
 Need for multidisciplinary infrastructure and researchers
 Safety and toxicity and the effective management of the potential risks of
manufactured nanomaterials
 Public and consumer concern about safety and resulting consumer activism that
might inhibit commercial investment in nanotechnology-based products.
The Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering (ATSE)42 has
described the nanotechnology value chain as starting with the production of
nanomaterials (nanoscale structures in unprocessed form) which then become
nanointermediates (intermediate products with nanoscale features) and finally nanoenabled products (finished goods incorporating nanotechnologies).
Technical challenges to be overcome to encourage the processing and fabrication of
nanomaterials (and therefore other elements in the value chain) include effective
monitoring of materials through development and processing, efficient and
39
Barton, C. (2007). NANOTECHNOLOGY: Revolutionizing R&D to develop smarter therapeutics
and diagnostics. Business Insights, London.
40
Ministry of Research, Science and Technology (2006) Roadmaps for Science : nanoscience +
nanotechnologies.
41
Barton, C. (2007). NANOTECHNOLOGY: Revolutionizing R&D to develop smarter therapeutics
and diagnostics. Business Insights, London.
42
Lu, M., & Tegart, G., (2008) Energy and Nanotechnologies: Strategy for Australia’s Future,
Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering (ATSE).
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
sustainable methods for serial and large scale mass production, as well as rigorous
quality assurance and control programs. The continual integration and ongoing
development of new methods of synthesis and novel and innovative nano-objects into
existing production processes will also need to be addressed to encourage the scale up
of nanotech product fabrication into the future.43 Further development of material
characterisation methods and nanoanalytics programs will also be required to ensure
the future development of nanotechnologies.
Regulation
Hodge et al (2010) suggests there are a number of regulatory challenges that society
will confront with regard to nanotechnology.44 Some of these include:






Large gaps in knowledge across various scientific frontiers. Answers are needed
to address questions raised about the safety of nanomaterials, as well as the impact
of engineered nanomaterials across the materials life-cycle. Significant
multidisciplinary research will be needed to address this lack of knowledge.
Developing appropriate metrology and standards for nanotechnologies. Effective
methods for measuring air- and water-borne nanomaterials are needed.45
Establishing and articulating effectively the existence of regulatory gaps and
triggers in current legislation.
Effectively assessing alternative regulatory regimes that may be in practice,
acknowledging strengths and weaknesses in different approaches.
Balancing governments support for nanotechnology, as a basis for future
innovation and economic growth, while enabling citizens to influence policy
directions and protecting their health and safety.
Ensuring appropriate transparency and trust continues across all areas of existing
and evolving nanotechnology regulation frameworks. Due to the nature of
nanotechnology, there are significant public confidence and trust risks facing
regulators responsible for ensuring the safety of these products.
Nanometrology
Nanometrology, the science of measurement at the nanoscale, has been recognised by
governments, research institutions and the private sector worldwide as vitally
important to the development and commercialisation of nanotechnologies.
Nanometrology is important both for the large scale production of nanoproducts, as
well as for regulation. Further development of nanotechnologies depends on the
development of innovative new measuring instruments tools and test methods and the
incorporation of nanometrology into the International Measurement System.46 The
National Measurement Institute (NMI) Australia (Nanometrology Group) is assisting
43
GENNESYS Whitepaper (2009) A New European Partnership between nanomaterials science and
nanotechnology and synchrotron radiation and neutron facilities, Max-Planck-Institut für
Metallforschung, Stuttgart.
44
Hodge, G.A., et al (2010) Introduction: the regulatory challenges for nanotechnologies, International
Handbook on Regulating Nanotechnologies, Hodge, G.A, Bowman, D.M, Maynard, A.D, (eds) Edward
Elgar Publishing, Inc, pp. 3-25.
45
Frost & Sullivan, (2009) Green nanotechnology, the trend of the future.
46
Miles, J., (2010) Nanotechnology Captured, International Handbook on Regulating
Nanotechnologies, Hodge, G.A, Bowman, D.M, Maynard, A.D, (eds) Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc,
pp. 83-107.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
to address the need for nanometrology instrumentation and standards in Australia. The
group develops measurement infrastructure, expertise and standards for
nanotechnology, with the aim of assisting Australian researchers and industries to
capitalise on growth and commercialisation opportunities, and contribute to effective
health, safety and environmental regulatory frameworks for nanotechnologies. The
program is supported by the National Enabling Technologies Strategy.47
Technology Transfer
The diversity of nanotechnologies poses a challenge for technology transfer and
intellectual property expertise. The past decade has seen a rush of nanotechnology
patent applications worldwide, which the patent system has struggled to cope with,
primarily due to the complex multidisciplinary nature of nanotechnology patents, and
the lack of consistent definitions and terminology within the field. Convergence of
nanotechnology with fields like physics, chemistry, optics, ICT, biotechnology, and
cognitive science leads to high interdisciplinarity within intellectual property to be
examined. Patent offices had struggled with a lack of properly skilled and trained
examiners to cover the numerous technical fields required.48
Companies exploring the possibilities of nanotechnologies are also exposed to
investment risks in nanotechnology enabled products, unsatisfactory intellectual
property protection, and ineffective marketing and communication of product benefits
potentially leading to consumer backlash.
Due to the nature of nanotechnology, public acceptance issues involved with some
applications of nanotechnologies may present barriers to effective commercialisation,
for example, privacy concerns may be raised when miniature sensors become
ubiquitous. These types of issues can put further at risk a company’s investment into
nanoscience R&D.49
Social Challenges
In many of the industries in which nanotechnology is applied, a disruptive effect on
the current practices used in that industry will be felt (further discussed in
Section 5.7). The use of nanotechnologies within certain sectors could conceivably
boost production, yet reduce prices and save on labour costs. As with the introduction
of any disruptive technology, there is a risk that traditional labour forces could be
disadvantaged. Ethical considerations must play an important role in the development
of strategies for the incremental deployment of these nanotechnologies and there must
be sensitivity as to the sustained wellbeing of the workers.50 Unsuccessful
management of truly disruptive nanotechnologies will result in negative public and
consumer attitudes to nanotechnologies, inhibiting commercial investment in
nanotechnology-based products.
47
Australian Nanotechnology Network: National Measurement Institute Nanometrology Group
Website, Accessed 27/09/2011.
48
Mandel, G. N., (2010) Regulating nanotechnology through intellectual property rights, International
Handbook on Regulating Nanotechnologies, Hodge, G.A, Bowman, D.M, Maynard, A.D, (eds) Edward
Elgar Publishing, Inc, pp. 388.
49
OECD, Allianz (2005) Opportunities and risks of Nanotechnologies.
50
Boehm, F., (2009) Nanotechnology in Environmental Applications: The Global Market, BCC
Research.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
Nanotechnology convergence, the multiple ways in which nanotechnologies will
combine, is also likely to generate a range of different social and ethical challenges.
These types of challenges may be particularly relevant in longer term applications
within nanobiotechnology, involving significant interface of material systems with, or
internal modification of, the body.
5.6
Risks
Nanotechnology will enable many exciting new products and solutions over the next
decade. However, like any new technology, it may pose risks that will need to be
managed before wide scale development, commercialisation and adoption can take
place. These risks include health and safety risks, ecological, business, political,
social, ethical, and security risks and more. The emergence of potential risk has been
noted with some caution by the insurance industry.51
Human Health and Safety
One of the more important risks to be addressed is to satisfy concerns raised about the
potential toxicity, health and safety effects, and invasive nature of some manufactured
nanomaterials. As highlighted by Chaudhry et al (2010),52 particular safety concerns
are raised by those processes, products and applications that give rise to exposure to
manufactured nanomaterials via inhalation (e.g. cleaning aids, and spray), skin
application (cosmetics), ingestion (food and drinks) or intravenous delivery (some
medicines and diagnostics aids).53 Apprehensions from the community and policy
makers globally have been fuelled by laboratory studies on the ill-effects of some
manufactured nanomaterials on animals.54 Work is proceeding aimed at evaluating
the exposure pathways and the hazards of the nanomaterials.55,56
Environment
The International Risk Governance Council57 states that the impact of nanostructures
on the environment may be significant because of the potential for:

Bioaccumulation, particularly if they absorb smaller contaminants such as
pesticides, cadmium and organics and transfer them along the food chain
 Persistence, in effect creating non-biodegradable pollutants which, due to the
small size of the nanomaterials, will be hard to detect.
An important consideration is where the nanomaterials will end up, whether that is the
soil, water or air, and in what form. In water, it is common for nanomaterials to either
dissolve or aggregate into larger structure.58
51
Hett, A (2004) Nanotechnology Small matter, many unknowns, Swiss Reinsurance Company.
Chaudhry Q., et al (2010) The current risk assessment paradigm in relation to the regulation of
nanotechnologies, International Handbook on Regulating Nanotechnologies, Hodge, G.A, Bowman,
D.M, Maynard, A.D, (eds) Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc, pp. 124-143.
53
Maynard, A., (2006) Nanotechnology: A Research Strategy for Addressing Risk, Woodrow Wilson
International Center for Scholars.
54
Frost & Sullivan, (2009) Green nanotechnology, the trend of the future.
55
Drew, R (2009) Engineered nanomaterials: A review of the toxicology and health hazards Safe Work
Australia.
56
Jackson, N (2009) Engineerged nanomaterials: Evidence on the Effectivness of Workplace Controls
to Prevent Exposure.
57
Roco M. & Ortwin, R. (2006) White Paper on Nanotechnology Risk Governance, International Risk
Governance Council.
52
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
Social
Nanotechnology has the potential to have disruptive impacts on developing
economies. Nanoscale engineering offers the potential to transform existing materials
and design entirely new ones. New manufactured nanomaterials may replace
traditional raw materials, altering demand for these materials from commodity
dependent developing countries.59
Government Oversight
A 2007 report by Monash University60 found that Australia’s federal regulatory
frameworks are generally well suited to allowing adequate management and control
of risks posed by engineered nanomaterials and products incorporating nanomaterials,
their manufacture, use and handling. However, this has been disputed by Mullins
(2010) who believes that specific regulation for nanomaterials is required to protect
workers. 61 Mullins states that there is an incorrect assumption that existing
regulations and information about manufactured nanomaterials in substances (or
substances in nanoform) are sufficient to trigger the introduction of controls and
processes in workplaces. There are calls for the implementation of nano-specific
controls and processes, such as mandatory registry of products, nano-specific training
and personal protective equipment.
Future Considerations
Countering some of the risks mentioned, Maynard (2007) foresees that in the long
term, new ways of predicting and pre-emptively managing the potential risk of
emerging nanotechnologies are expected to be developed. 62 These are likely to
include managing mechanistic toxicology, predictive risk assessment, management of
later generation nanotechnologies, and management of emergent behaviour and
convergence between different technologies. Further, it is expected that new
disciplines such as nano-ecotoxicology (toxicity to the environment and ecological
systems) and nano-genotoxicology (toxicity to human health) will evaluate the global
impact of these new systems.63
5.7
Disruptive Potential
Nanotechnology is a relatively young, yet rapidly expanding scientific discipline that
is predicted to have important implications for a stunningly wide array of applications
encompassing an extensive array of market sectors. Almost every industry will be
affected by the emergence and further development of nanotechnologies. In many of
58
Batley, G.E., McLaughlin, M.J. (2010) Fate of Manufactured Nanomaterilas in the Australian
Environment Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts.
59
ETC Group (2005) The potential impacts of nano-scale technologies on commodity markets: the
implications for commodity dependent developing countries.
60
Ludlow K., Bowman D.M. & Hodge G.A. (2007) Review of Possible Impacts of Nanotechnology on
Australia's Regulatory Frameworks, Monash Centre for Regulatory Studies, Monash University.
61
Mullins, S. (2010) Are we willing to heed the lessons of the past? Nanomaterials and Australia’s
Asbestos Legacy, Hull, M., & Bowman D.M. (eds), Nanotechnology Environmental Health and Safety:
Risks, Regulation and Management, London: Elsevier, pp. 49–69.
62
Maynard, A. (2007) Nanotechnologies: Overview and Issues. Nanotechnology – Toxicological
Issues and Environmental Safety, 1–14. Springer.
63
Saez, G., et al (2010) Development of new nano-tools: Towards an integrative approach to address
the societal question of nanotechnology? Nano Today.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
the industries in which nanotechnology is applied, a disruptive effect on the current
practices used in that industry will be felt. Nanotechnology may generate major
paradigm shifts in many industry sectors, including long-term care, electronics,
packaging, plastics, apparel, hospitality, paper and printing, glass, cosmetics and
many more. Nanotechnologies are expected to assist in making existing industries
more efficient and environmentally sustainable, as well as assisting to provide more
effective, cheaper and energy efficient products and services.64,65
Growth and demand for clean technology and alternative energy products are likely to
be stimulated by the introduction of nanotechnologies in the near future, enhancing
efficacies of technologies embraced by the industry, and displacing older technologies
and business enterprises relying on them.
Nanotechnologies are expected to have a large impact on the health care industry
through the development of new technologies improving current practises in illness
and disease diagnosis, treatment and prevention, both in developed and developing
countries. Technologies and products resulting from the study of both
nanotechnology, and the convergence of nano with biotechnology
(nanobiotechnology) will have numerous applications in fields like medicine,
dentistry and diagnostics. Implementation of these technologies will improve health
and wellness outcomes for patients all over the globe.
5.8
Nanotools and Platforms
A key feature of nanotechnology is the dependence on appropriate tools and
methodologies to characterise features and properties at the nanoscale. Without the
continuing development of nanotools, the growth of the nanotechnology industry
would be challenged. Pressure from the nanotechnology industry drives the
development of nanotools, as tools and methodologies are needed for the continued
growth of nanotechnology as a whole.
Nanotools collectively refer to the technologies that enable scientists to visualise,
engineer, and manipulate matter at the atomic level. To remain competitive, industrial
companies and researchers need the ability to examine, characterise and measure
matter. Using the most powerful tools available is essential for success, particularly at
the nanoscale.66
5.8.1 Global Demand and Applications
Commercial nanotools can be broadly classified into the following groups:67



Nanomanipulators (manipulate or measure nanoscale objects or materials,
including scanning probe microscopes).
Near-field optical microscopes.
Nanomachining tools (cut, grind or otherwise change properties of nanoscale
materials).
64
Wood, S., et al (2004) The social and economic challenges of nanotechnology, Economic and Social
Research Council.
65
Morton, S., (2008) CSIRO Submission, Inquiry into Nanotechnology in NSW.
66
Global Industry Analysts (2011) Nanobiotechnology.
67
BCC Research. (2010). Nanotechnology: A Realistic Market Assessment.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape

Advanced optical lithography tools (produce nanoscale features on
microelectronic devices).
Nanotools accounted for approximately 36 per cent of the total nanotechnology
market in 2010. Total sales of nanotools were projected to grow from USD $5.8
billion in 2010 to USD $6.8 billion by 2015. As shown in Table 5, advanced optical
nanolithography tools is the largest market, however growth in this field is expected
to be slow. Nanomanipulators while only accounting for a small share of the nanotool
market, are expected to have a very high growth rate.68
Table 5: Global Market for Commercial and Developmental Nanotool Applications, Through to
2015 (USD $ Million)
CAGR%
APPLICATION
2009
2010
2015
2010-15
Advanced optical
2,250.0
5,400.0
5,715.0
1.1
nanolithography tools
135.0
162.0
4.3.1
20.0
Nanomanipulators
Near-field optics
47.1
52.4
89.5
11.3
Nanomachining tools
16.0
17.8
29.9
10.9
2,448.1
5,632.2
6,237.5
2.1
165.0
165.0
575.0
28.4
2,613.1
5,797.2
6,812.5
30.5
TOTAL COMMERCIAL
NANOTOOLS
Developmental Nanotools
TOTAL NANOTOOLS
Source: BCC Research, 2010
Over the last 10 years, an array of nanotools and instruments have evolved to enable
the development of nanomaterials and functionalise matter at the nanoscale. An
overview of the current and emerging technologies that will assist with the analysis
and synthesis of nanoscience is provided below.
Nanoscale Detection and Analysis
There are a large range of instruments that can be used for nanoscale detection and
analysis of nanostructures. These include: atomic force microscopy; scanning electron
microscopy; scanning near field optical microscopy; transmission electron
microscopy; surface enhanced Raman scattering; surface plasmon resonance; and
fluorescence resonance energy transfer. Of these, the most widely used technologies
are atomic force and scanning electron microscopy.69
The development of nanotools and instrumentation assists in the detection and
fabrication of nanoscale systems. Some techniques and tools often used when
undertaking nanoscale analysis can include:70 \


Nanoarrays - miniaturisation of microarrays. \
Nanofluidics - the science of building microminiaturised devices with chambers
and tunnels for the containment and flow of fluids to measure at the nanometer
level. Nanofluidics are used for cell-sorting and single cell gene expression
profiling.
68
BCC Research. (2010). Nanotechnology: A Realistic Market Assessment.
Barton, C. (2007) NANOTECHNOLOGY: Revolutionizing R&D to develop smarter therapeutics
and diagnostics, Business Insights, London.
70
Ibid.
69
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
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
Nanoscaffolding - new nanomaterials that can be incorporated within cell culture
systems to improve in vitro culture conditions and form a 3D microenvironment in
which cells may be encapsulated, or act as microcarriers within culture
suspensions.
 Nanotubes - carbon molecules that are long and thin and shaped like tubes.
Potential to be very efficient electricity and heat conductors.
 Nanowires - are structures that have a defined lateral size constrained to tens of
nanometers or less, and are unconstrained on the longitudinal axis. They have
application in circuitry such as micro/nanofluidic systems.
 Quantum Dots - semiconductor nanostructures used to tag components within
biological samples (proteins, DNA) with specific colours for high throughput
screening and biological read outs.
The continuing development of new nanotools and methodologies will assist in the
creation of new ways to synthesise and fabricate nanomaterials and assembly of
nanodevices.
Self-Assembly
The control of molecular self-organisation by means of chemical and physical stimuli
is important to the successful creation and control of structure on the nanoscale. The
self-assembling process is dependent on the fine balance of competing interactions
between the different molecular parts or different molecules that exhibit similarities to
complex biological systems. Nanoscale structures, through self-assembly will lead to
applications that range from the development of new formulations for
pharmaceuticals and pigments to morphology control, adhesion of biomaterials, the
development of molecular electronics and biomimetic crystallisation.71
Directed self-assembly is an emergent technology as it is promising to deliver a mass
production, cost effective nanoparticle synthesis method. The directed self-assembly
approach is still going through developmental phases and leverages existing
patterning methods by combining them with self-organising systems, to create
manufacturing techniques that can be readily integrated into existing processes. In the
near future directed self-assembly will be employed to yield functional
nanostructures.72
Nanoanalytics
Computational science prediction tools such as nanoanalytics and nanoinformatics are
becoming progressively more important in the development of a cross-disciplinary,
cross-sector information system for nanotechnology materials, devices, tools, and
processes.
Nanojoining
Nanomaterials such as nanotubes, nanowires, nanostructured alloys and
nanocomposites will be extremely useful when they can form integrated parts of
devices and components. Nanojoining technology is driven by the current needs of
71
GENNESYS Whitepaper (2009) A New European Partnership between nanomaterials science and
nanotechnology and synchrotron radiation and neutron facilities, Max-Planck-Institut für
Metallforschung, Stuttgart.
72
Kumar, P., (2010) Directed Self-Assembly: Expectations and Achievements, Nano Review.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
nanomaterials, such as product miniaturisation, and the efficient and environmentallyfriendly utilisation of materials. Nanojoining is a key technical prerequisite for the
effective use of nanomaterials. The industrial potential of nanojoining techniques is
significant and involves molecular and standard electronics and photonics, smart
structures as well as structural applications.
Within the next ten years, development and utilisation of in situ and ex situ (3D) tools
for intelligent processing and characterisation of “nanojoints” is expected. A close
inter- and transdisciplinary cooperation between life sciences and engineering fields is
required to reach future goals for nanojoining.73 Opportunities arising through
nanojoining R&D include the formation of new processes (e.g. self-assembly),
tailored joint properties and functional joints.
Nanotribology
Nanotribology is the study of friction, wear and adhesion at the nanoscale. While
nanotribology is not a tool in itself, the study and influence of nanotribology
principles will impact the development and design of manufactured nanomaterials
into the future. Nanotribology is a truly interdisciplinary subject requiring knowledge
of surface interactions, chemical environment effects, lubrication, mechanical
stresses, as well as biochemical concepts. While the field is developing rapidly, most
of the applications that can be realised through exploiting nanotribological ideas are
still very embryonic. Current areas of interest in this field include understanding and
controlling
nanofriction,
nanowear,
nanoadhesion,
nanomanipulation,
bionanotribology and near contact issues.
Research into tracing the foundations of friction and wear on the nanoscale is
expected to continue through to 2015, after which the development of new
nanomaterials with tailored tribological properties and nanoengineered surfaces are
likely. This will result in the development of new methods and applications that are
not currently achievable, ranging from engine components for cars that improve fuel
efficiency, to nanomachines to be used for microsurgery and repair of the human
body.74
5.9
Manufactured Nanomaterials and Components
The term manufactured nanomaterial covers any material with any external dimension
in the nanoscale or having internal structure or surface structure in the nanoscale.
These manufactured nanomaterials are intentionally produced for commercial purpose
to have specific properties or specific composition.75 Manufactured nanomaterials
can be conventional (metals, ceramics, semi-conductors, etc.), new (carbon60,
carbon70), and novel structures (wires, tubes, coatings, spheres, etc.) whose
mechanical, electrical, reactivity and other fundamental properties are changed on
account of the increased relative surface area of exposed material. Manufactured
73
GENNESYS Whitepaper (2009) A New European Partnership between nanomaterials science and
nanotechnology and synchrotron radiation and neutron facilities, Max-Planck-Institut für
Metallforschung, Stuttgart.
74
Ibid.
75
Miles, J., (2010) Nanometrology and Documentary Standards for Nanotechnology, Nanotechnology
Work Health and Safety Symposium September 2010.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
nanomaterials differ from bulk materials in their properties because of surface effects
and because quantum effects become significant at the small scales involved.76
5.9.1 Global Demand and Applications
Global demand for manufactured nanomaterials will be significant, projected to
exceed USD $9 billion in 2018, and reach USD $34 billion by 2025, according to the
Freedonia Group.77 With this expected growth, nanomaterials will be prevalent in a
wide range of markets, from pharmaceuticals to construction products and advanced
energy storage devices. As shown in Table 6 and Figure 5, chemicals and polymers
will be the source of most demand for nanomaterials.
Table 6: Global Nanomaterial Demand by Type (USD $ Million)
ITEM
2003
2008
2013
266
600
1,250
Metal Oxides
2018
2,600
2025
7,500
136
457
1,225
3,015
11,000
Metals
45
225
670
1,800
6,500
Nanotubes
20
105
385
1,430
8,000
4
13
45
190
1,300
471
1400
3,575
9,035
34,300
Chemicals & Polymers
Other
World Nanomaterial Demand
Source: Freedomia Group, 2010
Figure 5: Share of Nanomaterial Demand by Type, 2003-2025
Source: Freedomia Group, 2010
76
Foresight Horizon Scanning Centre, (2010) Technology Annex, Technology and Innovation Futures,
Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, London.
77
Freedonia Group Inc. (2010) World Nanomaterials to 2013.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
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Table 7 highlights many of the key applications for nanomaterials in the broad areas
of medical, materials, devices and energy. As seen, many applications are more than
15 years away, highlighting that research in the field focuses on both near and future
applications in society. Figure 6 highlights the value chain for nanomaterials, showing
their integration into nanointermediates, such as coatings, fabrics, chips, etc., and then
into nanoenabled products such as pharmaceuticals, electronic devices and clothing.78
78
GENNESYS Whitepaper (2009) A New European Partnership between nanomaterials science and
nanotechnology and synchrotron radiation and neutron facilities, Max-Planck-Institut für
Metallforschung, Stuttgart.
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Table 7: Key Highlights for Nanomaterials in Industry
APPLICATION /
TECHNIQUE
APPLICATION AREA
Drug delivery
Medical Applications
Materials
1-4
years
X
Medical diagnostics
X
Nanoarrays
X
Biomaterials
X
Smart implants
X
X
Nanobio
Nanoelectromecanical
Systems (NEMS)
X
Cosmetics
X
Coatings
X
Lubricants
X
Textiles
X
Composites
X
Paints
X
Chemical catalysts
X
Food packaging
X
Sensors
X
Displays
X
X
X
Simple integrated circuits
Microprocessors
X
Quantum computing
X
Molecular circuitry
X
Energy conservation
Energy
15+
years
Tissue/organ regeneration
Memory/storage devices
Devices and
Microelectronics
TIMELINE
5-8
9-14
years years
X
Fuel cells
X
Portable solar cells
X
Biomass conversion catalyst
X
Clean coal
X
Portable energy cells
X
Integrated solar cells
Batteries/ supercapacitors
X
Carbon Dioxide capture/
sequestration
X
Lighting
X
Hydrogen production & use
X
Source: Adapted from Gennesys, 2009, ATSE, 2008 & BCC Research, 2009
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Figure 6: Nanomaterial Application in the Industry and Value Chain
Source: Adapted From Gennesys, 2009
The physical, chemical and mechanical properties of nanomaterials are continuing to
drive the development of the technology, providing new and more efficient materials.
The nanomaterials market is expected to be predominantly driven by applications
within the healthcare and electronics industries.
Emerging applications for nanomaterials are expected in areas such as military and
aerospace and energy sectors, driven by a growing need to improve safety and an
increasing desire to advance the efficiency of clean technology devices. 79 The
application and use of new nanomaterials will be essential to address major future
global demands such as increased energy consumption and the ecological impact of
products currently being used.80
5.9.2 Current and Emerging Developments
Over the next ten years, nanotechnology researchers will focus on a range of issues to
improve the performance, multifunctionality, integration, and sustainability of
nanomaterials in a variety of emerging and converging technologies and applications.
This will result in a suite of new nanocomposite materials with unprecedented and
unique combinations of properties. In particular, the unique combinations of
79
PRWeb, (2010) Global Market for Nanomaterials to Reach US$6.2 Billion by 2015, According to a
New Report by Global Industry Analysts, Inc.
80
GENNESYS Whitepaper (2009) A New European Partnership between nanomaterials science and
nanotechnology and synchrotron radiation and neutron facilities, Max-Planck-Institut für
Metallforschung, Stuttgart.
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properties will allow previously disparate technologies to converge into single,
multifunctional platforms. Specific examples include thermoelectrics, transparent
conductors, combined supercapacitor and battery structures, integrated diagnostic and
therapeutic
devices,
sensors/actuators,
optoelectronics,
and
communication/computational systems.81 This section aims to provide an overview
of emerging manufactured nanomaterial technologies and potential applications.
Research group Frost & Sullivan have analysed common applications of
nanomaterials with respect to current R&D activities, with the objective of prioritising
various technological focus areas for appropriately directing R&D investments in the
nanomaterials domain. 82 From this analysis, from a future market perspective, Frost
& Sullivan believe that nanomaterials will hold the most market potential in next
generation nanoelectronics, followed by applications such as protective coatings,
antiseptic systems, organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs), flame retardants,
conductive films, photovoltaics, and catalysts.
Common nanomaterial synthesis methods are varied, and all have specific
requirements and limitations that affect their potential applications. Conventional
synthesis methods include the following:83
 Chemical vapour deposition
 Physical vapour deposition
 Sol-gel deposition
 Electrodeposition.
Emerging synthesis methods include:
 Inert gas condensation
 Inert gas expansion
 Molecular self-assembly
 Sonochemical processing.
The synthesis and assembly of new functional bio-nanomaterials will require an
understanding of the complex relations between nanoscale structure and function in
biological materials, and will enable advances in nanomedicine, bio- and biomimetic
materials. This will lead to new applications in biosensors, implants and tissue
engineering. The development of these requires an understanding of the dynamic
processes that are found in nature.84
Looking forward, there will be a focus on research to help improve the performance,
multifunctionality, integration, and sustainability of nanomaterials in a range of
emerging and converging technologies. As identified by Roco et al (2010), specific
priorities for the next 10 years include:85
81
GENNESYS Whitepaper (2009) A New European Partnership between nanomaterials science and
nanotechnology and synchrotron radiation and neutron facilities, Max-Planck-Institut für
Metallforschung, Stuttgart.
82
Frost & Sullivan, (2010) Nanomaterials – Strategic Portfolio Management.
83
Ibid.
84
GENNESYS Whitepaper (2009) A New European Partnership between nanomaterials science and
nanotechnology and synchrotron radiation and neutron facilities, Max-Planck-Institut für
Metallforschung, Stuttgart.
85
Roco, M.C., Mirkin C.A. & Hersam, M.C. (2010) Nanotechnology Research Directions for Societal
Needs in 2020, Retrospective and Outlook, Springer.
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






Separation, fractionation and purification in an effort to realise nanomaterials with
monodispersity in composition, size and shape.
Realisation of hierarchical metamaterials with independent tunability of
previously coupled properties.
Improvements in nanomanufacturing capabilities, including solving problems
related to scale-up, cost, sustainability, energy efficiency, process control and
quality control.
Realisation of nanomaterials with biologically inspired attributes, including nonequilibrium, self-healing, reconfigurable, and defect-tolerant structures in hybrid
organic/inorganic media.
Combinatorial and computational approaches that enable efficient exploration of
the vast phase space for nanocomposites, including the size, shape, and
composition of the nanoconstituents, surface functionalisation and matrix.
Self-healing materials, biomimetic materials and bionanomaterials have been
demonstrated but need to be transitioned to real applications (e.g. paints, implants
and regenerative medicine).
Utilisation of new nanocomposite materials with unprecedented properties and
unique combinations of properties in emerging and converging technologies.
Carbon Nanotubes
Among the numerous categories in the evolving field of newly synthesised
nanomaterials, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are perhaps among the most dynamic and
undergoing the most rapid pace of development. In their simplest form CNTs
represent seamless cylinders of graphene film with diameters close to only one
nanometre. Like most manufactured nanomaterials, CNTs exhibit uniquely different
properties to other conventional materials, however, they also exhibit an
unprecedented range of properties unequalled by any other manufactured
nanomaterials. These properties include, among many unusual properties, exceptional
mechanical strength and flexibility, high electrical and high thermal conductivity.
Since their discovery in 1991, CNTs have aroused excitement in both the research
community and equally in industry due to their potential for a broad range of new
applications.86
CNTs are manufactured to have a variety of structures: the simplest structure consists
of a single graphene layer structure (SWNT), nanotubes within nanotubes are referred
to as multi-wall carbon nanotubes (MWNTs, concentric SWNTs of different
diameters). Due to their dimensional differences, SWNTs and MWNTs exhibit
uniquely different properties. Other forms include double-walled carbon nanotubes
(DWNT) and few-walled carbon nanotubes (FWNT), which also exhibit distinctive
sets of properties.
The CNT-polymer composites market is by far the largest product consumer of
commodity-grade MWNTs and it is predicted to expand significantly, driven by the
unusual characteristics of CNTs. For most applications of CNTs, a uniform dispersion
of MWNTs in the host matrix material will be especially critical. Breakthroughs in
other matrix composites as well as smart network sensors are among other strong
market contenders for CNT commodities.
86
Oliver, J. (2010) Carbon Nanotubes: Technologies and Global Markets, BCC Research.
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CNTs in polymer composites are expected to have a market pull in the following
applications over the next decade:






Aeronautical applications, driven by the need for ever demanding fuel
conservation, which can be potentially offset by lighter-weight CNT polymer
composite structures.
Automotive applications, driven by the increasing awareness of climate change by
governments leading to alternatives for polluting fossil fuel-based power sources.
Electronic packing applications, driven by the promise to solve numerous
problems associated with the handling and packaging of delicate electronic
components.
Flame retardant applications, including in aircraft, building/construction materials,
electronic packaging, and fibre optic cable cladding.
Industrial seals used for military and aerospace applications, oilfield gaskets, hose
and seals of all types and printer/copier fuser rolls.
Sports equipment applications, driven by the need for high-strength lightweight
composites.
Functional or ‘Smart’ Materials
Functional materials are responsive to external environments; magnetic or electric
fields, temperature, pressure or chemical. Their response can be used as a sensor or as
an actuator. Functional materials include responsive hydrogels, nanocomposites and
hybrids of synthetic and biological matter to highlight a few. Potential applications for
nanofunctional materials include coatings, composite materials, energy related
materials, nanoelectronics, sensors, catalysts and fuel cells.
Polymer Nanomaterials
Polymer nanomaterials are expected to dramatically advance as the chemical and
nanoscale structures of polymers are engineered to create new polymers with a
multitude of structural and functional applications, ranging from polymers with
improved biodegradability to new adhesives and novel electrical conductors.
Nanocoatings
Nanocoatings have the potential for enhancing the performance and durability of an
extensive array of manufacturing processes, in addition to improving the items that
they produce. Numerous industry sectors globally already employ nanocoating
technologies. These include transportation, textiles, energy, military and security,
health care, construction, food and beverage and electronics. Further, the
opportunities for nanocoating application extends to everyday living, and may have
impacts on commercial products like optical nanocoated fishing tackle, silver
nanocoated refrigerators, nanocoated guitar strings, and sports balls.87
There are numerous examples of composites that form nanocoatings. Some of these
include:

Gold and silver nanoparticles with polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE), which exhibit
enhanced antibacterial properties,
87
Boehm, F., (2010) Nanotechnology in Coatings and Adhesive Applications: Global Markets, BCC
Research.
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

Superparamagnetic metallic nanoparticles in monomers and/or polymers which
exhibit an adhesive composition, and
Epoxy resin modified with fumed silica nanoparticles, which increases fracture
toughness and inhibits crack propagation.
Metamaterials88
A metamaterial is an arrangement of artificial structural elements, designed to achieve
advantageous and unusual electromagnetic properties. It can also be described as any
artificial material engineered to provide properties that might not be readily available
in nature. Nanotechnology is used as a tool to develop metamaterials with improved
properties and performance by controlling their nanostructure.
Potential applications for metamaterials include communication systems, remote
aerospace applications, sensor detection, infrastructure monitoring, nanoelectronics
and solar power generation/management to name a few. The possible applications for
metamaterials is varied and diverse, requiring research and collaboration from many
multidisciplinary fields, including electrical engineering, solid state physics,
microwave and antennae engineering, optoelectronics, material sciences,
semiconductor engineering and nanoscience.
Manufactured Nanomaterials with Applications in Nanomedicine
According to the European Science Foundation (ESF), nanomedicine is defined as the
science and technology of diagnosing, treating and preventing disease and traumatic
injury, of relieving pain, and of preserving and improving human health, using
molecular tools and molecular knowledge of the human body.89 The ESF further
specifies that nanomedicine has mainly five subdivisions, which can be interlinked.
These include:
 Analytical tools
 Nanoimaging
 Manufactured nanomaterials and nanodevices
 Therapeutics and drug delivery systems
 Clinical, regulatory and toxicology issues
Nanomedicine covers a broad application spectrum that spans from diagnostics, drug
development and delivery, to imaging.90 Nanomaterials are already playing a vital
role in the development of nanomedicine, with materials such as dendrimers and
DNA functionalised gold nanoparticles already approved for topical HIV and
diagnostic purposes. Other manufactured nanomaterial technologies in R&D for
health applications include: nanoscaffolding (self-assembling nanofibres),
regenerative nanoparticles, nanoengineered blood, magneto-dendrimers and
supramagnetic nanoparticles (for use in Magnetic Resonance Imaging, MRI
detection), biocompatible nanomaterials and many more.91
88
Frost & Sullivan (2010) Metamaterials-- Technology Trends and Market Prospects.
European Science Foundation (2005) An ESF – European Medical Research Councils (EMRC)
Forward Look report
90
Joshi, A., (2009) Nano Enabled Products in Patient Monitoring - An Outlook, Frost & Sullivan.
91
Barton, C. (2007). NANOTECHNOLOGY: Revolutionizing R&D to develop smarter therapeutics
and diagnostics. Business Insights, London.
89
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
Novel manufactured nanomaterials are emerging that may change the future delivery
of small molecule, macromolecules and nucleic-acid based therapies. These include:92


Nanobombs: modified fullerenes used for drug delivery inside viruses.
Nanoshells: hollow spheres of carbon, coated with a metallic outer layer, usually
gold, used as platforms for delivery, diagnostics and medical devices.
 Nanotubes: graphite cylinders are only a few nanometers in diameter, used for
drug delivery.
Nanodentistry is the science and technology of diagnosing, treating and preventing
oral and dental disease, relieving pain, and preserving and improving dental health
using nanoscale structured materials. Nanomaterials have already started to have an
impact in several of the dental specialities including periodontology, implantology,
prosthetic dentistry, orthodontics and endodontics. The likely progression of
nanoscience research in dentistry will result in the use of nanogold particles for
periodontitis therapy, tooth regeneration using nanostructures, dental root implants
using nanotextured surfaces, soft and hard tissue reconstruction using nanofibrous
biomimetric membranes, and many more.93
Manufactured Nanomaterials with Applications in Nanoelectronics94
Nanoelectronics incorporate nanotechnologies, such as nanomaterials in the
manufacture of electronic components and devices such as transistors, sensors,
memories and display devices. Some nanomaterials that are being explored for
utilisation in electronics include CNTs, nanowires, nanoparticles and graphene. Other
materials including quantum dots and nanocomposites are in their nascent stages of
development and are expected to find widespread adoption in the longer term.
The rapid increase in market demand for portable computing devices is driving the
need for new and scalable low cost technology that helps achieve miniaturised
components and devices. Mobile phones with growing functionalities serve as a key
driver in this regard. Figure 7 highlights some of the key applications nanotechnology
will have in the nanoelectronics field.
92
Barton, C. (2007). NANOTECHNOLOGY: Revolutionizing R&D to develop smarter therapeutics
and diagnostics. Business Insights, London.
93
GENNESYS Whitepaper (2009) A New European Partnership between nanomaterials science and
nanotechnology and synchrotron radiation and neutron facilities, Max-Planck-Institut für
Metallforschung, Stuttgart.
94
Frost & Sullivan (2011) Opportunities for Nanotechnologies in Electronics: Technology Market
Penetration and Roadmapping, Technical Insights.
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Figure 7: Nanotechnology Applications in Nanoelectronics
Source: Frost & Sullivan, 2011
Australian research has contributed substantially to the global development of
Quantum Computation, with Australian researcher Professor Michelle Simmons,
Director of the ARC Centre of Excellence for Quantum Computation and
Communication Technology, winning the 2011 NSW Scientist of the year award for
her pioneering work in the development of the world’s first quantum computer.95
5.10 Nanodevices and Systems
Nanodevices are critical enablers that allow the exploitation of the technological
capabilities of electronic, magnetic, mechanical and biological systems.
5.10.1
Global Demand and Applications
Global nanodevice sales are projected to grow from USD $35 million in 2010 to USD
$234 million by 2015, representing a high CAGR of 45.9 per cent from 2010 through
to 2015 (Table 8). Of the commercial nanodevices available, Nano-HPLC (highpowered liquid chromatography) currently accounts for the most sales, a trend
continuing into the future. Another relatively new area is Nanosensors which will
continue to grow rapidly through to 2015. In addition, highly anticipated
developments in the market are forecast to be the commercialisation of drug
production and mixing systems, as well as other developmental nanodevices.96
95
UNSW Website, Accessed 05/03/2012, Available at:
http://www.science.unsw.edu.au/news/simmons-is-scientist-of-the-year/
96
BCC Research (2010) Nanotechnology: A Realistic Market Assessment.
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Table 8: Global Nanodevice Sales (Including Commercial Nanodevices), Through to 2015 (USD $
Millions)
APPLICATION
Nano-HPLC
2009
2010
2015
CAGR%
2010-2015
28.0
30.5
47.0
9.0
Nanosensors
3.0
4.9
20.7
33.4
Drug production and mixing
systems
TOTAL COMMERCIAL
0.0
0.0
16.0
--
31.0
35.4
83.7
18.8
0.0
0.0
150.0
--
31.0
35.4
233.7
45.9
Developmental
TOTAL
Source: BCC Research, 2010
In order to continue to innovate and commercialise nanodevices, research must focus
on gaining a better understanding of the electronic, magnetic and photonic
interactions that occur at the nanoscale.
5.10.2
Current and Emerging Developments
Nanodevices and nanosystems will have a large impact in an assorted array of
applications. Currently, nanodevices are predominantly available in nano-HPLC
technologies and for information technology. In the future, applications for these
devices and systems will be diverse, including applications such as environmental
monitoring, security and defence, industrial processes, agriculture, automotive, and
very importantly, health care.97 A number of major enabling technologies and
applications are identified below.
Nanosensors
A nanosensor refers to any sensing device which is fabricated using nanomaterials,
nano-sized structures and composites, or whose construction involves any intricate
fabrication procedures or manipulation of material at the nano-scale. Nanosensing
devices detect analytes at molecular levels and are inherently more sensitive than any
other configuration of sensing platforms. Research and development work in this area
has demonstrated the ability of nanostructures such as carbon nanotubes, nanowires,
nanobelts and quantum dots to function as sensors of various physical or biological
phenomena.
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have a relatively large surface area to size ratio, and
therefore offer a greater area of contact for selected analytes to interact with the
sensor platform. Because of this, CNTs enable new levels of sensing with
unprecedented degrees of sensitivity. Nanowires are another high potential candidate
that exhibits rapid responses with a substantially higher sensitivity and selectivity than
the other conventional sensor configurations. Nanowires work by detecting small
concentrations of substances by measuring changes in electrical characteristics in
nanowires produced by the adsorption of the targeted specimen onto the nanowires.98
97
98
Frost & Sullivan (2008) Advances in Nanosensors.
Ibid.
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Nanosensors will serve as the enabling technology for performing certain detection
activities which cannot be adequately obtained by employing other technology
configurations. Currently, nanosensors have not reached widespread
commercialisation, with most R&D initiatives instigated by specific market need or
social pressure. Some key future applications for nanosensor technology include:99,100








Healthcare; nanosensors will assist in monitoring the health of patients and the
general public.
The agricultural industry; nanosensors will assist in monitoring the health of crops
and farm animals as well as water resource management.
The food industry; nanosensors will be used to monitor the levels of spoilage
bacteria and other important indicators.
The oil and gas sector; nanosensors will assist in allowing the high throughput
detection of uncharted oil and gas reserves.
Environmental safety applications which will range from sensing toxic or
flammable gas, chemical detection in mining, tunnelling in heavy industry, and
other hazardous areas to applications as simple as smoke detectors employed at
homes and other commercial buildings.
Environmental remediation applications including applications in air, soil and
water remediation.
Military and security use for the prompt detection of biological and chemical
threats.
The automotive industry will look to invest in nanosensing mechanisms to
enhance performance, minimise cost, and improve reliability when designing the
vehicles of the future.
System of Systems
Research will focus on the engineering of new devices that can merge technologies
from different science disciplines (physics, chemistry and biology) into a single
sensor. This concept is often referred to as “system of systems” and is related to the
“smart dust” (miniaturised sensor networks) concept. This activity will be driven by:




The benefit of each technology;
Their ability to communicate with other technologies (at the local stage);
Their self-poweredness; and
Their ability to add smartness by an adaptive and powerful signal processing, such
as data fusion.
Research will have applications in measurements for proteomic or genomic purposes,
as well as revolutionising detection (including for high throughput screening of
therapeutic compounds) and diagnosis by allowing for more rapid and more
convenient highly multiplexed detection.101
99
Frost & Sullivan (2008) Advances in Nanosensors.
GENNESYS Whitepaper (2009) A New European Partnership between nanomaterials science and
nanotechnology and synchrotron radiation and neutron facilities, Max-Planck-Institut für
Metallforschung, Stuttgart.
101
Ibid.
100
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Memory
Nanoscience is emerging in the field of computer and data storage. There are many
next generation storage technologies currently in the research phase, including Nonvolatile Random Access Memory or NRAM, a technology that uses carbon nanotubes
as the active memory element. NRAM is expected to be commercialised before
2015.102 In the future, micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS), with their unique
capabilities, are expected to impact a wide range of application domains and data
storage technologies.103 Other new memory technologies will include magnetic
random access memory, ferroelectric memory, nano-floating-gate devices, and phasechange chalcogenide memory.104
Spintronics / Magnetoelectronics 105
Spintronics, also known as magnetoelectronics is a discipline based on the physical
phenomena encountered in electrons. Spintronic devices transfer information by the
momentum of the intrinsic spin found in the electron, rather than using the electron
charge as the main information carrier. The convergence of spintronics with other
disciplines is forecast to enable the technology to have numerous applications,
including: non-volatile memory devices, magnetic sensors, biomolecular spintronics
biosensors, organics semiconductors, and quantum information and computation.
Micro and nanoscale instrumentation is one of the most promising areas for
advancement and enabling effects of spintronic devices. Integration of micro and nano
instrumentation as subsystems can significantly reduce device size, power, and
consumables while introducing new capabilities. This enables the integration of
optical, fluidic, chemical and biological components with electronic logic and
memory components on the same chip at a marginal cost. Drug discovery, genetics
research, chemical assays and chemical synthesis are all likely to be substantially
affected by these systems-on-a-chip advances by as early as 2015.
In the future, drug delivery is expected to be affected by advances in biomaterials,
with the advent of biologically compatible packaging, capable of isolating substances
from the body in a time-controlled fashion. The convergence of these capabilities with
the continued development of micro and nanoscale systems could lead to systems that
are able to be introduced into the body to perform basic diagnostic functions in a
minimally invasive way, providing new abilities to remedy health problems.
Magnetic random access memory (MRAM) is one of the more advanced spintronic
technologies, with a few companies currently commercialising MRAM solutions.
MRAM is a revolutionary spin-based solid state device that combines the best
capabilities and features of other widely used memory technologies such as the
densified system and low power consumption encountered in DRAM (dynamic RAM)
and the writing/reading speed characteristic of SRAM (static RAM).
Other spintronic technologies expected to emerge in the near term include the use of
organic spintronics, which are currently under development and are expected to
102
BCC Research (2010) 2010 Nanotechnology Research Review.
Frost & Sullivan (2008) Emerging Trends in Mass Data Storage Devices.
104
GENNESYS Whitepaper (2009) A New European Partnership between nanomaterials science and
nanotechnology and synchrotron radiation and neutron facilities, Max-Planck-Institut für
Metallforschung, Stuttgart.
105
Frost & Sullivan (2011) Advances in Spintronics/Magnetoelectronics.
103
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present good candidates to replace current semiconductor spintronics, and quantum
computing, an emerging computational technique that is expected to be
commercialised from 2016.
Nanosystems106
The focus of R&D and applications is expected to shift towards more complex
nanosystems, new areas of relevance and fundamentally new products. The
development of a library of nanostructures (particles, wire, tubes, sheets, modular
assemblies) of various compositions with industrial-scale quantities is a priority,
particularly for the advancement of synthetic biology. Currently, integrated
nanosystems are emerging in the form of technologies such as nanorobotics and
guided assembling. Molecular nanosystems such as molecular devices ‘by design’
will emerge, resulting from increased complexity, transdisciplinarity and convergence
of other technological fields.
Nanotechnology Geoengineering
Geoengineering, as defined by the ETC Group, is the intentional, large-scale
intervention in the Earth’s oceans, soils and/or the atmosphere with the aim of
combatting climate change.107 This describes an array of technologies, most of which
are at the conceptual and research stages with their efficacy yet to be proven. Two of
the most commonly discussed categories of geoengineering technologies are carbon
dioxide removal (CDR) and solar radiation management (SRM).108 Nanotechnology
is believed to have the potential to offer certain tools which may be useful
replacements or supplements to existing geoengineering techniques.
Examples of emerging conceptual ideas utilising nanotechnology in geoengineering
include:109



Fertilise the ocean with iron nanoparticles to increase phytoplankton that
theoretically sequester carbon dioxide,
Covering snowpack or glaciers in the Arctic with insulating material or a nanofilm to reflect sunlight and prevent melting, and
Artificially reducing the amount of sunlight absorbed by the Earth’s atmosphere
by injecting reflective engineered nanoparticles into the stratosphere.110
Nanodevice and Nanosystem Applications in Nanomedicine
Cancer therapy is an example where nanodevices have already been used. The
nanodevices employed for cancer therapy include ceramic nanoparticles, dendrimers
and cross linked liposomes. Currently, there is research focused on developing
“smart” nanodevices capable of detecting the tumour cells in vivo, terminating the
106
Roco, M.C., Mirkin C.A. & Hersam, M.C. (2010) Nanotechnology Research Directions for Societal
Needs in 2020, Retrospective and Outlook, Springer.
107
Bronson, D., et al (2009) Retooling the Planet? – Climate Chaos in the Geoengineering Age, ETC
Group.
108
Bracmort, K., et al (2011) Geoengineering: Governance and Technology Policy, Congressional
Research Service.
109
Bronson, D., et al (2009) Retooling the Planet? – Climate Chaos in the Geoengineering Age, ETC
Group.
110
Roco, M.C., Mirkin C.A. & Hersam, M.C., (2010) Nanotechnology Research Directions for Societal
Needs in 2020, Retrospective and Outlook, Springer.
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cells and conveying the result. There has been considerable progress in the
development of synthetic multifunctional nanodevices. Dendrimers have shown
immense multifunctional modularity. Several dendrimer based nanostructures are
under development for treating various cancers.111 In Australia, Starphama is a key
company involved in R&D for dendrimer products for health and life science
applications.112
Drug delivery is one of the fastest growing healthcare sectors of which nanodevices
are set to dramatically influence and change in the short and long term. New
nanodevices can be tailored according to the desired functions and duties thanks to
parallel progresses in the synthesis of colloidal systems with controlled
characteristics. Nanodevices have future potential in oral, implantable, topical,
pulmonary, parenteral and other routes of drug delivery.113 Emerging technologies
such as needle free injectors, and targeted drug delivery systems using carriers such as
nanospheres will influence the industry.
Nanosensors will also play an important part of nanomedicine. The
biosensing/biomedical sector is a niche market where currently nanosensor
technology is primarily at the development and prototyping stage. Clinical assays and
point-of-care diagnosis are among the key industries where nanosensing mechanisms
have been gaining increasing popularity.
Examples of clinical areas where nanosensors will be applied in the near and longterm include: the treatment of periodontitis and other oral and systemic diseases;
DNA sequencing and nucleic acid detection; genomic testing; proteomics;
pharmacogenomics; pathogen and virus detection; blood screening; respiratory
monitoring; glucose testing and in vivo radiation monitoring. To enable the realisation
of bioimplantable nanosensors, further development is required to overcome the need
for omission of batteries in the sensors’ design.114
The convergence of nanotechnology and biotechnology capabilities with spintronics
technologies will allow for the continued development of nanoscale systems that
could be introduced into the body to perform basic diagnostic functions in a
minimally invasive way, providing new abilities to remedy health problems.
111
Findlay, S., (2008) Drug Delivery - Exploring the Nano options, Frost & Sullivan.
Mullins, S. (2010), Are we willing to heed the lessons of the past? Nanomaterials and Australia’s
Asbestos Legacy, Hull, M., & Bowman D.M. (eds), Nanotechnology Environmental Health and Safety:
Risks, Regulation and Management, London: Elsevier, pp. 49–69.
113
Frost & Sullivan (2009) Opportunities in Drug Delivery: Unlocking the Doors to Macromolecules.
114
Frost & Sullivan (2008) Advances in Nanosensors.
112
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6. BIOTECHNOLOGY
Biotechnology is defined by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
as the application of science and technology to living organisms, as well as parts,
products and models thereof, to alter living or non-living materials for the production
of knowledge, goods and services.115 On a basic level, innovation in biotechnology
involves the development of techniques and technologies built on knowledge of living
organisms.116 The practical applications of biotechnology can be broadly categorised
as medical, industrial and agricultural, and the opportunities for biotechnology in
these areas are immense and diverse.
Biotechnology as an industry is more advanced than nanotechnology or synthetic
biology. However, technological change in the biotechnology industry remains rapid
and disruptive. In addition to the development of completely novel technologies,
future innovation in biotechnology will occur through incremental change, and the
scaling-up of existing lab-bench technologies to a commercial scale. Drivers, barriers
and risks will play an important role in this. The ability for many biotechnology
products and services to become commercially viable depends on complex
interactions between regulatory frameworks, ethical considerations, environmental
and health risks, and the effectiveness and sustainability of substitutes.
Recent advances in molecular biology and genomics research are driving the growth
of the biotechnology industry, which is currently experiencing revolutionary change.
The major activities, products and services in the biotechnology industry are
currently:
 Agricultural biotechnology research and products;
 Biofuel research and products;
 Bioinformatics;
 Chemical, environmental and other research and products;
 Diagnostics;
 Human therapeutics; and
 Reagents and other active molecules.
This section surveys the landscape of biotechnologies, segmented by the following
areas of application: medicine, industry, and agriculture. Given that incremental
change in current biotechnologies play an important role in future innovation, this
section describes some technologies that have already been commercialised, followed
by projected future developments in the area.
Section 6.1 summarises the existing global market for biotechnology products,
including forecasts of market growth and performance. This is followed by a
discussion of opportunities, barriers, risks and disruptive potential associated with
biotechnologies. Emerging techniques common to more than one application area of
biotechnology are summarised in Section 6.7, with emerging biotechnologies in
medicine, industry and agriculture mapped in Section 6.8.
115
International Organization for Standardization (June 2011) WEBINAR ON BIOTECHNOLOGY
Terms and Definitions.
116
Australian Government DIISR website, accessed 31/08/2011, Hazardous Waste Management:
Benefits from Biotechnology, available at
http://www.innovation.gov.au/Industry/Biotechnology/IndustrialBiotechnology/.
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6.1
Biotechnology Global Market Overview
Estimates of the size of the global biotechnology market and forecasts of its future
performance differ depending on how the market is defined. According to
Datamonitor (2010) the global biotechnology market, consisting of the development,
manufacturing and marketing of products based on advanced biotechnology research,
had total revenues of approximately USD $200 billion in 2009, with a CAGR of 10
per cent for the period 2005-2009.
Industry revenue growth held up well through the global financial crisis (GFC), but a
small deceleration is forecast in the annualised growth rate to around 9.6 per cent for
the period 2009-2014.117 Table 9 provides the historical and forecast size of the
biotechnology market through to 2014. In terms of geographical distribution, North
and South America accounted for 48.4 per cent of the global biotechnology market in
2009, followed by Asia-Pacific with 26.4 per cent of the market, and Europe with
25.2 per cent.
Table 9: Global Biotechnology Market Value, 2005–14 (USD $ Billion)
PER CENT
YEAR
VALUE
GROWTH
2005
136.4
2006
153.7
12.7
2007
171.8
11.8
2008
193.2
12.4
2009
200.9
4.0
2010
219.1
9.1
2011
239.5
9.3
2012
262.1
9.5
2013
288.2
9.9
2014
318.4
10.5
CAGR: 2005-09
10.2 per cent
CAGR: 2009-14
9.6 per cent
Source: Datamonitor, 2010
R&D spending
Although the biotechnology industry fared well through the financial crisis, many
large biotechnology companies undertook drastic cost-cutting measures to survive.
R&D is by far the largest expense of companies in this industry, and R&D spending
across established biotechnology centres fell by 21 per cent in 2009.118 Without a
future adjustment, cuts in R&D spending may have a long term negative effect on
industry performance.
Access to Funds
The total sum of funds raised by the biotechnology industry globally in 2010 was
USD $25 billion, which is more or less on par with the amounts raised prior to the
financial crisis. These figures can however be deceptive, as the crisis has affected the
ability of emerging companies to fund innovation. Total funding in the biotechnology
sector minus large debt financings by mature profitable companies, also known as
‘innovation capital’, declined by over 20 per cent in 2010.
117
118
Datamonitor (2010). Global Biotechnology.
Ernst & Young (2011) Beyond Borders Global Biotechnology Report.
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Market Segmentation
Biotechnology products and applications are numerous and include, but are not
limited to: human therapeutics, industrial biotechnology, agribiotech, diagnostics,
bioinformatics, food and beverage and many more. In 2009 the medical/healthcare
segment was the most lucrative in the global biotechnology market, with total
revenues of USD $133 billion, equivalent to 66.3 per cent of the market's overall
value. This is illustrated in Figure 8.119
Figure 8: Global Biotechnology Market Segmentation
Source: Datamonitor, 2010
Long Term Market Estimates
According to OECD estimates, biotechnology could contribute up to 2.7 per cent of
GDP in OECD countries by 2030. The economic contribution of biotechnology is
potentially the greatest in industrial applications, with 39 per cent of the total output
of biotechnology in this sector, followed by agriculture with 36 per cent of the total
and health applications at 25 per cent of the total. These figures are at odds with the
current distribution of R&D expenditure by business, suggesting a mismatch between
R&D investment and the potential economic contribution of biotechnology across a
number of sectors.120
6.2
Drivers
It is the markets that support the uptake of new and emerging technologies that drive
innovation in the biotechnology industry. Market dynamics fundamentally affect the
commercial viability of emerging technologies and their uptake. Geographically, the
largest biotechnology market has so far been the United States which is expected to
grow at a compounded annual rate of seven per cent through to 2013. 121 Emerging
markets, particularly India and China are growing in size and influence, and were less
119
Datamonitor (2010). Global Biotechnology.
OECD (2008) The Bioeconomy to 2030: Designing a policy agenda.
121
Ernst & Young (2011) Beyond Borders Global Biotechnology Report.
120
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severely affected by the financial crisis than many developed economies. Asian
investors are showing increased interest in the biotechnology sector, and there is an
ever increasing demand for biotechnology products in prosperous Asian markets.
Markets for biotechnology products are in turn influenced significantly by national
government agendas. As an example, the US Navy is investing heavily in the
development of biofuels as part of a green fleet policy. The global value of biofuels
subsidies was USD $11 billion in 2006, and this is projected to increase to USD $50
billion in 2050.122 The green fleet initiative also highlights energy security concerns
as a driver for countries without access to sufficient petroleum fuel reserves.
Favourable government regulation and availability of research funding are important
drivers for biotechnology research. This is especially true for ethically contentious
areas of biotechnology such as transgenic technology and embryonic stem cell
research.
The key trends and drivers identified in Section 3 have an important influence on the
development of new biotechnologies. Ageing populations are driving the development
of new and more personalised medical therapeutics, concerns about environmental
degradation drive the need for technologies that reduce waste and pollution and
population growth, especially in developing countries is driving the development of
agricultural biotechnology. Genetically modified (GM) technology in agriculture
promises another ‘green revolution’ capable of meeting increased demand for food
and reducing land use pressure.
The need for sustainability and resource use efficiency is driving the development of
industrial and agricultural biotechnology. Fossil fuels and other petroleum based
products need to be supplemented and eventually replaced. This is a considerable
challenge for the aviation industry where very few viable alternatives exist to current
fuels. In agriculture, alternatives are required for current methods of irrigation and
fertiliser use.
Key global drivers of biotechnology are echoed in Australia. The Australian Federal
Government provides grants and funding to biotechnology companies and research
facilities. Changes in the structure of this funding have been blamed for slower
industry growth in recent years.123 Australian Government renewable energy targets
will drive biofuel use and production, and Australia’s ageing population will drive
demand for life enhancing and life extending drugs.124
6.3
Opportunities
Opportunities for the application of biotechnology are both immense and diverse. The
subsections below discuss these opportunities and provide examples of potential
future applications and benefits in emerging tools and platforms, medical
biotechnology, industrial biotechnology and agricultural biotechnology.
On a fundamental level, biotechnology enables better and more targeted scientific
research, and increases our understanding of basic biology. The translation and
commercialisation of this research has produced novel products and technologies that
122
Wei, D.(2011) Next Generation Biofuels and Synthetic Biology, Foundation for International
Environmental Law and Development.
123
IBISWorld Australia (2011) Biotechnology in Australia.
124
Frost & Sullivan (2011) White Biotechnology.
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have fundamentally changed the way we operate. Such products include vaccines and
medical therapies synthesised using recombinant DNA technology, genetically
engineered crops, and biocatalysts used in industrial processing. Emerging
biotechnologies will continue to drive both evolutionary and revolutionary change,
and offer solutions to some of the major national and international challenges facing
Australia.
6.4
Barriers
Biotechnology is the application of technology to living organisms, and as such is
subject to a justifiably large regulatory burden. This is especially true for the
application of rDNA technology in agriculture and human health, where unintended
consequences can potentially outweigh benefits of the technology. The regulatory
burden placed on biotechnology has implications on funding requirements for
research, and commercialisation both in the public and private sectors.
There are claims that regulation of agricultural biotechnology is particularly
restrictive and may act as a disincentive to private investment in Australia. Table 10
displays indicative regulatory costs for the commercialisation of biotechnology
products as estimated in a recent OECD report.125 Regulations to ensure the safety
and efficacy of biotechnology products influence research costs and the types of
research that are commercially viable.
Table 10: Indicative regulatory costs to commercialise a biotechnology product (USD thousands)
INDUSTRY
INDIVATIVE COSTS
(USD thousands)
Agriculture
Plant
GM crop
MAS crop
435 – 13,460
5 - 11
Animal
Vaccine
242 – 469
Therapeutic
176 – 329
Diagnostic
9 - 189
Health
Therapeutics
In vitro diagnostics
1,300
150 - 600
Industry
GM open release
GM in closed loop
1,200 – 3,000
Unknown
Source: OECD, 2008
Biotechnology in the private sector is characteristically capital intensive and high risk.
The commercialisation of medical biotechnologies involves lengthy and expensive
clinical trials, and success rates for new technologies are notoriously low. Access to
125
OECD (2001) The bioeconomy to 2030: Designing a policy agenda.
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funds is therefore a significant barrier to the development and application of
biotechnology.
The cost to the consumer of new and emerging biotechnologies is a major barrier for
horizon 2 and horizon 3 innovations. Exciting areas of medical development such as
pharmacogenomics and regenerative medicine remain prohibitively expensive. In the
far term the cost of personalised medicine is expected to reduce significantly, and
truly restorative medicine, although expensive will offer greater value than palliative
care.
Similarly industrial biotechnologies such as bioplastics and biofuels are often
significantly more expensive than existing fossil fuel alternatives. As global demand
for fuel increases, and fossil fuel reserves continue to be depleted, it is expected that
renewable alternatives such as biofuels will become more competitive.
Other key barriers in the biotechnology industry are those which affect the
development of appropriate research and technology transfer capability. Competition
for talent in the industry is fierce, and national governments are making significant
investments in attracting the skills needed to develop and commercialise the next
generation of biotechnologies. Finally, ethical issues present an important barrier for
the future development of biotechnology. In many cases the science and technology is
advancing faster than the ethical debate. The use of embryonic stem cells in research
is an example of a particularly contentious issue. Ethical issues that may arise with the
future developments in biotechnology, and the barriers that they will create are an
important area for further investigation, however such a discussion is outside the
scope of this report.
6.5
Risks
The debate about the various risks associated with rDNA technology and genetically
modified organisms (GMOs) has persisted since the emergence of these technologies
over 30 years ago. The health and safety of consumers is the primary practical
concern, followed by the ethical implications of the manipulation of living organisms.
Risks Associated with Medical Applications
As with any new therapeutic, medical biotechnology therapeutics carry the risk of
unintended or poorly understood side-effects. Adverse consequences observed in gene
therapy clinical trials conducted in the year 2000 have been widely publicised. 20
infants suffering from X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID)
were treated with gene therapy, and the treatment was successful in 18 individuals.
Two to five years after this seemingly successful clinical trial, T-cell
lymphoproliferative syndrome developed in five of the children, one of whom died as
a consequence.126 This incidence of unintended insertional oncogenesis as a result of
gene therapy highlights the potential risks of medical biotechnology. It is however
important to dispassionately compare the risks of emerging medical biotechnologies
with those of the existing standard of care. In the case of SCID, even with the
complications described, gene therapy treatment is comparable to existing treatments.
126
Kohn, D.B, and Candotti, M.D., (2009) Gene therapy fulfilling its promise, The New England
Journal of Medicine.
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Other important risks in medical biotechnology include privacy concerns associated
with the generation and use of an individual’s genetic information, and ethical
considerations of providing clinically actionable genetic information direct to
consumers without providing expert genetic counselling.127
Risks Associated with Agricultural and Industrial Applications
The use of GM technology in agriculture and industrial biotechnology raises concerns
of the unintentional release of transgenic material into the environment. In Western
Australia there is an ongoing court case in which organic farmer Steve Marsh is
seeking compensation from his neighbour for the genetically modified contamination
of his organic canola seed crop.128 Although it must be noted that GM and organic
crops can coexist in neighbouring farms without contamination. Other concerns
relating to the use of biotechnology in agriculture include increasing dependence on
seed companies by farmers, increasing corporate control of the global seed supply,
and acquired resistance to insecticides and herbicides in pests. The mitigation of these
risks depends largely on the effectiveness of regulatory measures, and a thorough
scientific understanding of risks involved.
In industrial biotechnology, there is a risk that biofuel production will lead to an
increase in competition for land use (food vs fuel). While this is true for first
generation biofuels using food crops, second and third generation biofuels will make
use of organic waste, feedstock grown on marginal land, and algae. In this sense it is
the second and third horizon enabling technologies that are addressing risks present in
existing technology.
Consumer risk perceptions toward biotechnology products are an important factor in
their acceptance and uptake. Perceived risks of biotechnology products are
particularly high in Europe, where GM products (other than medicines) have not
made it to supermarket shelves in significant numbers.129 It is important for
consumers and the public at large to have access to accurate information of both the
benefits and risks of emerging biotechnologies.
6.6
Disruptive Potential
The disruptive influence of biotechnology has played out significantly already, and
this trend is expected to continue into the future. Biotechnology has enabled
revolutionary improvements in our understanding of basic biology, which has in turn
led to the development of new products and technologies across a number of industry
sectors.
As highlighted, there is a current trend towards the convergence of scientific
disciplines in the practical application of scientific knowledge. Examples of this
convergence identified in ET Futures include nanotechnology and molecular biology
converging in the development of nanopore sequencing devices. Nanoscale particles
are also playing an increasingly important role in drug delivery. Similarly the
127
Thomas, M. (2011) Direct to consumer (DTC) genomics has been one of the more interesting and
controversial developments of the genomics revolution, QTCN News and Views.
128
Varischetti, B. (2011) WA farmer suing his neighbour over GM contamination, ABC Rural website,
accessed 3/07/2011, available at: http://www.abc.net.au/rural/wa/content/2011/07/s3280309.htm.
129
Torgersen, H. (2004) The real and perceived risks of genetically modified organisms, EMBO
reports.
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convergence of stem cell technology and materials science is enabling de novo tissue
generation. The application of disruptive biotechnologies will increasingly occur
through significant convergence of disciplines, and as such it is difficult to determine
the disruptive potential of biotechnology alone.
Innovations in biotechnology, in conjunction with other emerging technologies in the
areas of ICT and nanotechnology are set to revolutionise healthcare in the coming
decades. Methods used for the production of pharmaceuticals have already changed
significantly as a result of biotechnology, and this trend is set to continue.
Technological changes in diagnostic and therapeutic capability necessitate
fundamental changes in the delivery of healthcare. There is a current trend away from
the traditional practice of intuitive medicine, towards a future of precision
medicine.130 In addition to changes the model of healthcare delivery, new and more
effective therapeutics will allow clinicians to address a wider range of diseases, and
provide superior patient outcomes.
In agriculture, currently available technologies promise only incremental increases in
yield. Disruptive agricultural biotechnologies such as GM crops have the potential to
provide significant yield increases and address global food shortages.131 This will
occur in conjunction with networked and precision farming, and improvements in
food packaging and storage technology. In addition to increasing yield, biotechnology
will contribute to the sustainability of agriculture, and will drive changes toward more
sustainable farming practices.132
Finally, in industry, emerging biotechnologies will necessitate significant investments
in new plant and equipment, and will cause changes to a myriad of existing industrial
processes. Biorefineries will change the management of organic waste, and produce
sustainable alternatives to petroleum-based products. Biotechnology will enable the
design of safer chemicals and products, through less hazardous chemical synthesis,
and will reduce pollution from industry. Sophisticated biocatalysts will replace
existing reagents, and safer solvents and reaction conditions will be made possible.133
6.7
Emerging Biotechnology Techniques
The following section describes the key emerging tools and platforms that enable the
development of new biotechnologies. For each emerging tool and platform, likely
future technological developments are described. Emerging Tools and platforms will
affect the development and application of biotechnology over a number of industry
sectors. Section 6.8 describes emerging biotechnologies by area of application:
medical, industrial and agricultural biotechnology. Section 6.8.4 discusses the
convergence of biotechnology with nanotechnology, enabling the novel field of
nanobiotechnology.
130
Yellowlees, P., et al (2011) Disruptive Innovation: The future of healthcare?, Telemedicine and ehealth.
131
Foresight Horizon Scanning Centre, (2010) Technology Annex, Technology and Innovation
Futures, Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, London.
132
Reeves, T. G. (2003) The potential for biotechnology in sustaining agriculture, Austrialian
Agronomy Conference.
133
Tao, J. et al (2011) Biocatalysts for Green Chemistry and Chemical Process Development, John
Wiley & Sons.
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Second Generation DNA Sequencing Technologies
The ability to ascertain DNA sequence information has revolutionised our
understanding of the life sciences, and has driven developments in biotechnology for
the last three decades. Since its discovery, sequencing technology has advanced
considerably. The Human Genome project took 10 laboratories 13 years to complete
in 2003 and cost USD $3 billion. If it was started from scratch today it would take a
week and cost about USD $25,000.134 DNA sequencing remains a rapidly advancing
and disruptive technology, and future developments in this area will enable progress
in biotechnology and its practical applications in medicine, industry, and agriculture.
For the two decades prior to 2004, DNA sequencing relied largely on variations of the
first generation automated Sanger method. The advent of next generation highthroughput sequencing technology, such as massively parallel sequencers, allowed for
the inexpensive production of large volumes of sequence data. Over the past decade
technological advances have led to exponential decreases in the cost of genome
sequencing (Figure 9).
Next generation sequencing is an enabling technology with enormous disruptive
potential in the biotechnology industry.135
Figure 9: Cost of DNA sequencing per genome 2001-2011
Source: NHGRI
The ability to rapidly and inexpensively sequence large areas of DNA has changed the
way researchers think about scientific approaches in basic, applied and clinical
research and clinical management. Over the next decade further advances in
sequencing technology, in conjunction with the study of the ‘omes’ will enable the
creation of a new generation of biotechnologies, including genomic medicine,
discussed in Section 6.8.1. Future interdisciplinary research enabled by next
134
National Human Genome Research Institute website, accessed 11/07/2011, available at:
www.genome.gov.
135
Metzker, M. (2010) Sequencing technologies – the next generation, Nature Reviews Genetics.
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generation sequencing will lead to rapid improvements in disease intervention, drug
discovery and treatment selection.136
Third Generation DNA Sequencing Technologies
Further improvements in DNA sequencing technology will rely on the convergence of
molecular biology, biochemistry, physics, electronics, nanotechnology and materials
science engineering. In the near term it is expected that modest technological
improvements in DNA sequencing technology will continue.
In the longer term emerging disruptive technologies such as nanopore sequencing
promise massive reductions in both the cost of full genome sequencing and the time
required.
DNA sequencing technology that incorporates a nanopore-based device has potential
to create instruments capable of sequencing a diploid mammalian genome for
approximately USD $1,000 in around 24 hours. Progress towards the goal of fast,
inexpensive nanopore sequencing has been both impressive and encouraging, but
some significant challenges remain to be overcome. It is unclear when this technology
will be commercialised.137
Omics
Omics is a broad term for the discipline of science and engineering that analyses the
interactions of biological information in the various ‘omes’; namely the genome,
epigenome, transcriptome, proteome and metabolomics.138 Using the enormous
quantities of biological data currently being produced, the study of the ‘omes’ enables
improved understanding of genes and proteins, interactions and relationships between
them, and the engineering of networks and objects to understand and manipulate
regulatory mechanisms. Research and discoveries in omics have far reaching
implications across areas of biotechnology such as drug discovery, treatment of
disease, and gene technology.139
Bioinformatics
Bioinformatics (computational biology) is the application of information sciences and
technologies to make the vast, diverse and complex life science data now available
more understandable and useful.140 Developments in bioinformatics necessitate the
significant convergence of disciplines such as mathematics, physics, computer
science, engineering, biology and behavioural science.
Following the advent of next generation sequencing technology, the largest bottleneck
in whole genome sequencing is no longer data generation, but rather the
computational challenges of data analysis.141 There is a growing gap between the
136
Branton, D., & Rothberg, J. (2010) Career snapshots: next-generation sequencing, Nature Reviews
Drug Discovery.
137
Branton, D. et al (2008) The potential and challenges of nanopore sequencing, Nature Reviews
Biotechnology.
138
Nature Omics Gateway website, accessed 12/07/2011, available at: www.nature.com/omics/.
139
Foresight Horizon Scanning Centre, (2010) Technology Annex, Technology and Innovation
Futures, Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, London.
140
Biomedical Information Science and Technology initiative website, accessed 12/07/2011, available
at: www.bisti.nih.gov.
141
Green, D. et al (2011) Charting a course for genomic medicine from base pairs to bedside, Nature.
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output of massively parallel sequencers and the ability to process and analyse the
resulting data.142
Currently the technological infrastructure needed to analyse whole genome data is
available only in large genome research centres. In the next decade it is likely that this
computational power will become available to individual investigators and medical
practitioners. This may well occur through decentralised cloud computing solutions
allowing access to significant hardware power and at a reasonable cost.
Recombinant DNA Technology
Recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology is a fundamental tool in biotechnology and
enables the introduction of foreign DNA into a host organism, bringing together DNA
sequences that do not occur in nature. The technology can also be used to knock out
genes of interest, a method used in research to examine the function of specific genes.
This technology is already advanced and has been used to produce a variety of
transgenic organisms from microbes to mammals. Transgenic organisms have
invaluable applications in the production of medicines, enzymes and other biological
compounds. In biological research transgenic animals can be used to model human
disease and enable the discovery and development of human therapeutics.
Future improvements in gene targeting and mutation methods will enable the
construction of transgenic organisms more efficiently and effectively, with a wider
range of novel traits. This will in turn drive further research discovery and allow for
the production of useful compounds. In crop biotechnology (discussed in
Section 6.8.3) zinc finger nuclease (ZFN) technology, currently under development, is
expected to greatly accelerate the production of transgenic crop varieties. This will
also allow the stacking of multiple transgenes in a single site, allowing for the
commercialisation of crops with multiple transgenic traits.143 Similar developments
will occur in medical and industrial biotechnology.
Microarray Technology
DNA microarray technology is currently used as a lab-based method for profiling
gene expression for a number of different genes and a given tissue type. Recent
advances in microarray technology have allowed a shift from studying individual
functions of several genes to global investigations of cellular activity.144 In the near
future improved microarrays will be used by researchers to better understand gene
regulation, cell proliferation and disease progression.
In the longer term microarrays will form part of advanced and sensitive medical
diagnostics for the prescription of individually administered therapeutics.
Epigenetics
Epigenetics describes changes in the expression of genes that occur without a change
in the DNA sequence itself. An epigenetic trait is one that is stably heritable and
results from changes in a chromosome without alterations to the DNA sequence.
142
McPherson, D. (2009) Next generation gap, Nature Methods Supplement.
Dunwell, J. (2010) Crop biotechnology: prospects and opportunities, Journal of Agricultural
Science.
144
Sigma Scan, 2010, Advances in DNA microarray technology, available at:
http://www.sigmascan.org/Live/Issue/ViewIssue.aspx?IssueId=468&SearchMode=1.
143
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Epigenetic regulation occurs through a number of different molecular mechanisms,
and the study of epigenetics provides a molecular basis for understanding the
interaction between nature and nurture.
The impact of environmental factors such as smoking, diet, physical activity and
pollutants on disease pathology is thought to be mediated in part by epigenetics. 145 It
has also been found that some pathogens can interfere with the epigenome of an
infected cell.146 Epigenetics is an emerging area of research, and in 2008 the US
National Institutes of Health (NIH) began funding for the ‘roadmap epigenomics
project’, to accelerate progress in the field. One objective of the program is to produce
high resolution genome-wide maps of epigenetic modifications in different cell
types.147 This research is facilitated by aforementioned enabling technologies such as
microarray, high-throughput sequencing and bioinformatics. The NIH project also
aims to support the development of new technology in epigenetics such as in vivo
mapping of epigenetic changes in cells, tissues and eventually whole organisms.
There is also significant commercial interest in epigenetics and its ability to produce
new therapeutic targets, diagnostic methods, and treatments for disease. Epigenetic
research will improve general understanding of basic biological processes, disease
mechanisms, and in the long term will enable the development of a new generation of
therapeutics.
RNA Interference
RNA interference (RNAi) is a molecular mechanism mediated by RNA that controls
the activity of genes in living cells. RNAi technology harnesses this mechanism to
silence or knock down specific genes. The technology involves the use of double
stranded RNA (dsRNA) molecules to induce a potent gene-silencing process. Other
important molecules involved in this process include micro RNA (miRNA) and small
interfering RNA (siRNA). RNAi is a robust and specific tool for gene knockdown.148
RNAi technology has developed rapidly from an interesting observation to an
invaluable research tool, and already has a number of practical commercial
applcations. There is immense interest in the development of RNAi technology in a
number of settings. In the next decade RNAi will be used to create a new generation
of medical therapeutics, and in agricultural biotechnology to improve disease
resistance and reduce un-desirable qualities in transgenic plants and animals. Current
and potential future applications of RNAi technology are discussed in more detail in
Section 6.8.1 and 8.5.2.
Stem Cell Technologies
Stem cells are proliferative and self-renewing cells that are capable of differentiating
into the array of specialised mature cells that constitute a given organ. 149 Human
embryonic stem cells (hESC) are pluripotent, meaning that they can become any cell
145
Stauffer, B.L., and DeSouza, C.A. (2010) Epigenetics: an emerging player in health and disease, J.
Appl Physiol.
146
Tarakhovgsky, T. (2010) Tools and landscapes of epigenetics, Nature Immunology.
147
NIH Roadmap Epigenomics Project website, accessed 1/08/2011, available at:
www.roadmapepigenomics.com.
148
Nature RNA interference website, accessed 1/09/2011, available at:
http://www.nature.com/focus/rnai/index.html.
149
Singec, I., et al (2007) The leading edge of stem cell therapeutics, Annu. Rev. Med.
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type present in the human body. In the adult, stem cells reside among differentiated
cells in tissues and organs. These cells are known as adult stem cells, or somatic stem
cells. Most adult stem cells are multipotent, capable of developing into mature cells of
the organ or tissue in which they reside. Under specific conditions, certain adult stem
cells have the ability to transdifferentiate, meaning that the cells differentiate into cell
types seen in organs or tissues other than those expected from the cells' predicted
lineage.150
Induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cell technology, originally developed by Yamakana
(2006) allows differentiated adult cells to be reprogrammed. iPS cells behave
similarly to embryonic stem cells although epigenetic differences have been
observed.151 Cells can be reprogrammed by a number of methods, many of which
rely on rDNA technology and the use of viruses.
Recent work however, has developed viral-free methodology to generate iPS cells for
clinical applications. In this rapidly developing field, researchers are only beginning
to understand the mechanism and kinetics of iPS cell reprogramming. In the next
decade, the development of more efficient and effective cell reprogramming
protocols, and more methods that do not require integration of transgenes, can be
expected to become available.
Stem cells derived either from hESC or adult tissue will revolutionise applications for
improved drug discovery, better understand the biology of regeneration, and create
better models to understand human disease. The improved generation and propagation
of human cell types in culture will allow the development of vaccines for
human/primate specific viruses, and the production of human proteins in stable human
cell lines. Disease models using human cell lines will decrease the need for animal
models in medical research. Clinically, stem cells can be used to replace cells lost due
to pathology.
Increases in our understanding of stem cell biology and manipulation will enable
technological development in the following areas:

Improved cell culture conditions, allowing longer-term propagation and scale-up
of stem cells
 Improved directed cell-differentiation technology
 More efficient iPS cell reprogramming
 Efficient iPS cell reprogramming and using viral-free methods
 Incorporation of materials science technology (intelligent materials) for
construction of organs in vitro and for transplantation/integration in the body, this
can also include decellularised matrix scaffold technology152
The use of stem cells in medical therapies is discussed further in Section 6.8.1.
150
Rishi, N. T., et al (2008) Stem cell-based therapies for spinal cord injury, Journal of Spinal Cord
Medicine.
151
Lau, F. et al (2009) Induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells: an up-to the minute review, F1000 biology
reports.
152
Scott, J.J., and Ott, H.C. (2011) Organ engineering based on decellularized matrix scaffolds, Trend
Mol Med.
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Biometrology
Metrology, the science of measurement is of vital importance in biotechnology. Many
advances in modern biotechnology rely on advances in metrology; the discovery of
the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), the development of the sequencing machine, the
discovery of fluorescent proteins, and the development of protein identification by
mass spectrometry. It is likely that advances in biotechnology over the next 20 years
will depend on the advancement in the field of biometrology.
Smilansky (2008) describes a metrology gap that currently exists in life sciences
research.153 Although genomic, proteomic and metabolic data is available on a vast
scale, a detailed understanding of the complexity of cellular machinery remains
elusive due to a lack of tools for measuring dynamic data from within living cells.
Data in biology and pharmacology is notoriously difficult to obtain, and often
information disqualifying a drug candidate is revealed only at late stages, and at a
high cost. Smalinsky argues that greater convergence between biology and
engineering is required to produce the measurement tools and data required.154
An international collaborative effort is currently underway to build support
infrastructure for biological measurement, and develop appropriate analytical
standards for biometrology, with major downstream economic and healthcare
impacts.155 In Australia, the National Measurement Institute (NMI) is involved in
developing the infrastructure to improve accuracy and comparability in biological
measurement.156
6.8
Biotechnology Applications
6.8.1 Medical Biotechnology
Genomic Medicine
Progress in genomics, facilitated by next generation sequencing technology and
computational biology is fundamentally changing our understanding of the biology of
disease. Genomic research has so far produced new insights into cancer, the molecular
basis of inherited disease, and the role of genomic structural variation in disease.157
Green et al (2011) describe an emerging era of genomic medicine; clinical care based
on genomic information. This technology will have major implications for drug
discovery and development, and patient management, analysis and treatment.
Figure 10 schematically represents accomplishments across five domains of genomic
research, and predicts the way that research accomplishments will change over the
next decade and beyond. Between 2011 and 2020 increases in our understanding of
the biology of disease will enable the creation of new therapies and advanced
healthcare. Future improvements in the areas of diagnostics, therapeutics, and
pharmacogenomics are described as follows.
153
Smilansky, Z. (2008) Metrology in the life sciences (2008).
IMERA (2008) European Metrology Research Programme Outline 2008.
155
Centre of Biomolecular Metrology website, accessed 08/03/2012, available at: www.npl.co.uk.
156
National Measurement Institute website, accessed 08/03/2012, available at:
http://www.measurement.gov.au.
157
Green et al (2011) Charting a course for genomic medicine from base pairs to bedside, Nature.
154
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Figure 10: Schematic representation of accomplishments across five domains of genomics
research
Source: AIC (adapted from Nature Biotechnology), 2011
Genomic Diagnostics
Over the next decade, the genes responsible for most Mendelian (monogenic)
disorders will be better categorised enabling more accurate and earlier diagnoses for
these disorders. Even in the absence of a treatment, improved diagnosis of disease is
clinically valuable. False diagnoses and the resulting ineffective treatments will be
greatly reduced, lowering the cost of healthcare. Rapid and accurate diagnosis can
also provide psychological benefits to patients and their families, as described by
Green et al (2011). In addition to improved diagnosis of disease, individuals that are
genetically susceptible to adverse drug reactions can be identified early on. An
individual’s genomic information can be stored as a component of e-health records,
and will assist with drug management.
In the longer term, improvements in biotechnology techniques mentioned in
Section 6.7 will allow the measurement of cell level and organism level genotypes
and phenotypes, allowing improved diagnosis, and more targeted treatment of disease.
Genomic Therapeutics
Achievements in genomic research will help to identify new targets for drug
development, and this approach has already proved successful particularly for cancer
drugs. In addition to human genomics, the increased knowledge of microbial
pathogens will lead to improved vaccine design. New and improved pharmaceuticals
are expected to continue to become commercially available over the next ten years.
Genomic information will also allow for the improved design of clinical trials. The
selection of clinical trial participants based on genomic information will enable the
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use of smaller numbers of participants, and increase statistical power of findings.
Patients can also be targeted at appropriate stages of their illness for the trial.
Pharmacogenomics
Over the next decade Green et al (2011) expects more drug prescriptions to be guided
by the individual patients’ genetic makeup. This practice is already commonplace for
the prescription of Abacavir, an antiretroviral drug. Several other drugs such as
Tamoxifen (breast cancer drug), Clopidogrel (blood clot inhibitor), and Warfarin
(blood thinning agent) will be administered with genetic guidance. Cancer therapies
will be increasingly selected based on genetic tumour subtypes. In the longer term,
DNA, RNA and protein tests for patients may become as commonplace as traditional
laboratory analysis.
RNA-based Therapeutics
Therapeutics based on RNA technology are in their infancy, and technological
advances in the area show enormous potential for future drug development. A number
of RNA-based therapeutics are currently undergoing clinical trials.158 RNA
therapeutics is predicted to become one of the fastest growing therapeutic classes in
the pharmaceutical market by 2020.159
RNAi as a therapeutic strategy has an advantage over small-molecule drugs, as
virtually all genes are susceptible to targeting by siRNA molecules.160
A major limitation of existing medicines is the ability to target only a limited number
of proteins involved in disease pathways.161 This class of therapeutic therefore holds
enormous promise for expanding the possible number of druggable targets.162
Unlike gene therapy, RNAi based therapeutics need not occur through the insertion of
genetic material into the host genome. Delivery is however the most significant
barrier to the widespread use of RNAi therapeutics in a clinical setting, and the
development of safe and effective delivery mechanisms is essential. For example,
lipid-based carriers of siRNA therapeutics that allow improved targeting of the liver
are currently being assessed in clinical trials for the treatment of
hypercholesterolaemia.163 In the future it is expected that nanoparticles comprised of
polymers, lipids, or conjugates will play an important role in systemic siRNA
application. In addition to this, chemical modifications to siRNA molecules will help
to minimise non-specific effects and evade immune defences in vivo, and tissuespecific ligands will enable better targeting.
Gene Therapy
Gene therapy is the insertion of genetic material into an individual’s cells and tissues
as a treatment for disease. Gene therapy builds on advances in rDNA technology, and
158
Haussecker, D. (2012) The business of RNAi therapeutics in 2012, Molecular Therapy Nucleic
Acids 2 e8.
159
Foresight Horizon Scanning Centre, (2010) Technology Annex, Technology and Innovation
Futures, Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, London.
160
Czech, M. et al (2011) RNAi-based therapeutic strategies for metabolic disease.
161
Melnikova, I. (2007) RNA-based therapies, Nature Reviews Drug Discovery.
162
Whitehead, K. et al (2009) Knocking down barriers: advances in siRNA delivery, Nature Reviews
Drug Discovery.
163
Czech, M. et al (2011) RNAi-based therapeutic strategies for metabolic disease.
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makes use of a variety of vectors and gene transfer methods to accomplish its
objective. Although the technology remains in its infancy, it has been used with some
success and as of 2007 over 1340 gene therapy clinical trials had been completed.164
Progress has been set back by unfortunate cases of serious adverse events. Despite
these setbacks, gene therapy has made significant progress towards clinical efficacy.
Recent high-profile clinical studies have reported success in correcting inherited
forms of retinal degeneration, severe combined immunodeficiency, and
adrenoleukodystrophy.165
The majority of gene therapy clinical trials so far have been aimed at the treatment of
cancer, and patients enrolled in gene therapy clinical trials have typically tried several
other treatments that have failed. In the near term (horizon 1) new approaches to gene
therapy and new methods of gene transfer will enable the treatment of a wider range
of diseases, and more site-specific integration of genetic material.
The use of RNAi technology in gene therapy is particularly promising, and this area
has significant potential over horizon 2 and 3.
Stem Cell Therapies
Recent advances in stem cell biology promise to enable the development of a new
generation of regenerative therapies. Such therapies will use stem cell and iPS cell
derivatives that mimic the normal biology of cells or tissues to restore function for
degenerative diseases following transplantation.166,167 Stem cells from bone marrow
have been used for over 30 years to treat cancer patients with conditions such as
leukaemia and lymphoma, and other cell-based therapies have been launched more
recently, mainly with a dermatological or orthopaedic focus. There is currently
significant investment in the development of new regenerative therapies, but the
widespread practical application of most of these therapies is still in the horizon 2-3
timeline. The current development pipeline of cell-based therapies is displayed in
Table 11.
Table 11: Current Pipeline of Cell-Based Therapies in Development
CELL-BASED
LARGE COMPANYCLINICAL PHASE
THERAPIES
SPOSORED THERAPIES
Phase I
38
0
Phase II
24
3 (Teva, Baxter, Genzyme)
Phase III
6
0
TOTAL
68
3 (5%)
Source: Cell Stem Cell Forum, 2010
Diseases that can potentially be addressed by stem cell-based therapies include
cardiac disease, autoimmune disorders, endocrine/metabolic disorders, central
nervous system pathology, diabetes, liver degenerative diseases, and others. Stem cell
therapies hold significant promise for spinal cord injury (SCI) repair, but their true
potential has not yet clearly been shown.168 Additionally stem cell based therapies
Edelstein, M.L., et al (2007) Gene therapy clinical trials worldwide to 2007 – an update, The
Journal of Gene Medicine.
165
Mavilio, F. (2010) Gene Therapy: back on track, EMBO reports.
166
Foresight Horizon Scanning Centre (2010) Technology and Innovation Futures, Technology Annex.
167
McKernan, R., et al (2010) Pharma’s Developing Interest in Stem Cells, Cell Stem Cell Forum.
168
Sahni, V., and Kessler, J. (2010) Stem cell therapies for spinal cord injury, Nature Reviews
Neurology.
164
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have potential applications in the repair of degenerative neurological diseases. For
example, the transplantation of dopamine-producing neurons may be used to treat
Parkinson’s disease patients. Considerable progress has been made towards these
therapies and a myriad of others, but several issues remain to be addressed before
clinical application.169 Risks such as tumour formation and abnormal circuit
formation (in the case of SCI repair) must be weighed against potential benefits of the
therapy.
The convergence of stem cell technology and materials science is driving research
into the de novo construction of complex tissues and organs. Biodegradable cell
scaffolds with inbuilt growth factors can potentially be seeded with cells in vitro and
later implanted into patients.
Current research seeks to regenerate components of gastrointestinal, vascular,
pulmonary and genitourinary systems.170 So far proof-of-concept studies have been
successful in regenerating bladder, trachea and vasculature. Biotechnology company
Tengion has initiated a phase I clinical trial of a bladder regeneration platform. The
product is being developed for cancer patients who require removal of a cancerous
bladder, and it removes the need to use the patient’s own bowel in reconstruction of
the urinary tract, potentially avoiding many complications.171 Biotechnology
company, Advanced Cell Technology, is currently in Phase II clinical trials for use of
hESC derived retinal cells for patients with Stargardt’s Macular Dystrophy. Other
tissue regeneration therapies are likely to follow through the clinical trials process
over the next 5-10 years.
In addition to the replacement of cells lost due to pathology and damage, stem cells
have potential applications as vehicles for the delivery of gene therapy. A major
limitation of gene therapy is the inability for therapeutic molecules to be delivered to
specific tissue areas. Neural stem cells particularly exhibit a remarkable ability to
migrate to areas of the brain damaged by pathology. Molecules released during acute
or chronic injuries have been found to be chemoattractants for neural stem cells.
Genetically modified neural stem cells could potentially integrate seamlessly into the
brain while continuing to express a foreign transgene, making them ideal vehicles for
the delivery of therapeutic molecules for central nervous system disorders.
6.8.2 Industrial Biotechnology
Industrial biotechnology (IB), also known as white biotechnology, is the use of
biological processes, systems and substances to produce and process materials and
chemicals.172,173 On a fundamental level, IB is the application of life science tools to
conventional manufacturing and industry, resulting in new and improved methods to
make industrial raw materials, intermediate and consumer goods or to manage waste.
169
Kim, S.U., and de Vellis, J. (2009) Stem cell-based cell therapy in neurological diseases.
Basu, J and Ludlow, J. (2010) Platform technologies for tubular organ regeneration, Trends in
Biotechnology.
171
Tengion website, accessed 02/09/2011, available at: www.tengion.com.
172
Foresight Horizon Scanning Centre, (2010) Technology Annex, Technology and Innovation
Futures, Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, London.
173
UK Department for Business Enterprise and Regulatory Reform (2009) Maximising UK
Opportunities from Industrial Biotechnology in a Low Carbon Economy.
170
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The applications of IB are developed and adopted across a wide range of industrial
markets, including minerals and fuel, energy, chemicals, food and feed, textiles, and
pulp and paper.174
The economic and social benefits of IB include greater manufacturing efficiency and
lower production costs, less industrial pollution and resource conservation.
Industrial biotechnology is an emerging industry, and growth is driven by
technological development. The emergence of new industrial biotechnologies is
enabled by developments in other areas of life sciences such as genomics. The global
IB market was valued at USD $75.81 billion in 2010.175 Major market segments of
industrial biotechnology are categorised below, including 2010 revenue from each
segment:
 Biofuels – USD $39.69 billion
 Pharmaceutical ingredients – USD $22.06 billion
 Food and feed – USD $9.27 billion
 Enzymes – USD $4.32 billion
 Bioplastics – USD $0.24 billion
 Personal care ingredients – USD $0.23 billion
The following section surveys the landscape of key emerging technologies in
industrial biotechnology.
Biofuels
Biofuels are liquid and gaseous fuels derived from organic matter, and they have the
potential to supplement and eventually replace petroleum based fuels for many
applications. Biofuels promise to reduce carbon emissions, and minimise the
economic and political volatility surrounding fossil fuel reserves. Large scale
investment in the commercial production of biofuels began in the 1970s, driven by
desire to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the transport sector and improve energy
security. Uptake of biofuels without government support is dependent on the relative
cost of fossil fuels, and the rising cost of crude oil is a major driver for biofuel
production.
The fastest growth in biofuel production has occurred over the last decade, and in
2010, the total quantity of biofuels produced was over 100 billion litres.176
This production is supported by various government policies, typically tax incentives,
subsidies and blending mandates defining the proportion of biofuel to be used in
transport fuel. The annual global value of biofuel subsidies was USD $11 billion in
2006, and is set to rise to USD $50 billion in 2050.177
In a recent technology roadmap of biofuels for transport, the International Energy
Agency (IEA) envision that by 2050 biofuels will comprise 27 per cent of total world
transport fuel consumed. To achieve this vision, the IEA estimate that around 100
million hectares of land will be required to produce biofuel feedstock in 2050. Given
the rapidly growing demand for food and fibre, competition for land poses a
174
IBISWorld Australia (2011) Biotechnology in Australia.
Frost & Sullivan (2011) White Biotechnology.
176
International Energy Agency (2011) Biofuels for Transport, Technology Roadmap.
177
Wei, D. (2011) Next Generation Biofuels and Synthetic Biology, Foundation for International
Environmental Law and Development.
175
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significant challenge to this vision. The inflation of food prices as a direct result of
biofuel production presents a significant risk. The abatement of this risk relies on
increased use of residues and waste in biofuel production, along with sustainably
grown energy crops.
New and emerging biofuel technologies will improve and encourage the production of
biofuels from waste, residues and feedstock grown on marginal land, rather than food
crops as is currently the case. The use of advanced biotechnology in biofuels
production is becoming increasingly important; biocatalysts are used during
processing of biomass; algae biofuels will use genetically engineered microalgae; and
GM plant species can produce specialised biofuel feedstock. A risk presented by
emerging biofuel technologies is the potential for invasive plant species and GM
organisms used as feedstock to cause unintended environmental damage.
Development and propagation of biofuel feedstock will require careful regulation.
Biofuel technology can be classified into a number of generations of technological
development:

First generation - conventional biofuels are those manufactured from sugar, starch
and vegetable oil, derived primarily from food crops. The majority of biofuels that
are currently produced in commercial quantities fall into this category.
 Second generation - advanced biofuels are those manufactured from non-food
crops and lignocellulose wastes. The manufacturing process requires enzymatic
digestion and fermentation.
 Third generation - algae biofuels are sometimes referred to as third generation
biofuel and are manufactured from photosynthetic algae.
The following section describes areas of technological development for each of these
biofuel categories. Figure 11 summarises the current commercialisation status of a
number of biofuel technologies. The advanced biofuels category combines second
generation biofuels and algae biofuels, and is currently an area of significant
technological innovation and development.
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Figure 11: Commercialisation Status of Biofuel Technologies for Transport
Source: IEA, 2011
First Generation Biofuels
The first generation ‘conventional’ biofuels are those manufactured from sugar, starch
and vegetable oil, derived primarily from food crops. In 2011, researchers in
Queensland began the Queensland Sustainable Aviation Fuel Initiative (QSAFI), led
by the Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology (AIBN), which
aims to advance research, commercialisation and the production of sustainable
aviation fuel.178
Sugar and starch based ethanol
Bioethanol is produced by the fermentation of food crops such as sugarcane, sugar
beet and sweet sorghum. Bioethanol can also be produced from starch crops, but this
requires an additional processing step: the hydrolysis of starch into glucose. The cost
of bioethanol produced using these methods, is closely related to the relevant
feedstock prices.
Conventional Biodiesel
Conventional biodiesel is produced from raw vegetable oils and animal fats, which
are transesterified using an alcohol. Oils are typically derived from soybean, oil palm
and sunflower, and the overall price of the resulting product is sensitive to feedstock
prices.
178
Queensland Government, The Queensland Cabinet and Ministerial Directory website, accessed
31/08/2011, available at: http://www.cabinet.qld.gov.au/MMS/StatementDisplaySingle.aspx?id=75429.
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Biogas
Biogas can be produced by the anaerobic digestion of biodegradable material,
typically organic waste, animal manure, and sewerage sludge. Biogas can be used for
cooking, heating, electricity generation, and to power motor vehicles.
Second Generation Biofuels
Second generation, or advanced biofuels are those manufactured from non-food crops
and lignocellulose wastes (sustainable feedstocks). The manufacturing process
requires enzymatic digestion and fermentation. This is an area of significant
technological development.179
Cellulosic ethanol
Bioethanol can be produced from lignocellulosic feed stocks such as wood, grasses,
and non-edible plant material. This technology has the potential to reduce land use
competition, as feedstock can be grown on marginal land. This process requires
biochemical conversion of the biomass feedstock into fermentable sugars, which then
follow the same process as conventional bioethanol. Powerful cellulase enzymes are
used in this process, and genetically engineered microbes are being developed to
assist in this process.
Advanced Biodiesel
Advanced biodiesel has properties very similar to diesel and kerosene, and can be
combined with fossil fuels in any proportion. There are several processes currently
under development for producing advanced biodiesel, and these are outlined below:
Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil
Hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO) is produced by hydrogenating vegetable oils or
animal fats. Compared to conventional biodiesel, hydrogenated oils perform better at
lower temperatures, have no storage stability problems, and are not susceptible to
microbial attack. Large scale HVO production plants exist in Finland and Singapore,
but the process has not yet been fully commercialised.
Biomass-to-liquids
A number of novel biofuel conversion routes have recently been announced in recent
years (below). So far none of these processes have been demonstrated on a
commercial scale:



Conversion of sugar into alkanes using heterotrophic algae, yeast and
cyanobacteria. Alkanes are basic hydrocarbons used for gasoline, diesel and jet
fuel.
Transformation of water-soluble sugars into hydrogen using aqueous phase
reforming, and then into alkanes via a catalytic process.
The use of GM yeast to convert sugars into hydrocarbons and eventually synthetic
diesel.
179
Bringezu S., et al (2009) Assessing Biofuels, United National Environment Programme (UNEP),
International Panel for Sustainable Resource Management.
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Bio-synthetic gas
Biomethane can be derived from solid biomass via thermal processes (partial
combustion). There is currently a demonstration plant producing biomethane from
solid biomass in Austria, and another plant is planned in Sweden. Natural gas vehicles
can be run on biomethane derived from gasification of biomass or anaerobic
digestion.
Other fuels and additives
A number of other biofuels and fuel-additives are currently in different stages of
commercialisation.




Pyrolosis oil: The rapid heating (400-600ºC) and cooling of biomass, also known
as fast pyrolysis, produces a liquid product suitable for long distance transport.
The oil is then processed in ways similar to crude oil.
Hydrothermal processing: Biomass can be processed in a liquid media and
subjected to high temperature and pressure. The result is a ‘bio crude’ product
similar to pyrolosis oil.
Dimethylether (DME): DME can be produced by catalytic dehydration of biomass
or gasification of biomass feedstock. Production of DME from biomass
gasification is in the demonstration stage, and DME has potential uses in diesel
engines or as a substitute for propane in liquefied natural gas (LNG).
Biobutanol: Sugars can be fermented using the acetone-butanol-ethanol process to
yield biobutanol which can be used in internal combustion engines.
Demonstration plants exist in Germany and the US, with others under
construction.
Third Generation Biofuels
Biofuels produced from an algae feedstock are sometimes referred to as the third
generation of biofuel technology. This method of biofuel production has already
received significant attention from the research community, and production is
expected to expand considerably over the next decade. The most promising algae
biofuels are high quality diesel and jet fuel analogues, as few alternatives exist to
replace these fuels. Algae can be grown on marginal land and in water that is
otherwise unsuitable for crops and food production, making bio-oils using algae less
polluting and potentially more efficient than converting vegetable oils or animal fats
into biofuel. Furthermore, through its capacity to consume carbon dioxide, algae offer
the added benefit of mitigating greenhouse gas emissions.
Currently the cultivation of algae and subsequent processing to extract oil is
prohibitively expensive, and large scale commercialisation of this technology depends
on the ability to produce high volumes of low cost biofuels. Significant R&D
challenges remain, and rDNA technology has potential applications in the
optimisation of algae strains. Biotechnology improvements will need to go hand in
hand with improvements in photobioreactor design, and other aspects of scaling up
production.
Figure 12 presents a roadmap for the commercialisation of biofuel technology. Frost
& Sullivan (2010) predict that algal biofuels will become commercialised on an
industrial scale by the end of 2018, following the implementation of pilot projects and
demonstrations, and a number of small commercial scale projects.
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Technological developments expected in algal biofuel production in the next decade
include the following:180



Genetically modified organisms and improved algal strain selection: This will
allow for increased lipid content of algae, improved photosynthesis, and increased
tolerance of algae to contamination by invasive natural strains.
Improved harvesting and drying technologies.
Improved delivery and use of nutrients and carbon dioxide.
Figure 12: Algae Biofuels Market: Technology Roadmap (world) 2010-2030
Source: Frost & Sullivan, 2010
Biorefineries
Biorefining is defined as the sustainable processing of biomass into a spectrum of
marketable products and energy. Biorefineries are the facilities and plants that are
used to convert biomass resources into energy (biofuels/power/heat) and value-added
products (chemicals/materials).181
Conceptually, biorefineries are similar to
conventional oil refineries, which produce multiple fuels and products from
petroleum. Large biorefineries will be vital in achieving the economies of scale
needed for the commercially viable production of biofuels. Biorefineries will allow
for a more efficient use of resources than current biofuel production units, and will
reduce competition among different sources of biomass. The production of high-value
co-products (such as propylene glycol, a platform chemical with many applications
including in resins, paints cosmetics and flavouring) is an essential part of the
biorefineries business model.182 There are two main categories of biorefineries; those
which focus on creating energy (including biofuel plants), and those which focus on
producing food, feed, chemicals and other materials, and might create power or heat
as a co-product.
Key drivers for the development and implementation of biorefineries are the growth
in demand for energy, fuels, and chemicals, and the ongoing price increases of fossil
180
Frost & Sullivan (2011) White biotechnology
IEA Bioenergy (2009) IEA Bioenergy task 42 on biorefineries: Co-production of fuels, chemicals,
power, and materials from biomass.
182
International Energy Agency (2011) Biofuels for Transport, Technology Roadmap.
181
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resources. Over the next decade we can expect an increase in the amount of very large
scale bioprocessing, and increasingly sophisticated biofuel refining technology.
Future biorefineries will play a major role in the replacement of some chemicals and
materials traditionally produced from petroleum.
Bioplastics
Bioplastics are plastics derived from renewable biological materials rather than
petrochemicals. Emerging technological developments in bioplastics will improve
product quality, reduce production cost, and create a more viable substitute to
traditional plastic materials. Future technological development will produce
bioplastics with novel properties and improved functionality, such as flame retardant
bioplastics and biodegradable plastics suitable for use in food packaging.183
Biocatalysts
As a direct result of the revolution in genomics, an enormous number of previously
unknown enzymes are becoming available for use in industrial processes. Enzymecatalysed processes are generally more efficient than conventional chemical
processes, as fewer steps are involved and input yields are higher. Over the coming
decade the discovery of novel biocatalysts will drive improvements in a variety of
industrial processes. Biocatalysts are typically manufactured using transgenic
organisms that secrete the catalyst, requiring only renewable inputs, namely sugars
and amino acids.
In the near term, the increasing range of bioenzymes available will enable safer and
more efficient industrial processes. Biocatalysts are highly selective, and can carry out
difficult chemical reactions with fewer synthesis steps, eliminating waste in multistep
reactions. Biocatalysts also usually use water as a solvent, eliminating the production
of organic solvent waste, and enabling safer and less hazardous chemical and product
synthesis.184 In addition to this, biocatalysts are biodegradable, some are even edible,
and their production requires only renewable feedstock. Broadly, biocatalysts are
driving a trend towards more efficient and environmentally friendly manufacturing
processes.
Leveraging Fossil Fuels
Coal, natural gas and petroleum are currently responsible for 67 per cent of global
electricity production. A current area of focus for biotechnology and synthetic biology
is leveraging large global reserves of hydrocarbons, such as oil, gas, shale, and oil
sands with biology tools. Coal bed methane, for example, is a globally available
source of natural gas. Its reserves are vast and largely untapped. Biotechnology and
synthetic biology research is underway to harvest this methane through microbial
digestion and other processes.
Biohydrometallurgy is an interdisciplinary field involving processes that make use of
microbes (usually bacteria and archaea) that take place in aqueous environments and
deal with metal production and treatment. In biohydrometallurgy, microbes are used
183
Foresight Horizon Scanning Centre, (2010) Technology Annex, Technology and Innovation
Futures, Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, London.
184
Tao, J. et al (2011) Biocatalysts for Green Chemistry and Chemical Process Development, John
Wiley & Sons
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as geological agents by mining and water treatment industries in order to find new
approaches and technologies to:



Process ores and concentrates,
Remediate waste waters, and
Recover and recycle metals.
6.8.3 Agricultural Biotechnology
The following section details emerging innovations in the application of
biotechnology to agriculture. Technologies are segmented by their application in crop
production, animal production, and aquaculture. Biotechnology already plays an
important role in the agricultural and food industry, and promises to enable better and
more efficient use of raw materials and by-products, and improve food security and
safety.185
Crop Biotechnology
The use of transgenic or GM crops in agriculture has already developed far beyond
the lab bench. Commercialisation of crop biotechnology began in 1996, and in 2011 a
record 16.7 million farmers, in 29 countries, planted 160 million hectares of
genetically engineered crops (Figure 13). Over 90 per cent of farmers (15 million)
were resource-poor and resided in developing countries.186 There is however a
significant number of novel genetically engineered crops currently under
development. Over the next 10 years, increases in the understanding of fundamental
plant biology and the application of GM technology will facilitate the development of
a new generation of transgenic crops.187
185
Foresight Horizon Scanning Centre, (2010) Technology Annex, Technology and Innovation
Futures, Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, London.
186
James, C., (2011) Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops, The International Service
for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA).
187
Ronald, P. (2011) Plant Genetics, Sustainable Agriculture, and Global Food Security, Genetics.
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Figure 13: Global area of biotechnology crops, 1996 to 2011 (million hectares)
Source: ISAAA, 2011
A recent review by Dunwell (2010) describes important areas of crop biotechnology
that are likely to be exploited over the medium term, and outlines a commercial
development pipeline of transgenic crops until 2020.188 Crop biotechnology has the
potential to enable the adaption of existing food crops to rising temperatures,
decreasing water availability, rising salinity, and changing pathogen and insect
threats. GM technology will also have important applications in the production of
feedstock for the biofuel industry.
Up to this point, crop biotechnology has focused on creating herbicide tolerant and
insect resistant transgenic plants. Over the next decade we can expect a significant
diversification of the number of crop traits available. The following are some of the
emerging applications of crop biotechnology identified by Dunwell (2010).
Water Use Efficiency
The limited availability of water is the single most important factor that reduces crop
yields, with far reaching socio-economic implications. GM crops with improved
water-use efficiency have the potential to greatly improve global agricultural yields.
The most advanced drought-tolerant crop under development is drought-tolerant
maize, expected to be released in the US in 2012, and in Sub-Saharan Africa in 2017.
Currently in Australia, GM wheat and GM barley lines are being tested with a variety
of genes enhancing tolerance to abiotic stress such as drought.
Nitrogen Utilisation
Due to the increasing costs of nitrogen fertilisers, and the prevalence of environmental
pollution by reactive nitrogen, the improved management of nitrogen in agricultural
188
Dunwell, J. (2010) Crop biotechnology: prospects and opportunities, Journal of Agricultural
Science.
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production is of vital importance. There are a number of transgenic crops currently in
development that express genes affecting nitrogen uptake and transport.
Researchers have already produced a GM rice variety that overexpresses alanine
aminotransferase under a tissue specific promoter, leading to a strong nitrogen use
efficiency phenotype.189
The focus of ongoing research is to identify genes that play a role in the nitrogen-useefficient phenotype. Development of transgenic crops in this area is set to continue,
with the longer term possibility of enabling bacteria mediated acquisition of
atmospheric nitrogen in non-legumes. However, as atmospheric nitrogen acquisition
is a complex process involving a number of different metabolic pathways,
developments in this area will likely occur only in the far term.
Acidic Soils
Soil acidity is the most serious land degradation issue affecting agriculture in
Australia, and is a major obstacle for sustainable food production worldwide.
Aluminium toxicity is primary among the factors that reduce plant growth on acid
soils, and Aluminium is generally harmless in pH neutral soils. One transgenic
approach is the secretion of organic acids by plant roots that are able to detoxify
aluminium ions.190
Improving Tolerance/Resistance to Pests and Diseases
Pest and disease resistance has been a major focus of crop biotechnology so far. The
first generation of transgenic crops includes plants that secrete insecticidal proteins
found in Bacillus thuringiensis (or Bt). Over the next 10 years there are a number of
technological developments expected in this area.
A number of virus-resistant transgenic crops have already been developed, including
virus resistant squash and papaya currently being cultivated in the US.191 RNAi
technology was demonstrated to deliver virus resistance in the lab in 1998 by the
Australian Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO)
team.192 Biotechnology may also be able to increase the natural defences of plants
against pests and insects. Many plants, when attacked by herbivorous insects, emit
volatile compounds that attract natural enemies of those insects. The manipulation of
these biological processes has so far been demonstrated in a laboratory setting, but is
yet to be commercialised.
Future transgenic plants will express interfering RNA that is targeted specifically
against insect pests. RNAi also has potential applications in the targeted reduction of
natural toxins and allergens in food plants. RNAi technology could be used to silence
toxin and allergen producing genes for targeted plant varieties.
189
Beatty, P., et al (2009) Transcriptome analysis of nitrogen-efficient rice over-expressing alanine
aminotransferase, Plant Biotechnology Journal.
190
Liu, J., et al (2009) Aluminium-activated citrate and malate transporters from the MATE and
ALMT families function independently to confer Arabidopsis aluminium tolerance, Plant Journal.
191
Foresight Horizon Scanning Centre, (2010) Technology Annex, Technology and Innovation
Futures, Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, London.
192
Waterhouse, P.M., et al (1998) Virus resistance and gene silencing in plants can be induced by
simultaneous expression of sense and antisense RNA, Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol.95 no.23 13959-13964.
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Product Quality Traits
The first genetically modified crop approved for sale in the US was the Flavr Savr
tomato, which had a longer shelf life. Despite this, product quality traits have received
little attention until quite recently. Over the next 10 years crop product quality traits
will become increasingly important. CSIRO has genetically modified both cottonseed
and canola to produce high-oleic oils suitable for cooking purposes, but without
cholesterol-raising trans fatty acids often found in processed cooking oils. Currently
CSIRO is working to change the balance of existing fatty acids and develop new ones
in oilseeds to produce oils better suited to particular industrial uses.193
Identification of genes and corresponding biological pathways involved in the
production of micronutrients are enabling the development of GM crops with
nutritional enhancements. Rice crops have been engineered to synthesize provitamin
A carotenoids.194 This technology has the potential to address nutritional deficiencies
in the developing world.
There is also potential for future crops to produce high value compounds for the
pharmaceutical industry. This has so far been demonstrated in a research setting with
the production of human pro-insulin in a safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) for the
treatment of diabetes mellitus, and carrot cells producing the enzyme
glucocerebrosidase, used for the treatment of Gaucher’s disease.
Raising Yield Potential
A number of large international research efforts exist to raise the yield potential of
major crops. The C4 rice project, supported in part by the Bill and Melinda Gates
foundation, seeks to transfer genes to rice from plants such as maize that use the more
efficient C4 pathway of photosynthesis. Inserting the C4 photosynthetic pathway into
rice should increase rice yield by 50 per cent, double water-use efficiency, and use
less fertilizer to achieve those improvements.195 The project also investigates wild
rice relatives and explores mutant populations to find novel genetic variation.
Similarly, the wheat yield consortium, based at CDIMMYT in Mexico is at an earlier
stage of development and is using similar strategies.
Biofuel-Optimised Crops
A number of companies are currently developing and marketing biofuel-optimised
feedstock. Syngenta has developed a GM maize variety with thermostable amylase
enzyme that breaks down starch rapidly. Monsanto has developed a maize variety
with higher starch content for ethanol production, and the company is developing new
switchgrass (Pancium virgatum) varieties with higher yield. Further development of
biofuel-optimised GM feedstock will help to reduce pressures associated with using
food crops for biofuel production.196
193
CSIRO website, accessed 05/03/2012, available at: http://www.csiro.au/Outcomes/Food-andAgriculture/Oilseeds-and-legumes.aspx.
194
Beyer, P. (2010) Golden Rice and ‘Golden’ crops for human nutrition, New Biotechnology
195
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) website, accessed 05/03/2012, available at:
http://irri.org/partnerships/networks/c4-rice/all-about-c4-rice.
196
Dunwell, J. (2010) Crop biotechnology: prospects and opportunities, Journal of Agricultural
Science.
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GM Phytoremediation
Phytoremediation is the use of plants to decontaminate soil and water, and genetic
engineering is a powerful tool for enhancing the natural phytoremediation capabilities
of plants. A number of transgenic plants have been produced for phytoremediation
with promising results, but none have yet been successfully commercialised.197
Current transgenic approaches include enhancing the tolerance of plants to
contaminants, and enhancing the ability of plants to accumulate and volatilise
contaminants.
For plants that produce seeds and fruit there is a risk that phytoremediation could
introduce toxins into the food chain. Contaminated plant material could however be
used to produce energy and biofuels, providing sustainable post-harvest management
options.
Other Areas for Future Plant Improvement
Other areas for possible genetic improvement in plants in the mid to long term
include:






Control of flowering;
Improvements in photosynthetic efficiency;
Analysis and exploitation of heterosis (hybrid vigour);
Apomixes (asexual production of seeds), which is anticipated to deliver the
benefits of hybrids without the need to hybridise each generation;
Control of plant development through small RNAs; and
Delivery of novel genetic variation through epigenetics.
Forecasting the Commercial Pipeline of GM crops
Stein and Rodriguez-Cezero (2010) predict that by 2015 there could be over 120
different transgenic events in commercialised GM crops worldwide, compared to the
30 GM events in commercially cultivated GM crops in 2008. The estimates of future
GM crops available segmented by crop type are displayed in Figure 14. The current
crops dominating the GM landscape (soybeans, maize, cotton, and canola) will
continue to do so in 2015.198
197
Maestri, E., and Marmiroli, N. (2011) Transgenic Plants for Phytoremediation, International Journal
of Phytoremediation.
198
Stein, A., and Rodriguez-Cezero, E. (2010) International trade and the global pipeline of new GM
crops, Nature Biotechnology.
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Figure 14: Current numbers and estimates of future numbers of GM crops worldwide
Source: Nature Biotechnology, 2010
Stein and Rodriguez-Cezero (2010) developed a commercial pipeline of GM crop
traits (Figure 15), and differentiated between six categories according to the crops'
proximity to market.
Earlier R&D
Stages
Advanced
R&D
Regulatory
Pipeline
Commercial
Pipeline
Commercial
GM Crops
“Other” GM
Crops
Figure 15: The pipeline of GM crops from early R&D to commercialisation
Source: AIC (Adapted from Nature Biotechnology), 2010
The categories of commercialisation are displayed in Figure 15 and are as follows:




Earlier R&D: initial research on a new GM crop is being carried out, but there are
no concrete plans for their commercialisation yet, or e.g. the GM event that is
finally to be used in the crops is not yet selected.
Advanced R&D: the GM events are not yet in the regulatory process but their
developers plan their actual commercialisation and the events are at late stages of
their development.
Regulatory pipeline: in at least one country worldwide the GM events are already
submitted by their developers for authorisation for commercial use.
Commercial pipeline: in at least one country worldwide the GM events are
authorised but no crops are marketed yet.
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
Commercial GM crops: in at least one country worldwide the underlying GM
events are authorised and the corresponding crops are currently marketed.
 Other GM crops: the GM events are authorised in at least one country worldwide
but they were never commercialised – or they were commercialised once but then
phased out afterwards.
The commercial pipeline is displayed in Table 12, segmented by trait category. It is
expected that product quality traits will be developed slowly, with only 18 quality
innovations between 2009 and 2015, out of a total of 91 new GM crops in the same
period.
Table 12: Numbers of current and possible numbers of expected GM traits worldwide
TRAIT
CATEGORY
COMMERCIAL
IN 2008
COMMERCIAL
PIPELINE
REGULATORY
PIPELINE
ADVANCED
DEVELOPMENT
Insect
resistance
Herbicide
tolerance
Product quality
Virus resistance
Abiotic stress
tolerance
Other
21
2
11
25
TOTAL
BY
2015
59
11
5
4
13
33
2
5
0
1
0
0
5
2
1
12
3
6
20
10
7
0
0
2
11
13
Source: Nature Biotechnology, 2010
Animal Production Biotechnology
Demand for animal protein will continue to grow over the next 20 years, and the use
of sophisticated animal genetics and even transgenic technology will help to achieve
the increases in productivity required. Biotechnologies used in animal production
have already led to significant productivity improvements. Artificial insemination
combined with cryopreservation facilitates widespread genetic improvement of
livestock, and animal health biotechnologies have improved disease diagnosis, control
and treatment.199 In addition to manipulation of the animals themselves, recombinant
bacteria have been developed to produce specific enzymes or hormones that improve
nutrient utilisation in livestock.
Through the use of enabling technologies such as genome sequencing and
bioinformatics, the current generation of agricultural researchers will develop a far
better understanding of the genetics of animal production. Selection for animal
breeding will in turn be based on genome-wide selection, and a far wider variety of
traits than currently possible. Selection of animals based on molecular markers rather
than phenotypic traits is discussed further under the heading “Marker Assisted
Selection”. Biotechnology will also allow the agricultural industry to maximise the
welfare of animals, maximise the efficiency of energy use in the generation of animal
protein, minimise loss due to disease and stress, and maximise the number of
offspring produced per female.200 The technology to create transgenic animals has
existed for over 30 years. However, rDNA technology does not play a significant role
FAO website, accessed 27/09/2011, available at”: http://www.fao.org/biotech/sectoraloverviews/biotech-livestock/en/
200
Hume, D. A. et al (2011) The future of animal production: improving productivity and
sustainability, Journal of Agricultural Science.
199
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in agricultural livestock production. This is due to a lack of public research funding in
the area, a lack of public acceptance of the technology, and a lack of clear benefits to
the consumer. The focus of research into transgenic livestock has shifted from the
initial goal of modifying animal growth properties, to modification of milk properties
and induction of disease resistance.
Research examples also exist of transgenic livestock that offer human health and
environmental benefits. A recent example is the generation of transgenic poultry that
are resistant to avian influenza. Highly pathogenic H5N1 flu has decimated poultry
production in Asia over the past decade, resulting also in over 330 human deaths and
poses a significant risk of producing a global flu pandemic. These transgenic chickens
will express RNAi molecules within their cells that bind to and destroy flu virus
genes, thereby preventing virus replication and disease. This not only secures the
production of a very important global food source, but has an important impact on
human health. This technology platform can be applied to other livestock such as
cattle, pigs and fish, to produce resistance to a variety of viral pathogens.201 The use
of rDNA technology in animal production agriculture will become more viable over
the far term, and will remain subject to significant regulatory barriers.
Marker Assisted Selection
Marker assisted selection (MAS) combines recent technological advances in genetics
and genomics with phenotypic-pedigree-based plant and animal breeding practices.
Rather than selecting animals and plants for phenotypic traits, an indirect process is
used where selection is based on molecular markers linked to traits of interests. This
enables a selection process based on genotype (rather than phenotype), and is
particularly useful for traits that are hard to measure, exhibit low heritability, and/or
are expressed late in development.
In the agriculture and forestry sectors there has been significant investment in the
construction of molecular marker maps for a wide range of species. However, MAS
has not yet delivered the expected benefits in commercial breeding programs for
crops, livestock, forest trees or farmed fish.202 The potential applications of MAS are
numerous, but considerably more work is still required to realise the full potential of
this technology.
High throughput genotyping techniques using next generation DNA sequencing
technology may lead to a wealth of information that can be exploited for genetic
improvement of plants and animals. Advances in molecular genetic technology will
also enable cheaper, faster, and more targeted plant and animal selection. Until the
nature of complex genetic traits is better understood, MAS will be limited to genes of
moderate to large effect, and phenotype will continue to play an important role in
plant and animal selection.
Aquaculture Biotechnology
Similar to the use of biotechnology in livestock production, genetic and genomic
enabling technologies have the potential to facilitate more targeted improvement
201
CSIRO Submission 12/434 Enabling Technologies Roadmap, February 2012.
UN Food and Agriculture Organisation (2007) Marker Assisted Selection, Current status and future
prospectives in crops, livestock, forestry and fish.
202
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programs in aquaculture across a wider range of species than previously possible.203
Transgenic fish have been engineered to show a 5-30 fold increase in growth during
the first year of age, but due to a range of practical constraints transgenic fish are
unlikely to become a commercial reality in the near term. Genomic studies are
currently underway to identify genes for improved growth and disease resistance.204
6.8.4 Biotechnology and Nanotechnology Convergence
The convergence of nanotechnology and biotechnology has resulted in the
development of a number of products and technologies loosely defined as
‘nanobiotechnology’. Many nanotechnologies identified in Sections 5.8 to 5.10 can
also be classified as nanobiotechology, including many aspects of nanomedicine.205
Nanobiotechnology convergence is quite common, as nanotechnology is often applied
to living organisms, and biotechnology often requires manipulation on a nanoscale.
Techniques in biotechnology such as third generation DNA sequencing technology
discussed in Section 6.7 may incorporate nanopores through which individual DNA
molecules pass. Similarly nanoscale structures can be produced through the selfassembly of biological molecules like DNA.
Applications for nanobiotechnology are numerous and include drug delivery,
biological imaging and diagnostics, sequencing, microbicide and research tools.
Market segments can be broadly classified as medical, diagnostic and tools, of which
medical applications are the most common. Popular nanomaterials used in
nanobiotechnology include polymer structures, liposomes, nanocrystals,
nanoparticles, quantum dots, dendrimers and nanopores. These materials comprised
the majority of the nanobiotechnology market value in 2010, with polymer structures
holding the leading market share with a value of USD $11 billion in 2010.
Medicine is a particularly important area for this convergence, particularly in drug
delivery. Nanotechnologies enable better drug solubility, thus providing many
benefits to the patient, including better efficacy, increased compliance, a higher level
of safety, targeted delivery and greater convenience. Drug delivery is a commercially
important application for nanomaterials. As a result, there is a large commercial
market for nano-delivered drugs, including drugs for the treatment of cancer,
infectious disease and lipid disorders.
Table 13 provides an overview of the nanobiotechnology industry, highlighting
different types of nanomaterials used to meet the specific customer needs in that
market segment.
203
McAndrew, B., and Napier, J. (2010) Application of genetics and genomics to aquaculture
development: current and future directions, Journal of Agricultural Science.
204
Foresight Horizon Scanning Centre, (2010) Technology Annex, Technology and Innovation
Futures, Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, London.
205
BCC Research (2011) Nanobiotechnology: Applications and Global Markets.
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Table 13: Nanobiotechnology Industry
DRUG
NANOMATERIAL
DIAGNOSTICS
DELIVERY
Nanoparticles
Albumin
MRI, lateral
drugs
flow and
genomics
assays
Quantum Dots
Small animal
diagnostics
Liposomes
Liposomal
vaccines,
drugs
Dendrimers
Nanocrystals
Polymer
Structures
Nanocrystal
drugs
Pegylated
and micellebased drugs
MICROBICID
E
Wound
dressings
Imaging
assays
SEQUENCING
Imaging for
second
generation
Transfection
assays
Cardiac
diagnostics
Nanopores
R&D
TOOLS
Imaging
assays
Transfection
assays
Biochips
Condom gels
Third
generation
Transfection
assays
Source: BCC Research, 2011
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7. SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY
Synthetic biology is a form of advanced biotechnology. It combines elements of
biology, engineering, genetics, chemistry, and computer science.206 In the same
manner that chemistry transitioned from studying natural chemicals to designing and
building new chemicals, synthetic biology can be viewed as an extension and
application of biotechnology.
The first recognised use of the term synthetic biology occurred in 1974 by the Polish
geneticist Waclaw Szybalski, writing:207
“Up to now we are working on the descriptive phase of molecular biology. ... But the
real challenge will start when we enter the synthetic biology phase of research in our
field. We will then devise new control elements and add these new modules to the
existing genomes or build up wholly new genomes. This would be a field with the
unlimited expansion potential and hardly any limitations…”
Synthetic biology uses biochemical processes, molecules, and structures in novel and
potentially useful ways through the modification of biological systems and the design
and construction of biological systems not specifically found in nature. A feature of
synthetic biology which distinguishes it from conventional genetic engineering is its
focus on developing foundational techniques and technologies that make the
engineering of biology easier and more reliable in the future.
Through the creation of biological systems that do not occur naturally, synthetic
biology allows scientists and engineers to re-engineer existing biological systems.
More ambitious goals include creating entirely new biological systems from nonliving materials.208
With new tools and concepts, synthetic biology has the potential to refine and extend
metabolic and genetic engineering, and for developing ‘off the shelf’ components to
bring an end to lengthy biotechnology projects.209
Complementary to the creation of new biological systems, synthetic biology also
provides a new way of studying living systems to find out how they work and
therefore increasing the base level of scientific knowledge across a large number of
fields. By making systems that are far simpler than those found in nature, synthetic
systems allow researchers to perform experiments that would otherwise be difficult to
carry out and perhaps impossible to interpret.
Synthetic biology has the potential to reduce our reliance on fossil fuels, transform
medical care and human health, assist with issues associated with climate change and
the environment and improve food security. Another argument is that creating
products through synthetic systems may be safer than merely trying to manipulate
206
Parens, E. et al (2009) Ethical Issues in Synthetic Biology, Woodrow Wilson International Centre
for Scholars.
207
Ibid.
208
European Academies Science Advisory Council (2011) Synthetic Biology: An Introduction.
209
OECD, The Royal Society (2010) Symposium on Opportunities and Challenges in the Emerging
Field of Synthetic Biology.
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naturally occurring systems to produce them. Conversely, critics cite concerns about
“playing God” and disrespecting the meaning of life, the potential threats to
biodiversity and natural species, and threatening longstanding concepts of nature.
General Concepts of Synthetic Biology
The two generally recognised approaches to synthetic biology are “Bottom-up” and
“Top-down”. Bottom-up seeks to create novel biochemical systems and organisms
from scratch. Top-down uses existing organisms, genes, enzymes, and other
biological materials as parts or tools to be reconfigured.
At a technical level, synthetic biology can be subdivided into broad classifications
according to the approach they take to the problem at hand:210




Photocell design includes projects to make self-replicating systems from entirely
synthetic components.
Biomolecular-design refers to the general idea of the de novo design and
combination of biomolecular components.
Biomolecular engineering includes approaches which aim to create a toolkit of
functional units that can be introduced to present new orthogonal functions in
living cells.
Genome engineering includes approaches to construct synthetic chromosomes for
whole or minimal organisms (the minimum amount of components to maintain
functionality).
7.1
Synthetic Biology Global Market Overview
The global market for synthetic biology was valued at USD $0.6 billion in 2010, and
is forecast to reach USD $4.5 billion by 2015, registering a CAGR of 53.4 per cent
over the period 2006-2015. In 2009, the largest and fastest growing end-user segment
of synthetic biology was energy and chemicals, accounting for close to 39 per cent of
global sales, and assuming sales figures of close to USD $150 million. Table 14 and
Figure 16 highlight the global sales for each of three different end user segments:
energy and chemicals, biotechnology and pharmaceuticals, and R&D, from 2006
through to 2015.211
210
Parens, E. et al (2009) Ethical Issues in Synthetic Biology, Woodrow Wilson International Centre
for Scholars.
211
Global Industry Analysts (2010), Synthetic Biology.
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Table 14: Market Analysis for Synthetic Biology by End-Use Sector (Annual Sales Figures in USD $ Million)
END-USE SECTOR
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
%
CAGR
Energy & Chemicals
21.43
47.25
85.47
149.9
260.12
446.5
752.17
1250.48
2038.41
3243.72
74.67
Biotechnology & Pharmaceuticals
37.68
52.18
83.58
129.42
194.35
283.28
400.53
550.45
726.7
925.74
42.72
Research & Development
37.21
52.24
76.85
107.64
144.81
187.44
231.13
273.15
314.23
352.41
28.38
TOTAL
96.32
151.67
245.9
386.96
599.28
917.22
1383.83
2074.08
3079.34
4521.87
53.37
Source: Global Industry Analysts, 2010
Figure 16: Market Analysis for Synthetic Biology by End-Use Sector (Annual Sales Figures in USD $ Million)
Source: Global Industry Analysts, 2010
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7.2
Drivers
Estimates have placed the annual synthetic biology research market at USD $600
million, with the potential to exceed USD $4.5 billion over the next decade. As an
example of its growing importance, it is estimated that 20 per cent of the global
chemical industry (currently worth USD $1.8 trillion) could be dependent on synthetic
biology in one form or another by 2015.212
The market is driven by the following industrial sectors:

High tech companies (biotechnology, nanotechnology and software) are providing
new tools to transform, measure and exploit the biological world, in an attempt to
develop genetic information as a commodity.
 Pharmaceutical, chemical and energy companies are partnering with the new bioentrepreneurs to improve their production processes and feedstock sourcing.
 Financial services companies and investment banks are drawing up new
ecosystem securities, trading markets and land investments.
 Consumer products and food companies are turning to bio-based products,
packaging and ingredients to make ‘green’ marketing claims.
At a research and technology development level, synthetic biology is driven by
previous work and advancements in genetic engineering, biotechnology,
nanotechnology and the fundamental disciplines of engineering, information
technology and chemistry. The hope of addressing shortcomings in these existing
methods is also driving advancements in synthetic biology. The relationship of these
disciplines to synthetic biology is discussed in detail below.
Complicating the definition of synthetic biology is that it is often considered a natural
extension of genetic engineering, which in turn is increasingly converging with nano
and information technologies. Therefore, synthetic biology is currently being driven
by limitations in these existing fields of work. Synthetic biology is differentiated from
previous work in molecular biology through its emphasis on standardised parts,
computers and automation. However, as knowledge from the synthetic biology
industry develops, learnings will increasingly be applied to companion fields like
nanotechnology and biomedical imaging.213
In order to ensure synthetic biology reaches its full potential, whilst addressing the
various concerns listed above, investments would need to focus on not only
foundation technologies and science, but also education and policy to ensure a safe
and efficient development of the synthetic biology industry.214
7.3
Opportunities
The opportunities associated directly, and as a flow on effect, from developments in
synthetic biology are immense, as evidenced by the scale and scope of applications
discussed in Section 7.7. Potential benefits can be divided into two broad categories:
212
ETC Group, (2010) The New Biomasters, Synthetic Biology and the Next Assault on Biodiversity
and Livelihood.
213
Parens, E., et al (2009) Ethical Issues in Synthetic Biology, Woodrow Wilson International Centre
for Scholars.
214
European Academies Science Advisory Council (2011) Synthetic Biology: An Introduction.
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advancing basic scientific knowledge and creating new products.215 The creation of
new products could include breakthroughs in clean energy and biofuels, pollution
control and remediation, agriculture and food, medicine and health, and biosensors.
Developments in these fields have the potential to change our lives and our shared
environment.
7.3.1 Advancing Scientific Knowledge and Understanding
As well as the technical opportunities, synthetic biology can contribute to advancing
general scientific knowledge and understanding. For example, synthetic biology is
being used to better answer basic questions about the natural world and to explain
complex biological processes about how DNA, cells, organisms and biological
systems function. Scientists hope that synthetic biology will allow for biological
hypotheses to be tested more rigorously. By engineering or re-engineering living
organisms, synthetic biologists will be able to understand how the biological world
works in areas where earlier analytical approaches fell short.
Genome Engineering
Genome engineering is defined as the extensive and intentional genetic modification
of a replicating system for a specific purpose. Effectively, genome engineering is the
use of currently available genetic engineering technology on a genomic scale. As the
capacity of researchers to synthesise, manipulate and analyse DNA constructs
increases at an exponential scale, de novo genome engineering moves closer to a
practical reality.216 Significant challenges remain to be overcome to realise the
potential of this technology, particularly a need for more tools and platforms at all
stages.
In the same way that current rDNA technology allows the manipulation of organisms
to produce novel compounds, such as the synthesis of human insulin in bacterial cells,
genome engineering will allow unprecedented levels of genetic customisation.
Researchers are currently working to develop a ‘cellular chassis’, a stripped down
organism capable of more stable and efficient production of medicines, biofuels, and
other compounds. Other potential applications include the harnessing of microbes as
biosensors to identify threats, and for use in bioremediation. Although applications of
genome engineering are promising, they remain largely unproven, and lie in horizon 2
and 3.
Minimal Genomes
Synthetic biology is being used to define the minimum number of genetic instructions
(genes) needed for an organism to survive. This is an important area of research as it
is hoped that it can reveal which genes are essential to life and those that are not. This
is being done by synthetic biologists by progressively eliminating genes in bacteria
and assessing the effects.
Using this knowledge it may be possible to design and build cell factories, the output
of which will depend on what additional genes are added to the minimal set required
simply to sustain the organism’s existence. A full knowledge of which genes are
215
Gutmann, A. (2010) New Directions, The Ethics of Synthetic Biology and Emerging Technologies,
Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues.
216
Carr, P. & Church G. (2009) Genome Engineering, Nature Biotechnology
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essential to do what also helps the bioengineer to create new and specialised
organisms by eliminating unwanted genes, but also to build novel organisms from
scratch. This will allow bioengineers to simplify their synthetic-bio systems and
potentially reduce development time of such products.
Regulatory Circuits
The natural activity of cells is controlled by circuits of genes similar to electronic
circuits. Therefore, in order for synthetic biologists to alter the behaviour of cells, they
need to create novel internal circuitry to alter the pattern of cells activity. This
research is building the knowledge of genetic components required to develop
molecular switches and thus build artificial gene networks. Linked together and
implanted into natural systems, such networks could be used to control those systems.
A possible application is using an artificial network to sense and correct metabolic
disturbances such as those found in diabetes.
7.4
Barriers
Various barriers and challenges exist for the synthetic biology sector. However, since
this is still an emerging area of research, many of these barriers are rapidly being
overcome as progress and breakthroughs accelerate. The main barriers to
advancement in the area of synthetic biology are logistical barriers, such as a lack of
tools and platforms, and the ethical issues associated with manipulation of the
biological world.
7.4.1 Scalability from Laboratory Trials
The major issue facing synthetic biology today is the scalability of synthetic biology
tools being developed. Currently, synthetic biology works on a very small scale, but
in order to be commercialised large amounts of product will need to be produced,
especially for biofuels.217 This issue and others mean that the promise of synthetic
biology will continue to be questioned since many of the more complex technologies
may be a decade or more away.
7.4.2 Underestimated Complexity
Naturally occurring biological systems are more complex and difficult to manipulate
than anyone imagined 10 or 20 years ago.218 Building a single cell from parts in the
laboratory is a vastly different challenge than building an organism that interacts
effectively and predictably in nature. Current research is proving that the design of
synthetic and artificial organisms to survive in nature is a far greater challenge than
previously anticipated. It is extremely difficult to anticipate with confidence how a
synthetic organism will react to and interact with the natural environment.
As discussed above, complexity and variation reflect the fact that DNA alone is not
sufficient to create the biological functions necessary for the creation of products from
synthetic biology. Nature has proven that DNA can only function if it exists within an
environment that provides the cellular components. How any specific DNA sequence
functions in a cell is also dependent on secondary modifications in its structure or
217
European Academies Science Advisory Council (2011) Synthetic Biology: An Introduction.
Gutmann, A., (2010) New Directions, The Ethics of Synthetic Biology and Emerging Technologies,
Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues
218
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folding pattern that can promote or inhibit the transcription of genes. Much is still
unknown regarding the interactions between and within cells (natural or synthetic) as
well as their interactions with the environments.
Also unknown is how synthetic biological systems evolve. Researches are currently
trying to address the fact that in most cases, engineered biological systems quickly
revert to “wild type” by evolving to lose their engineered function rather than gain a
new one.
Another critical limitation in synthetic biology is the time and effort expended during
fabrication of engineered genetic sequences. To speed up the cycle of design,
fabrication, testing and redesign, synthetic biology requires more rapid and reliable de
novo DNA synthesis and assembly of fragments of DNA. This is commonly referred
to as gene synthesis.219
7.4.3 A Gap between Tools and Applications
A barrier for the synthetic biology field to achieve its full potential is the gap between
applications, tools and techniques. Bridging this gap is an important step for ensuring
the growth of the field, but still represents a significant challenge. The major
challenges include:





Invention and implementation of engineering design principles into biology is
critical to effective tool development and thus for the field to move forward more
applications. However, the culture of biological research traditionally rewards
novelty and does not equally celebrate engineering contributions. Enhancing the
engineering part of synthetic biology is becoming increasingly important.
Going from the conceptual design of a function using synthetic biology to a
genetic sequence that fully implements the function represents a significant
technical challenge.
From a technology development point of view, it is important to develop
computer-aided design tools which support the design and programming of
devices and their implementation into systems. These types of tools are either not
currently developed or not accessible enough.
To address scalability, large libraries of refined parts need to be set up. The
challenge lies in creating these libraries and getting them to a critical mass of
information. The library could include many different classes of molecules such
as: metabolites for those working on biosynthesis; disease biomarkers for those
working on biomedical research; and exogenous chemicals for those working on
agricultural biotechnology.
Applications are generally narrowly directed to the end product and not towards
developing a technology base to broadly support many different products.
Investing in or integrating new tools and technologies is often not a priority when
they do not directly lead to a specific product.
7.4.4 Ethical Debates
In addition to the ethical concerns about physical harm resulting from developments
in synthetic biology, ethical concerns also deal with the risk of nonphysical harm. The
219
Parens E., et al (2009) Ethical Issues in Synthetic Biology, Woodrow Wilson International Centre
for Scholars.
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concerns about nonphysical harm focuses on fairness, equality, progress and the
appropriate relationship of humans to themselves and the natural world. When
discussing ethical issues associated with synthetic biology, it is important to recognise
that different people and cultures adopt different ethical frameworks. Furthermore, it
is important to recognise the societal consequences that may impact globally as a
result of only a small number of societies developing synthetic biology.220
For instance, among the many concerns about the patenting and commercialisation of
advances in synthetic biology is the contested view about who should control and
have access to these inventions.
Following on from this debate is who should gain from these inventions. Conversely,
others argue views about the appropriateness of owning patents on living organisms.
Furthermore, concerns exist as to humans overreaching when new organisms are
created and the associated debate about what is our proper role in the natural world.
Learning from the developments in other emerging fields of science, ethical concerns
are too often addressed only after investments have been made and technologies are
already commercialised. Other fields of science have shown that at that point, neither
the research community or policymakers have a strong incentive to address ethical
issues for fear that any debate may stifle technological advance and innovation. For
this reason, several commentators have recommended the early adoption of a range of
modes for anticipating and shaping the social and ethical implications of these
technologies as they emerge.221
7.5
Risks
Despite the potential benefits of synthetic biology discussed above and in Section 7.7,
the technology also raises concerns about risks to human health, the environment and
biosecurity. Some of these potential harms include unanticipated adverse human
health effects, negative environmental effects from field release and dual-use
concerns when research undertaken for legitimate scientific purpose may be misused
to pose a biologic threat to public health and/or national security. Some commentators
also cite possible negative economic impacts in developing countries where naturally
occurring commodities may be devalued if synthetic production occurs elsewhere.
In general, risks surrounding synthetic biology can be divided into two broad
categories: physical and nonphysical harms. While the risk of physical harm often
triggers debates about how to proceed among researchers, policymakers, and the
public, the risk of nonphysical harm presents more difficult challenges. Nonphysical
concerns range from equitable distribution of benefits to ethical arguments about
humans’ place in the natural world.222
For both physical and nonphysical reasons, many in the synthetic biology community
believe that it is important to develop governance systems to allow innovation in
synthetic biology to reach its full potential.
220
Parens, E., et al (2009) Ethical Issues in Synthetic Biology, Woodrow Wilson International Centre
for Scholars.
221
Danish Council of Ethics 2011 Synthetic Biology: a discussion paper Danish Council of Ethics May
2011.
222
Parens, E., et al (2009) Ethical Issues in Synthetic Biology, Woodrow Wilson International Centre
for Scholars.
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The following sections discuss some of the risks associated with various synthetic
biology applications in renewable energy, health, agriculture, food, environmental,
biosecurity, and dual use. With such large expectations put on these area of synthetic
biology, there is also a potential risk that benefits will not live up to expectations.
7.5.1 Risks Associated with Renewable Energy Applications
Synthetic biology offers many potential methods to improve energy production and
reduce costs as is demonstrated in Section 7.7. A full assessment of these promising
activities requires specific attention to the current limitations, challenges, and
anticipated risks, because renewable energy applications may be the first synthetic
biology products to come to market.
The most widely discussed concern for the development of synthetic biology
technologies is the accidental contamination or intentional release of synthetic
organisms. Since synthetic biology has the potential to produce products that are
capable of self-assembly, self-repair and reproduction, they pose a much greater threat
than synthetically produced chemicals, which generally have well-defined and
predictable qualities. Concerns centre on the possibility of an unmanaged release that
could lead to undesired cross-breeding with other organisms, uncontrolled
proliferation, crowding out of existing species, and threats to biodiversity.
Countering these risks is that many of the tools being developed through synthetic
biology include strategies to remediate such risks. Examples include engineering
“terminator” genes or “suicide” switches that can be inserted into organisms,
preventing them from reproducing or surviving outside of a laboratory or other
controlled setting. Furthermore, researchers may uniquely tag the genetic code of new
organisms that they develop. This tagging process may provide an additional and
effective tracking system when trying to address such issues.
Flow-on effects from the development of better biomass, feedstock and biofuel
production techniques is the potential harm to ecosystems from the required
dedication of land and other natural resources to allow these developments to be
commercialised. This has the potential to affect food production, communities, and
current ecosystems. Some of these issues are already being realised through the
increasing demand on ethanol and the increased amounts of feedstock required for
biofuel production. This trend is driving developments in synthetic biology which are
aiming to address these issues.
7.5.2 Risks Associated with Medical Applications
Biomedical applications of synthetic biology raise potential risks for humans and the
environment similar to those identified for renewable energy applications. Human
health risks may arise from adverse effects of intentional or inadvertent release of the
organisms engineered using synthetic biology.
Novel organisms developed with synthetic biology to treat illness may trigger
unanticipated adverse effects in patients. The use of cell therapies of bacterial or
mixed microbial origin may cause infections or unexpected immune responses. New
organisms developed with synthetic biology may pose risks resulting from their
potential as biological organisms to reproduce or evolve.
As with energy applications, researchers in synthetic biology are looking to counter
these threats in the process of developing these new products. This includes
“Biological isolation,” which is also termed “biosafety engineering” that aims to build
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in molecular “brakes” or “seatbelts” that restrain growth or replication of partially or
fully synthetic organisms.
7.5.3 Risks Associated with Agricultural, Food, and Environmental
Applications
Synthetic biology applications in the context of agriculture, food, and the environment
raise concerns broadly similar to those raised above with respect to safety, resource
management, and biodiversity. In brief, these risks include harms to humans, plants,
or animals from:

Uncontrolled environmental escape or release and attendant disruption to
ecosystems,
 New or sturdier pests (animal or plant) that may be difficult to control, and
 Increased pesticide resistance and growth of invasive species.
Synthetic biology’s critics worry that creating new organisms that have uncertain or
unpredictable functions, interactions, and properties could affect ecosystems and other
species in unknown and adverse ways. The associated risks of escape and
contamination may be extremely difficult to assess in advance, as such novel entities
may have neither an evolutionary or ecological history. Countering these concerns is
the observation that synthetic cells and systems show a tendency to evolve toward
non-functionality.
With respect to environmental applications and bioremediation, expectations were
placed on genetic engineering for bioremediation purposes in the mid-1980s.
Although many issues (such as robustness and scalability) arise when putting
modified bacteria in a contaminated environment, bacteria currently being developed
in laboratories are not scalable or robust enough to survive in the natural
environment.223
7.5.4 Biosecurity and Biosafety
The term “biosecurity” refers to a strategic and integrated approach to analyse and
manage risks in food safety, animal and plant life and health, and biosafety. It
provides a policy and regulatory framework to improve coordination and take
advantage of the synergies that exist across sectors, helping to enhance protection of
human, animal and plant life and health, and facilitate trade.224
In this field, considerable time is being spent on evaluating the biosecurity risks of
synthetic biology products and practices. In this respect, there is a clear consensus
among scientists and policymakers that biosecurity risks are serious and warrant
ongoing and proactive re-examination as technical capacity evolves. Consequently,
the role of synthetic biology in expanding general scientific knowledge will allow
scientists to address risks with an enhanced level of understanding.
It may be difficult to assess the risks of synthetic organisms since there may be no
natural equivalent from which to draw comparisons or expected behaviour and
evolution. For those based on natural pathogens or with pathogenic mechanisms,
223
European Academies Science Advisory Council (2011) Synthetic Biology: An Introduction.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, available at:
http://www.fao.org/ag/agn/agns/foodcontrol_biosecurity_en.asp
224
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associated risks may be easier to assess. However risks become uncertain when
considering synthetic organisms as self-sustaining and able to evolve.225
A further complication is that the release of a synthetic organism would not
necessarily be accidental. At some point in their development, a synthetically
produced organism may need to be proven in a commercial capacity. To perform its
task, a novel microbe would have to be released freely into a particular environment
or situation. Scientists contemplating any such action would have to set an
exceptionally high threshold of certainty or risk mitigation strategies to control such
tests.
A potential risk to biosecurity is that synthetic biology products and techniques may
become increasingly accessible to other industries. Easy access to DNA sequences
will see the techniques of molecular biology being adopted by those that have little
experience with biological agents. It will be important to ensure that all newcomers to
the bioscience community understand the risks involved.
Dual Use
Concerns about dual use or intentional misuse of synthetic biology to do harm are
among the most prominent critiques of this emerging technology. One of the most
widely voiced risks attributed to synthetic biology is that it may be used to
intentionally create harmful organisms for bioterrorism. For these reasons, biosecurity
and biosafety regulations and process will be of utmost importance moving forward
and also ensuring that regulations and processes are continually updated to remain
current with industry and research practises.
Frequently lost in these discussions is recognition that DNA alone is not sufficient to
create an independently functioning biological entity. Mere knowledge of a viral
genome is far from sufficient to be able to re-constitute or create a disease forming
pathogen. Rather, one must have an appropriate host and conditions for a virus to
grow, issues that leading scientists have not even solved (it is not yet possible to craft
functioning biological organisms from synthesised genomic material alone).
Addressing Risks Associated with Biosecurity and Biosafety
Principles to be taken into account for a code of conduct to minimise misuse include:

An awareness of the potential consequences of research and a refusal to undertake
work that can have only harmful consequences
 An adherence to good laboratory working practices
 Knowledge of and support for national and international laws and policies to
prevent the misuse of research
 An acceptance of the duty to report any activity that violates codes such as the
Biological and Toxins Weapons Convention.226
The National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity (NSABB) in the US made three
recommendations to ensure biosecurity in the field of synthetic biology:227
225
ETC Group (2010) The New Biomasters, Synthetic Biology and the Next Assault on Biodiversity
and Livelihood.
226
Information available at: http://www.opbw.org/.
227
National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity (2010), Addressing Biosecurity Concerns Related
to Synthetic Biology.
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


Synthetic biology should be subject to institutional review and oversight since
some aspects of this field pose biosecurity risks.
Oversight of dual use research should extend beyond the boundaries of life
sciences and academia.
Outreach and education strategies should be developed that address dual use
research issues and engage the research communities that are most likely to
undertake work under the umbrella of synthetic biology.
7.6
Disruptive Potential
Whilst still a young field of research, synthetic biology has already made several
considerable breakthroughs and therefore is an area of enormous strategic and
economic significance, representing an arena in which scientific knowledge will be
progressively embedded in many, if not all technological solutions in the future.
The diversity of potential solutions for biofuels, renewable energy, medicine and
health, the environment, agriculture and food, and generally advancing scientific
knowledge (particularly nanotechnology) shows the potential of this emerging field of
technology.
When assessing the disruptive potential of synthetic biology, it must be remembered
that research into synthetic biology is still only a decade old. The first department of
synthetic biology at a major research institution, The US Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory, was opened in 2003.228
To explain the potential of synthetic biology, Figure 17 from the US Department of
Agriculture shows the current stage of development for synthetic biology compared
with existing technologies. Currently, the true potential of synthetic biology is
difficult to grasp (particularly for members of the public) as its benefits are wide
ranging and a quantum leap from current technologies and processes.
Comparing synthetic biology directly to biotechnology, Figure 17 also shows that
synthetic biology has advanced to such a point where the potential to advance rDNA
technology is expected to progress rapidly through the use of synthetic biology. This
will drive and accelerate the development of products and opportunities addressed in
this report and even opportunities that have not yet been identified.
228
Rejeski, D. (2011) Synthetic Biology A Trip Around the Neighbourhood, U.S Department of
Agriculture.
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Figure 17: Synthetic Biology, Disruptive Potential
Source: U.S Department of Agriculture, January 2011
7.7
Synthetic Biology Applications
The field of synthetic biology is still young and our understanding of complexity and
variation in natural and synthetic parts and systems is far from complete. The
technical tools and skills required for large-scale production of products incorporating
synthetic biology components still need to be developed.
That said, whilst most of the outputs of synthetic biology remain in early stages of
development (horizon 3), some applications are expected to come to market within a
few years (horizon 2). Success in these research efforts will attract investment and
yield new jobs as novel products are developed. As the required skills and technical
tools are developed, the acceleration of breakthroughs in synthetic biology is likely to
dramatically increase.
7.7.1 Renewable Energy Applications
Biomass and Biofuels
The development of nanotechnology and synthetic biology means that biomass can
now be targeted by industry as a source of living ‘green’ carbon to supplement or
partially replace fossil carbons of oil, coal and gas. Industrial sectors that are
beginning to switch carbon feedstock to biomass include energy and chemical,
plastics, food, textiles, pharmaceuticals, paper products and building supplies
industries.
Synthetic biology promises to expand the commercial possibilities for biomass from
the current, relatively low-tech burning biomass for electricity production, to an
ability to create custom organisms to act as ‘living factories’ into horizons 2 and 3. It
has been suggested that synthetically manufactured microorganisms in fermentation
vats will one day be capable of transforming biomass into a wide range of custom
chemicals, plastics, fuels, pharmaceuticals and other high value compounds.229
229
A NEST Pathfinder Initiative, (2007) Synthetic Biology.
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Biofuels
Many in the synthetic biology community predict that biofuel products will be the
first synthetic biology products to market. Following initial breakthroughs in the
industry, synthetic biology may accelerate the development of “second generation”
biofuels that can be prepared from agricultural waste and plant residues, thus avoiding
competition with crops grown for food.230
The potential of synthetic biology to advance the biofuels industry is closely linked
with advancements in biotechnology. Synthetic biology offers the opportunity to
greatly increase efficiency and yields of the production of some biofuels. These
synthetic biology processes are expected to be available commercially within the next
few years.
Synthetic biologists aim to improve the speed and efficiency of converting biomass
into advanced, second or third generation biofuels with cleaner and more favourable
energy-usage profiles. One such approach is to create “super-fermenting” yeast and
bacteria through synthetic biology. Synthetic biology may also offer new biomass
sources, or feedstock that is more efficient, reliable, low cost and scalable than current
sources. These include forest and agriculture residues, grasses, algae, oilseeds, and
potentially sewage.
Another major focus has been to examine the potential for using synthetic or modified
organisms to generate ethanol from plant matter. Several companies are researching
industrial applications to produce biofuels using bioengineered organisms. They
speculate that these fuels could be on the market within five years.231
Bioalcohols
Further to biotechnology based studies into bioalcohols such as butanol, current
synthetic biology is investigating an easy way to manipulate bacterium E. coli to
improve this bacterial biochemical reaction to make butanol more industrially useful.
Photosynthetic Algae
Breakthroughs in biotechnology are occurring in various forms of algae based
products. From a synthetic biology perspective, investigations are currently focusing
on the engineering of algal cells to secrete oil continuously through their cell walls
and thereby increase yield. This time-saving step may support large-scale industrial
operations where quick turnaround times are required.
Hydrogen Fuel
Hydrogen fuel is an area of focus for commercial applications of synthetic biology as
a clean, efficient process for extracting hydrogen from water. Hydrogen is highly
desirable as a fuel source because it is clean-burning and only produces water as a byproduct. Hydrogen also has the second highest energy density per unit of weight of
any known fuel.
Hydrogen is currently produced by converting it from natural gas using steam.
Natural gas techniques are costly, inefficient, and reliant on fossil fuels. Synthetic
230
Rejeski, D. (2011) Synthetic Biology A Trip Around the Neighbourhood, U.S Department of
Agriculture.
231
Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology (2008) Synthetic Biology.
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processes for the production of bio-hydrogen is being explored and expected to cost
significantly less while providing higher yields. However, research remains in the
early development phase.
Several possible routes to generate bio-hydrogen are using engineered E. coli as a host
organism to produce hydrogen in addition to other biofuels and using engineered
algae as a feedstock. Finally, and perhaps most promisingly, researchers are
investigating ways to produce high yields of hydrogen using starch and water via a
synthetic enzymatic pathway. This is particularly attractive, as it may enable sugar to
be converted into hydrogen fuel inside a vehicle itself. This would mitigate the
problem of storage, as hydrogen takes up large amounts of space at regular
atmospheric pressure and compression of the gas requires energy and makes storage
difficult and dangerous.
Medical and Pharmaceutical Applications
Synthetic biology has the opportunity to advance human health in a variety of ways.
Synthetic biology builds on the history of genetic engineering technology, used for
more than three decades in medicine, to engineer bacteria with the ability to produce
commercially relevant molecules like insulin and vaccines for hepatitis B virus and
human papillomavirus.
Potential improvements in the medical discipline include improved production of
drugs and vaccines, advanced mechanisms for personalised medicine, and novel,
programmable drugs and devices for prevention and healing.
While the benefits of synthetic biology to health care may prove monumental,
significant hurdles remain. Most of the anticipated health benefits of synthetic biology
remain in the preliminary research stage, or horizon 2-3. We are unlikely to see
commercial applications from much of the bio-medically oriented synthetic biology
research for many years, although the pace of discovery is unpredictable.
Pharmaceuticals
Synthetic biologists have refined a chemical technique called metabolic engineering
to enhance the production of medicines. This process involves altering an organism’s
metabolic pathways (the series of chemical reactions that enable the organism to
function at the cellular or organism level) to better understand and manage how they
work. Scientists can redesign these pathways to produce novel products or augment
the production of current pharmaceuticals. Synthetic biology can also be used to
engineer molecules and cells that express proteins or pathways responsible for human
disease. In the future, these products may be used in large-scale screening methods to
identify novel drugs for disease treatment or prevention. CSIRO has been involved in
research projects aimed at the development of immobilised enzyme cascades for
in vitro metabolic pathways that would be toxic to living cells.
Vaccines
The first step in the development of a vaccine is the identification of the virus strain,
including its unique genetic code, against which the vaccine will be used. Synthetic
biology tools, including rapid, inexpensive DNA sequencing combined with computer
modelling, may streamline production time by accelerating this initial step. In this
respect, synthetic biology techniques are being used to accelerate the development of
vaccines. DNA-based vaccines created “on-the-spot” to match actual, circulating viral
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genetic material may be a more efficient process for producing vaccine seed stock in
the future. To assist in this process, one industry group is developing a database of
synthetically created seed viruses for influenza vaccines that it hopes will enable more
rapid vaccine production by reducing virus identification time.232
Personalised Medicine
Synthetic biology offers useful strategies for advancing personalised medicine by
applying the science of genomics to develop individually tailored, and thereby more
effective, approaches to disease prevention and health care. Many current cancer
treatments focus on non-selective cell killing or on delivery to specific tissues.
Synthetic biology studies are providing a growing body of knowledge supporting
molecular classification of tumours. This may facilitate the development of
specifically designed detection devices matched to individual tumours.
Custom protein and biological circuit design through synthetic biology practises may
eventually enable the delivery of “smart proteins” or programmed cells that selfassemble at disease sites. Similarly, synthetic organisms could be developed to create
a trigger to deliver or withhold treatment depending upon a local disease environment
(such as low levels of oxygen). A synthetic biology approach currently under study is
a cancer treatment that focuses on up to six cellular identifiers rather than one,
effectively enabling the treatment to be targeted more carefully and precisely toward
the cells intended to be killed, while sparing healthy ones. These and other novel
approaches to tailored disease treatment may substantially improve outcomes and
reduce the costs and burden of disease across the population.
Biosensors
Synthetic biology also has a part to play in developing novel and more efficient
biosensors to be used in tackling complex diseases. Biosensors could be used to
collect quantitative dynamic data in minimally invasive ways and to a much greater
sensitivity than current mechanical sensor technology. Biosensors also have various
other applications such as detecting viruses, bacteria, hormones, drugs, DNA
sequences, toxins and warfare agents.233 Biosensors are currently being developed
and used in a limited capacity, however they are expected to be widely available into
horizons 2 and 3.
7.7.2 Applications in the Food Industry
Agriculture
The use of rDNA technology, cloning, and other biotechnology tools have enhanced
the manipulation of crops and breed animals for specific purposes and enhanced
agricultural outcomes. Expanding on the use of biotechnology in this sector, synthetic
biologists are developing high-yield and disease-resistant plant feedstock that can be
supplemented with efficient and environmentally friendly microorganisms to
minimise water use and replace chemical fertilisers. As an example, CSIRO has been
involved in research into in vivo engineering of novel metabolic pathways in bacteria
232
Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues (2010) New Directions, The Ethics of
Synthetic Biology and Emerging Technologies.
233
Parens, E., et al (2009) Ethical Issues in Synthetic Biology, Woodrow Wilson International Centre
for Scholars.
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for the production of key agricultural inputs from renewable resources to replace
current energy and carbon dioxide-intensive petrochemical processes.
Food Security
Synthetic biology may help to mitigate threats to global food supply. Synthetic
biology work in this field is still in the early stages compared with other areas of
research such as energy and health, but R&D in this field is well underway. Examples
of synthetic biology projects focused on food security are discussed below.
Glycyrrhizin
Glycyrrhizin is the sweet compound found in liquorice root that is 150-300 times
sweeter than table sugar and is widely used as a natural sweetener and in natural
medicine. Liquorice root is in high demand, with supplies almost exclusively limited
to wild indigenous species of the liquorice plant found in arid regions of China,
Siberia, Mongolia, and Japan. Researchers have identified and synthesised all the
genes responsible for producing glycyrrhizin. According to researchers, it should now
be possible to use synthetic biology to induce a soy plant or a microbe such as yeast to
produce glycyrrhizin allowing the production process to be moved away from the
countries listed above. This approach to creating difficult to produce food stocks can
be applied to many food products to improve global food security.
Palm Oil
The oil palm genome is currently being decoded by a Malaysian palm oil
conglomerate in an attempt to replace it in foods such as mayonnaises and ice creams
as well as soaps and lotions to aid in reducing harvesting plantations of oil palm.
Supporting this project, other researchers are investigating the development of “oil
profiles” of algae and devise replacements for different types of oil.234
Biofuel Feedstock
Synthetic plants are also being investigated by synthetic biologists to create more
economical feedstock. By using synthetic DNA sequences to engineer plants, they can
be made to perform more efficiently as biofuel feedstock. An example is an
engineered synthetic sequence that causes corn to produce an enzyme, which readily
breaks down the corn’s stalks into cellulose to produce cellulosic biofuels. Other
similar projects include using synthetic biology to ‘reprogram’ commodity crops such
as corn, cotton and canola as more efficient biofuel feedstock.235
Food Processing
Synthetic biology may also provide materials, substances, sensors and other
technologies that can facilitate, enhance and reduce the cost of food production
processes. Particular areas of the food industry likely to profit from synthetic biology
tools and techniques include:

Metabolites, health products (e.g. vitamins) and processing aids in the
manufacturing process of food and food derivatives, such as nutraceuticals,
234
Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues (2010), New Directions, The Ethics of
Synthetic Biology and Emerging Technologies.
235
A NEST Pathfinder Initiative, (2007) Synthetic Biology
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


probiotics and glycol-nutrients used to raise the value of certain foods or nutrientenriched plants;
Preservatives, an area already largely based on genetic engineering;
Flavours and fragrances; and
Food waste processing.
7.7.3 Environmental Applications
Industrial and environmental biotechnology has been described as the third wave of
biotechnology innovation (following energy, healthcare and agriculture). Synthetic
biology is presented as being able to assist and facilitate with many of the challenges
currently being faced in this field.236 Due to the nature of these applications, they are
not expected to make an impact until into horizon 3.
Environmental applications of synthetic biology are currently targeted at pollution
control and ecological protection. Bioremediation is the use of biological systems to
treat environmental contaminants. Researchers are leveraging natural processes to
develop microorganisms that can accumulate and/or degrade substances such as heavy
metals and pesticides.237 Synthetic biology and genetic biology is being used in many
different ways to tackle these challenges:

For mobilisation purposes: such as bacteria being modified to increase their ability
to absorb metals
 For detection through biosensors
 For transformation of chemicals and substances, such as setting up catalytic
reactions allowing the conversion of industry waste into carbon dioxide or water
 For bioremediation or degradation
A biotechnology example is the use of naturally occurring oil-devouring
microorganisms at the site of the 2010 oil spill off the US Gulf Coast. This
demonstrated how these organisms could reduce some types of pollution. Synthetic
biologists are looking to develop and extend this work to understand, direct and
enhance biological capabilities to respond to existing and future pollution and waste
issues.
Other environmentally relevant examples of synthetic biology applications include
laboratory-constructed synthetic biofilms, which are being developed for use as
environmental biosensors. These sensors could be used to monitor soil for nutrient
quality or signs of environmental degradation. The design of biological “wetting
agents” or bio-surfactants could increase the efficiency of bioremediation efforts and
minimise the extent of damage from pollutants.
Bio-surfactants are naturally produced by bacteria, yeasts, or fungi and are
environmentally friendly. Synthetic biology may offer the ability to enhance the
features of microbially produced bio-surfactants to tailor them to specific spills or
otherwise polluted areas.
236
European Academies Science Advisory Council (2011) Synthetic Biology: An Introduction.
ETC Group, (2010) The New Biomasters, Synthetic Biology and the Next Assault on Biodiversity
and Livelihood.
237
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7.7.4 Convergence with Other Enabling Technologies
Due to the systems approach of many synthetic biology disciplines, the field uses,
overlaps and is driven by several other established scientific disciplines.
Biotechnology, nanotechnology, information technology and synthetic biology are so
intimately interconnected that it is difficult to make neat distinctions among them. It is
also equally hard to cleanly and consistently distinguish those mentioned from other
areas of scientific inquiry, such as cognitive neuroscience or even stem cell research.
In this respect, the overlap and interconnectedness led Mihail Roco and William Sims
Bainbridge (2002) to describe synthetic biology as the “convergence of emerging
technologies.”
Figure 18 illustrates the process of creating a synthetic cell as an example of how the
interaction of enabling technologies makes synthetic biology possible.
Figure 18: Example of the convergence of technology that makes synthetic biology possible
Source: Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues
Bio-nanoscience
Since synthetic biology occurs at the nanoscale, it shares many attributes and
investigation pathways with nanotechnology. Furthering nanoscience is a natural
progression for synthetic biology in the business of synthesising whole cells or other
living systems.238 In this light, using synthetic biology, attempts are being made to
create manmade cells that are capable of self-assembly, self-repair and reproduction.
As an example, nanoscientists are using synthetically produced viruses to construct
battery parts.239
Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology
Biologists believe that synthetic biology is a window through which they can
understand how living things operate. Synthetic biology provides a mechanism to test,
through sequencing, modelling, and reproduction, our current understanding of the
life sciences. Synthetic biology allows, through modelling and manipulation of living
systems, researchers to better understand and define the functions of genes and
physiological systems.
238
Rejeski, D., (2011) Synthetic Biology A Trip Around the Neighbourhood, U.S Department of
Agriculture.
239
Parens, E., et al (2009) Ethical Issues in Synthetic Biology, Woodrow Wilson International Centre
for Scholars.
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Synthetic biology relies and is driven by concepts from molecular biology and
chemically synthesised DNA. The ability to sequence and synthesise DNA allows the
design and redesign of biological systems.240
The rDNA technology, or “genetic engineering,” allowed for some important
successes, such as “biosynthetic” insulin. However, rDNA is expensive and, from an
engineering perspective, messy since knowledge built up in this discipline can be
difficult to translate to other projects and fields of study. Furthermore, rDNA cannot
address all issues associated with genetic engineering.
Beyond the technical shortcomings, there is a deeper conceptual problem with the
existing approaches to genetic engineering. As our understanding in this area
increases, it has become evident that current techniques underestimate the complexity
of naturally occurring processes. Research into addressing these shortcomings is
driving the development of new processes and scientific understanding through
synthetic biology.
Large-scale genome sequencing investigations are providing a wealth of information
on naturally occurring organisms. Synthetic biologists use sequencing to verify that
they fabricated their engineered system as intended.241 Combining the ease at which
DNA can now be synthesised with developments in computer modelling, the building
of de novo proteins and the use of bioinformatics to predict and analyse those
products allow synthetic biologists to create systems that are less complex than
naturally occurring systems but are also more efficient at producing the products we
want.242
Engineering and Information Technology
Engineers working in the field of synthetic biology hope to bring a level of
standardisation, predictability, and reproducibility to biology. Synthetic biology is an
expansion of biotechnology, with the added dimension of being able to design, build
and manipulate engineered biological systems.243
For this engineering approach to be successful, synthetic biology needs to develop
transferable and modular tools and compatible building blocks comparable to those
used in traditional engineering. 244
From an engineering perspective, DNA can be viewed simply as information.
Furthermore, cells can be viewed as networks much like the information networks in
information technology. For this reason, the convergence with information technology
and computer modelling has large implications for where and how production of
synthetic parts can take place.
Sophisticated computer modelling and simulations are allowing synthetic biologists to
better predict system behaviour prior to fabrication. Synthetic biology will benefit
from better models of; how biological molecules bind substrates and catalyse
240
European Academies Science Advisory Council (2011) Synthetic Biology: An Introduction.
Parens, E., et al (2009) Ethical Issues in Synthetic Biology, Woodrow Wilson International Centre
for Scholars.
242
Gutmann, A. (2010) New Directions, The Ethics of Synthetic Biology and Emerging Technologies,
Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues.
243
Parens, E., et al (2009) Ethical Issues in Synthetic Biology, Woodrow Wilson International Centre
for Scholars.
244
A NEST Pathfinder Initiative, (2007) Synthetic Biology
241
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reactions; how DNA encodes the information needed to specify the cell; and how
multi-component integrated systems behave. Recently, multi-scale models of gene
regulatory networks have been developed that focus on synthetic biology applications.
As with all other areas of science and engineering, precise and accurate quantitative
measurements of biological systems are crucial to improving understanding of
biology and synthetically produced components. Measurements help to explain how
systems work and provide the basis for model construction and validation.
Differences between predicted and measured system behaviour can identify gaps in
understanding and explain why synthetic systems do not always behave as intended.
For this reason, technologies which allow many parallel and time-dependent
measurements will be especially useful in synthetic biology. Microscopy and flow
cytometry are examples of useful measurement technologies.245
Chemistry
From the perspective of a chemist, synthetic biology is a tool for manufacturing new
molecules and molecular systems. Chemists have used synthetic biology to directly
manipulate chemical reactions in living systems, for example, in making medicines
quickly and inexpensively. They have also produced biofuels that can harness energy
directly from plants and the sun. As an example, CSIRO is involved in research into
the de novo design of enzymes for chemical reactions that do not occur in natural
biological systems. CSIRO has also been involved in the development of synthetic
enzymes that introduce non-natural amino acids into the protein to change the reaction
chemistry.
245
Parens, E., et al (2009) Ethical Issues in Synthetic Biology, Woodrow Wilson International Centre
for Scholars.
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8. CONTRIBUTION TO ADDRESSING AUSTRALIA’S
MAJOR NATIONAL CHALLENGES
A number of major challenges are facing Australia, both nationally and from a global
perspective. These challenges will impact on the future growth and prosperity of
Australia and will need to be overcome or at least mitigated for the benefit and
advancement of the nation. Taking into account the opportunities, risks and barriers
discussed in ET Futures, the potential contribution of the new and emergent enabling
technologies to meeting some of these challenges is discussed.
The major national challenges, many of which are interrelated that are facing
Australia include:








Capturing opportunities from the mining boom
Impacts of climate change
Increasing demand for energy
Sustainable use of natural resources
Ageing of the population and health
Food security with rising global demand for food
Biosecurity
Changing factors of global competitiveness aligned with major shifts in the global
geo-political economy
 National defence and security
This section discusses the potential of enabling technologies to address Australia’s
national challenges listed above. The most attractive early applications of enabling
technologies are those that can yield large payoffs from small effort with low
development requirements. These applications include sensors, computer devices,
catalysts, and therapeutic agents. Many other applications, such as materials and
energy production systems present greater challenges of production cost and
complexity.
8.1
Mining Boom
8.1.1 Overview
Due to the appetite for natural resources of developing nations, notably China and
India, Australia is currently experiencing a mining boom. As this boom is focused on
finite resources, Australia needs to maximise and leverage the benefits for all
Australians. The challenge facing the mining industry is that Australia’s share of
global mineral investment in exploration is declining. At the moment, many
companies are trading the increased technical risk of discovering and developing
Australian deposits for the higher sovereign risk associated with operating in other
countries.246
To secure the future of the minerals industry, Australia needs to leverage the use of
enabling technologies to solve the technical challenges that will be associated with
Australian mineral operations. These challenges include:

Limited or no outcrop
246
CSIRO, Minerals Down Under: helping to transform the minerals industry in Australia, accessed
1/08/2011, available at: http://www.csiro.au/org/Minerals-Down-Under-Overview.html
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 Greater depth of operation
 Higher rock stresses
 Increased gas levels
 Lower grades
 Scarcer human resources
 Globally high standards of safety and health
 Appropriately strict environmental impact regimes
Australia outperformed many other developed economies through the global financial
crisis, avoiding a recession. This economic strength is due in no small part to the
mining sector, leveraging an abundance of natural resources and unprecedented
demand from developing nations (for example; Brazil, Russia, India and China).
Emerging nanotechnologies and biotechnologies have the potential to improve the
environmental and production performance of the mining industry in Australia. These
technologies will enable Australia to extract better value from mineral resources and
will assist in addressing the challenges of sustainability and international competition.
8.1.2 The Role of Enabling Technologies
One important application of enabling technologies in the Australian mining industry
is in reducing the environmental cost of mining activities. For example,
bioremediation and phytoremediation have important applications in the stabilisation
and isolation of mine wastes.247 rDNA technology may play an important role in this.
Transgenic plants with enhanced phytorememdiation capabilities have already been
developed. Similarly transgenic and even synthetic microbes may also be used in
mine site bioremediation. Transgenic microalgae have already been used for the
removal and recovery of heavy metals from industrial wastewater, and other
transgenic microbes have been employed to biodegrade heavy metals in soil to less
toxic and/or less bio-available products.248 As greater economic value is placed on
the preservation of the environment, Australia can leverage its research capability to
become a world leader in minimal-impact mining, and mine site regeneration.
Biotechnology also has applications in the extraction of minerals. Biomining is the
processing of metal-containing ores using micro-biological technology, and is
currently used commercially to enhance the extraction of gold and copper, and to a
lesser extent to leach base metals from ores and concentrates.249 Biomining
technologies, including bioleaching, can reduce capital costs and environmental
pollution associated with metal extraction. Conventional techniques for the recovery
of metals from low-grade ores are highly capital and energy intensive, and come at a
high environmental cost. Biomining lends itself to processing low-grade deposits,
especially small or remote deposits that can’t be cost-effectively treated by existing
technologies. As more low-grade ore deposits are being exploited in Australia, and
environmental conservation becomes a higher national priority, biomining is expected
to become more commercially viable.
247
Mukhopadhyay, S., & Kumar Maiti, S. (2010) Phytoremediation of Metal Enriched Mine Waste: A
review, Global Journal of Environmental Research
248
Shukla, K., et al (2010) Bioremediation: Developments, current practices and perspectives, Genetic
Engineering and Biotechnology Journal.
249
Brierley, C. (2008) How will biomining be applied in the future? Tran. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China
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Biohydrometallurgy is an area that utilises enabling technologies from a large number
of areas. Applications involve microbial mining, oil recovery, bioleaching, watertreatment and others. Biohydrometallurgy is mainly used to recover certain metals
from sulphide ores. It is usually utilised when conventional mining procedures are too
expensive or ineffective in recovering a metals such as copper, gold, lead, nickel and
zinc.
Bioleaching uses bacteria to extract metals from ore. This technique is most
commonly used in copper and gold mining. Similarly, bio-oxidation also uses bacteria
to release metals in ore bodies. These techniques have several advantages over
traditional methods including improved recovery rates, low capital and energy costs,
the potential to be used in remote locations and lower skill requirements than
technically advanced mechanical systems.
Biotechnology can also be used in oil extraction. Microbial enhanced oil recovery
(MEOR) uses microorganisms to increase the amount of oil recoverable from wells.
Acids and/or gases produced by microorganisms can be used to free oil pockets in
reservoir rock and therefore increase oil extraction. MEOR technology is currently
being used at a small scale in several oil fields. Nanosensors are also being used in oil
and gas extraction by assisting in the detection of uncharted reserves. Further,
nanosensing technologies are expected to have many other applications in the mining
industry, particularly for resource management and environmental remediation uses.
Synthetic biology also has the potential to allow the harvest of coal bed methane
through synthetic microbial digestion.
Looking to horizon 2 and 3 applications, advanced biotechnologies may be used to
optimise and synthetically produce bacteria and microorganisms for applications
discussed above. Potential advantages include increasing leaching rates, increase
tolerance to harsh conditions or produce novel characteristics that improve oil
recovery. Expected continued high demand for natural resources will drive research in
this area.
8.2
Climate Change
8.2.1 Overview
The emission of greenhouse gases from human activity and energy use are major
contributing factors to climate change and associated increases in global temperatures.
As demand for fossil fuels continues to grow through increased energy requirements
and population growth, greenhouse gas emissions are expected to continue increasing.
Each decade in Australia since the 1940s has been warmer than the last with 2001 to
2010 being the warmest decade on record in Australia and around the globe.250 A
changing climate will have consequences in Australia, such as more frequent and
more extreme weather events, including heat-waves, storms, cyclones and bushfires, a
continued decline in rainfall in southern Australia. Higher temperatures will lead to
decreases in water supplies. Current actions looking to address some of these issues
include changing the way buildings and infrastructure are designed, diversifying the
250
Annual Australian Climate Statement 2009, Bureau of Meteorology, 2010, available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/announcements/media_releases/climate/change/20100105.shtml.
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water supplies in cities and improving Australian water use, rethinking the way
vulnerable coastal areas are developed and planting more drought-tolerant crops.
In 2007, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded that, for
Australia, "Ecosystems, water security and coastal communities have a narrow coping
range. Even if adaptive capacity is realised, vulnerability becomes significant for 1.5
to 2.0°C of global warming. Energy security, health (heat-related deaths), agriculture
and tourism have larger coping ranges and adaptive capacity, but they may become
vulnerable if global warming exceeds 3.0°C."251
Climate change is expected to impact almost every aspect of the Australian economy,
society and environment. Australian ecosystems and biodiversity, water resources,
agriculture, built infrastructure, regional and remote communities, disease patterns
and associated health risks are all expected to be adversely affected by climate
change. The Australian AUD $214 billion export sector is particularly exposed due to
the vulnerability of the key export commodities.252 The productivity of agriculture,
particularly irrigation dependent agriculture, forestry and fisheries is also expected to
be affected by changing climate patterns and extreme weather events. Tourism will
also be impacted by changes to natural habitats of high tourism worth.
Global warming may also alter the spread of infectious diseases to new geographic
regions and therefore cause new health risks in new areas, opening up new challenges
and opportunities for enabling technology based medical applications.
According to the CSIRO, potential impacts of climate change on Australia and its
economy include:

Water scarcity and supply reliability, affecting irrigation, domestic and industrial
water use, and environmental flows.
 Development and population growth in coastal regions will exacerbate the risks
from sea-level rise.
 Losses of unique Australian animal and plant species, disrupting ecosystem
function and causing the loss of ecosystem services.
 Higher temperatures, altered groundwater and soil conditions, sea-level rise and
changed rainfall regimes will affect urban infrastructure including failure of urban
drainage and sewerage systems, potential blackouts, transport disruption, and
greater building damage.
To address these issues, the Australian Government has a target of reducing carbon
pollution from 2000 levels by between five and 25 per cent. It is expected that if
Australia takes no action, by 2020, carbon pollution could be 20 per cent higher than
2000 levels.
Furthermore, The Garnaut report recommends the following three areas of
consideration that will play a key role in Australia dealing with climate change
affects:

Innovation Nation – the ability of Australian’s to adapt and innovate to climate
change and associated opportunities.
251
Working Group II Report "Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, IPCC, 2007, available at:
http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_and_data_reports.shtml.
252
Addressing National Challenges, 2008, CSIRO, available at: http://www.csiro.au/files/files/piih.pdf
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

Transforming the land sector – adapting to higher costs of producing farm
products, but also in making the most of anticipated higher food prices.
Electricity transformation – the lowest-cost path to reducing emissions in the
transport, industrial and household sectors involves greater use of low-emissions
electricity.
8.2.2 The Role of Enabling Technologies
Enabling technologies will play an important role in addressing the effects of climate
change. In particular, the following applications of enabling technologies are expected
to be of great importance for addressing climate change:


The development of biofuels to supplement or replace carbon intensive fossil fuels
The use of biotechnology to produce feedstock for chemical and plastics to
replace reliance on fossil fuels.
 The genetic modification of crops to adapt to increasing aridity or pest infestations
 Use of manufactured nanomaterials such as metal oxides as a slurry additive
 Using biosensors to monitor soil nutrient quality, moisture availability and/or
environmental degradation.
 More efficient energy production and storage, including power generation, energy
capture and storage, fuel cells, etc.
 To leverage and use efficiently and sustainably Australia’s natural resources.
The development and adoption of agricultural biotechnologies, particularly plant
varieties with increased stress tolerance, could help mitigate these effects. The
increased demand for energy and associated energy price increases could drive
developments and uptake of bioenergy and industrial biotechnology in processes
where energy consumption can be reduced.
Enabling technologies can be used in the environmental services sector to repair and
monitor environmental conditions. Two main applications include:

Remediation – the use of microorganisms and nanomaterials to reduce, eliminate,
contain, or transform contaminants present in soils, sediments, water, or air.
 Sensors – devices that use an immobilised biologically related agent (such as an
enzyme, antibiotic, organelle or whole cell) to detect or measure a chemical
compound. Sensors preforming these functions will become available at the
nanoscale.
Waste from industry (e.g. heavy metals), agriculture (e.g. chemical fertilisers) and
sewage treatment pose a modern and challenging problem to many countries.
Currently technology developments are focused on bioremediation and improving the
ability of microorganisms to breakdown and neutralise harmful compounds. Given the
complex compounds that are required to be treated (mainly from industrial processes);
it is likely that metabolic pathway engineering will provide a solution to improve
efficiencies. Solutions are also being investigated to increase the resistance of
microorganisms to toxins and metals to allow a broader application of bioremediation
techniques and technologies.
Biosensors (including nanosensors) can be used for long-term monitoring of
environmental conditions and biodiversity. Advances in technology are allowing for
in situ sensing capabilities for biological conditions including being self-powered,
self-healing and biologically compatible. Associated with these breakthroughs,
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biological monitoring will need to integrate information analysis with appropriate
in situ responses to be considered a useful advance over existing techniques.
Biosensors will also play an important role in assessing, tracking and analysing
climate change and its effects. Advances in the quality and amount of information
available will require new sensor designs for effective biological monitoring.
Biosensors are likely to be used over conventional methods when continuous results
are required, e.g. monitoring of bioterrorism, chemical weapons, explosives and
drinking water.
In addition to bioremediation and biosensors, biotechnology and nanotechnology is
also being used to produce solutions that can be applied as pre-treatment for
chemicals or fuels to reduce the presence of harmful compounds. For example,
microbes could be used to remove sulphur compounds when burning fossil fuels and
therefore reduce the effects of acid rain.
Climate change is an integrated issue that is affected by a large number of external
factors. Many of the potential benefits of enabling technologies to address climate
change are linked and integrated to the application of renewable energy and resource
efficiency, which is discussed further below.
8.3
Increasing Demand for Energy Efficiency and Renewable
Energy Sources
8.3.1 Overview
Australia is currently dependant on finite natural resources for energy production.
These energy sources are high emitters of carbon dioxide, a major contributor to
global warming and climate change. For this reason, the drive towards clean
renewable energy and a low carbon emission future is becoming increasingly
important in Australia. Therefore, the application of cost-effective, renewable, lowemission energy sources will contribute positively to Australia’s energy future.
The national energy research priorities to address Australian energy use, as identified
by the CSIRO, include:
 Reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
 Ensuring energy security.
 Creating wealth from energy.
 Supporting a smooth transition to a new energy future.
Without major changes to address energy use and climate change, increasing energy
use and population growth will continue to drive the nation’s reliance on fossil fuels.
It is expected that 80 per cent of the demand for energy will be met by fossil fuels out
to 2030.253 Developing nations will demand the largest portion of energy into the
future, with the Asia-Pacific region being the world's largest consumer. Estimates
suggest that the world will need 50 per cent more energy in 2020 than current levels.
This will create new energy related issues including:


Security and sustainability of energy supply;
The link between combustion of fossil fuels and dramatic changes in climate; and
253
International Energy Outlook, 2011, Energy Information Administration, available at:
http://38.96.246.204/forecasts/ieo/index.cfm.
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
Availability of technological innovation in energy conversion, transmission and
use.
The role of technological innovation is critical to a clean energy future. The
International Energy Agency has shown that by using existing technologies more
effectively and by accelerating development of new technologies, a clean and
sustainable energy future is possible.254 This future can be realised through a number
of key strategies:


Realising energy efficiency gains in the transport, industry and building sectors;
Decarbonised power generation through renewable energy sources such as wind,
solar and geothermal, natural gas and coal with carbon dioxide capture and
storage; and
 Increased use of biofuels for road transport.
Electricity generation and transport fuels are important for Australia’s clean energy
future due to its large land mass and long distances between population centres.
Australia has large fossil fuels energy resources; black coal reserves have an
estimated potential life of 100 years and brown coal 500 years. Both are major
sources of electricity for the country, and are expected to continue to be so into the
future. Natural gas reserves are estimated to have a life of about 60 years in Australia.
Contributions from renewable energy sources such as hydro, biomass, wind and solar
are currently at low levels compared to existing power generation techniques.
Australian Government policy has historically stressed energy competitiveness,
security and sustainability. The development of cleaner technologies for fossil fuel
combustion, coupled with carbon capture and storage has been favoured to support
continued use of black coal. Government programs have also encouraged the adoption
of renewable energy production such as photovoltaic systems, hydro and wind
turbines.
8.3.2 The Role of Enabling Technologies
The enabling technologies discussed in this report have the potential to address issues
associated with increasing demand and consumption of energy resources, as well as
ensuring Australia’s energy security by reducing the nation’s dependence on fossil
fuels. The development of industries around addressing Australia’s increasing need
for energy through enabling technologies has the ability to create a growing market
sector that will have positive flow on effects to other industry sectors. Such a sector
would aid in accelerating the cost competitiveness of renewable and other clean
energy sources against existing forms of energy such as fossil fuels.
Nanotechnologies
Developments in manufactured nanomaterials may provide lighter, stronger and
increased thermal and electrically efficient materials. These materials and components
will have a wide variety of applications in energy production, clean coal, fuel cells
and more efficient, practical and integrated solar cells. One such example is
metal/organometallics that can to be used to improve catalytic converters.
254
The Outlook to 2050 and the Role of Energy Technology, Summary and Policy Implications,
International Energy Agency, available at: http://www.iea.org/textbase/npsum/etp.pdf.
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Some possible applications of nanotechnologies in energy systems have been
identified as:

Energy conversion: solar cells, thermoelectric devices, catalysts, environmental
management, fuel cells, carbon dioxide capture and storage, hydrogen production.
 Energy storage: supercapacitors, batteries, hydrogen storage.
 Energy transmission: superconducting cables, hydrogen distribution.
 Energy use: conservation in manufacturing industries and construction materials
for transport, fuel cells, catalysts for combustion.
Many of these applications offer potential energy savings and reductions in
greenhouse gas emissions. Two studies that are applicable to Australia include a US
study suggesting that potential reductions from a number of nanotechnology based
products could be about 15 per cent of total energy consumption (lightweight
materials in transport, solid-state lighting, self-optimising motor systems, smart roofs
with reflectivity control and energy-efficient separation membranes).
A second study from the UK estimates that an approximate reduction of 20 per cent in
greenhouse gas emissions is possible by 2050 from improved storage and the
introduction of a hydrogen economy. This study identified the following as
opportunities for applications of nanotechnologies:

Horizon 1: energy conservation, environmental management, catalysts for
combustion, photovoltaic cells.
 Horizon 2: catalysts for conversion of biomass, gas and coal, fuel cells, advanced
photovoltaic systems using engineered nanomaterials.
 Horizon 3: hydrogen production, storage and use.
A horizon 1 analysis of global energy markets suggests that short term impacts of
enabling technologies will be in more efficient use of existing resources rather than in
the creation of new products such as hydrogen-based technologies. In this respect,
solid-state lighting, nanocomposite materials, aerogels and fuel-borne catalysts are
seen as short term opportunities. Energy saving technologies and applications in
transport are also expected to have a large impact in the short term.
In horizons 2 and 3, the commercialisation of energy generation systems such as
improved photovoltaics and focussed solar systems and hydrogen fuel cells, will
impact the energy markets. Given the time required and scale of expenditure involved
in commercialising new technologies, public–private partnerships are required and are
currently being used in the development of low-emission coal combustion processes
and carbon capture and storage technologies.
Examples of Australian companies in the energy sector utilising enabling technologies
include CAP-XX (supercapacitors), Ceramic Fuel Cells, Dyesol (dye sensitised solar
cells), Origin Energy (silicon sliver solar cells) and Hydrexia (hydrogen storage).
The development of nanoscale materials, as well as the methods to characterise,
manipulate and assemble them, will continue to change traditional approaches to
energy conversion, storage, transmission and use. Properties of nanomaterials such as
carbon nanotubes, is their high surface area per unit volume which leads to much
higher surface activity than in typical materials. This potentially can aid in
accelerating chemical reactions and improving the efficiency of many chemical
processes.
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Biofuels
Energy prices are expected to continue to increase into the future, driving an increase
in R&D for biofuels. This will lead to new agricultural feedstocks and the
development of new enzymes to increase production capacity, reduce biomass and
energy input requirements, and reduce the costs of using cellulosic biomass.
Current research and technologies will be able to use biotechnology to increase the
production of biofuels such as cellulosic ethanol through the development of superfermenting organisms and more efficient feedstock. Breakthroughs are also occurring
in photosynthetic algae and using synthetic biology for the production of biohydrogen using engineered E. coli, starch and water, via a synthetic enzymatic
pathways. Horizon 3 applications are expected to result from research into producing
electric current directly from synthetic living cells without the need for post
processing.
Biotechnology and synthetic biology will also play an important role in the
development of commercial grade biofuels. Currently, many biofuels are produced
without using modern biotechnology. Ethanol is produced from sugar cane through
fermenting sugars with yeast, a method that has been used for millennia. However,
there are two places in biofuel production where biotechnology is used, the
development of crops tailored to bioenergy production with increased oil content or
maize) and new processes that improve the conversion of biomass to fuel.
Many industries, including food processing and pulp and paper, already process
biomass the energy as a by-product. These production plants do not use modern
biotechnology. A pulp and paper mill can produce a variety of paper from wood while
using wastes and residues to generate electricity. Likewise, the production of ethanol
from sugar cane relies on conventional fermentation, while bagasse is simply burned
to generate electricity. There are also existing biorefineries that use enzymes produced
from modified microorganisms to convert starch into sugars that are then fermented
into ethanol.
However, developments in biorefineries are occurring rapidly utilising biotechnology.
A number of these developments are outlined in Table 15.
Debate over the use of food crops and cropland for biofuel production, as well as
debates over the environmental benefits of using maize, wheat and soybeans to
produce fuels, could lead to substantial changes in biofuel production. An expected
outcome is a shift in research priorities to non-food crops such as grasses and tree
species that can be grown on land unsuitable for crop agriculture.
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Table 15: Characteristics of New Types of Biorefineries
TYPE OF
PREDOMINANT
CONCEPT
FEEDSTOCK
TECHNOLOGY
Green
Wet biomass: green
Pre-treatment,
biorefineries
grasses and green
pressing,
crops such as lucerne
fractionantion,
and clover
separation, digestion
Whole crop
Whole crop (including
Wet or dry milling,
biorefineries
straw) cereals such as biochemical
rye, wheat and maize
conversion
Lignocellulosic
Lignocellulosic-rick
Pre-treatment,
feedstock
biomass; straw, chaff,
chemical and
biorefineries
reed, miscanthus,
enzymatic hydrolysis,
wood
fermentation,
separation
Two platform
All types of biomass
Combination of sugar
concept
platform (biochemical
biorefineries
conversion and
syngas platform
(thermochemical
conversion)
Thermochemical All types of biomass
Thermochemical
biorefineries
conversion:
torrefaction, pyrolysis,
gasification, HTU,
product separation,
catalytic synthesis
Marine
Aquatic biomass:
Cell disruption,
biorefineries
microalgae and
product extraction and
macroalgae
separation
(seaweed)
PHASE OF
DEVELOPMENT
Pilot plant and R&D
Pilot plant and
demonstration plant
R&D / pilot plant,
demonstration plant
(USA)
Pilot plant
Pilot plant (R&D and
demonstration)
R&D (and pilot plant)
Source: Ree and Annevelink, 2007
Fuel Cells
Fuel cells are expected to play a major role in addressing the increased demand for
energy as well as providing benefits to climate change and the environment. Despite
advances in recent years, existing fuel cell technology still has several challenges,
including: the lower than theoretical efficiency of energy conversion, the high
platinum content of electrocatalysts and the instability of platinum under long-term
operational cycling conditions.
Nanoparticles may provide a solution as they have different catalytic properties from
conventional materials. The ability to place atoms of a catalyst on the well-ordered
facets of a nanoparticle may be conducive to improving their properties and therefore
fuel system performance. Carbon nanotubes may also play an important role in the
development of more efficient fuel cells.
Australia has well established research foundations in solid oxide fuel cells, which use
non-porous ceramic electrodes at high temperatures to achieve high efficiencies.
These materials use ceramic nanopowders to improve the fabrication of electrode
membranes and thus reduce costs. Research is also being conducted into providing
technologies that can be used for the introduction of fuel cells into vehicles. In lower
temperature cells, polymer electrolytes and electrodes of porous carbon with catalytic
layers are often used. In this process, costs can be reduced by using plasma sputtered
nanofilms.
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Hydrogen Production, Storage and Use
The attraction of hydrogen as a clean energy source is that its combustion produces
only water and no greenhouse gases. Hydrogen can be burnt in a combustion chamber
to generate power in vehicles or used in fuel cells to generate electricity. This has led
to the concept of a “hydrogen economy” to replace the present hydrocarbon economy.
A critical factor in the establishment of a hydrogen economy is the supply of
sufficient hydrogen for the community’s needs. There are various ways of producing
hydrogen including: steam reforming of natural gas, gasification of coal, breakdown
of water by electrolysis or high-temperature reaction. Current research is
concentrating on methods to produce hydrogen that do not involve the release of
greenhouse gases. For Australia, with ample natural gas supplies, the use of
nanostructured catalysts may improve the efficiency of the reforming and gasification
processes involved in producing hydrogen.
Hydrogen needs to be compressed for distribution, storage and use. Hydrogen also
needs local storage solutions, particular if it is to be used in vehicles. Nanostructured
materials such as metal hydrides and carbon nanotubes are being researched to assist
in addressing storage challenges. The key to practical use of hydrogen is the ability to
absorb and release the hydrogen over many cycles without deterioration of the storage
device.
Solar Energy
The use of photovoltaic (PV) devices to produce energy is being increasingly
recognised as an important component of future clean energy production. While
silicon-based photovoltaics still dominate the market, the cost remains an order of
magnitude too high to compete with power generation from fossil fuels. Thin film
technologies are providing promise of low cost PV advancements. Technologies such
as nanostructured organic photovoltaics (NOPV) are believed to be a key to future PV
systems.
Low cost NOPVs, low temperature processing, and the potential to make large area
devices on flexible substrate cheaply make them very attractive. In general terms, an
optimised NOPV device requires controlling the organisation of nanocomponents.
NOPVs have the potential to provide large-scale, low cost clean electrical power.
With its abundance of solar radiation, Australia is ideally placed to develop and
exploit PV technologies such as NOPV. While silicon is the most widely used
material, Australian research is examining a variety of alternative approaches
including thin crystalline silicon slivers, crystalline silicon-on-glass technology,
organic nanofilms on polymers, quantum dots and dye sensitised cells. The aim of this
research is to reduce the cost of production of solar technologies and increase their
efficiencies.
Energy Conservation
Energy efficiency is also a key Government policy area. Energy efficiency is a critical
way for Australia to waste less energy, reduce the demand on energy resources and
lower the greenhouse gas emissions. Reducing the amount of energy used is widely
believed to be the quickest, simplest and most cost-effective way to reduce Australia’s
greenhouse gas emissions.
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With respect to domestic and industrial dwellings, the high summer temperatures in
Australia, and often high humidity, mean that air conditioning usage is high compared
with other countries. Potential solutions to reduce air conditioning dependence is
more efficient insulation. Potential candidates to serve this function include aerogels
formed from nanostructured carbon or silica for the use of smart glazing. Smart
glazing involves the use of multilayer nanoscale coatings applied to glass surfaces to
enable them to change their transmittance and reduce internal temperatures.
Lighting also consumes a considerable amount of electricity. Solid-state lighting
(SSL) offers the potential to greatly increase the efficiency of artificial light
production. SSL is the direct conversion of electricity to light using a semiconductor.
The use of nanoscale production methods would allow the controlled arrangement of
the charge transporting and light emitting building blocks and therefore greatly
increase efficiency of SSLs.
Light emitting devices (LEDs) utilise crystalline semiconductors. The management of
single atomic defects is important for efficient light output. Organic LEDs (OLEDs)
are based on largely amorphous, very thin films of molecular materials. As with SSLs,
this potential cannot currently be recognised as there is a lack of technology to
assemble the bulk structure with molecular precision. If this technology were
available, the potential exists to manufacture both LEDs and OLEDs with close to 100
per cent of the thermodynamic efficiency for conversion of electricity to light.
8.4
Sustainable Use of Natural Resources
8.4.1 Overview
Sustainable resource efficiency includes addressing concerns about the
overexploitation of natural resources and establishing sustainable ways of living. This
includes the intelligent use, conservation and renewal of natural resources and
ecological systems.255 Major challenges for Australia include the protection of
environmental amenity, natural resources, water management and waste management.
Resource efficiency impacts the following policy considerations:


The sustainable use of natural resources.
Reduce the environmental impact of resource use at local, regional and global
scales.
 Dematerialise economic processes and reduce waste and greenhouse gas
emissions by introducing eco-efficiency and cleaner production strategies.
 Promote increased consumer awareness and responsibility for resource use.
 Identify transition pathways for sustainable resource use, including adaptive
responses to climate change.
Natural resources underpin nearly every economy around the world. However, the
current rate of resource use by developed and developing nations is unsustainable.
Unsustainable resource use may exacerbate the effects of climate change and
therefore cause serious damage to the environment. As developing nations grow, their
resource use will continue to rise, compounding environmental impacts.
255
Sustainable use of natural resources, CSIRO website, accessed 1/08/2011, available at:
http://www.csiro.au/science/Sustainable-Resource-Use.html.
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One of the reasons for current unsustainable development trends is the large amounts
of materials used by industrialised and developing societies, resulting in rising
resource use per capita. Policy and planning has realised the importance of sustainable
resource use and has led to investment in understanding the relationship between
society and natural resource use, called ‘social metabolism’. Research institutes such
as CSIRO are hoping that by understanding this relationship, production and
consumption can be made more sustainable. Industrial metabolism is also being
investigated for sustainable resource use by Australian industries.
Due to increases in water demand and climate change, strategies that reduce demand,
increase efficiency and maximise wastewater reuse will be important in implementing
a sustainable future. Associated with increased water demand is the increased demand
on agriculture to meet growing food demands, both in Australia, and globally.
Agriculture is a key user of water resources and along with the potential for droughts,
could result in major strains on Australian water resources. Meat production, which is
a key Australian agricultural output, is especially water intensive. As an already arid
land mass, this effect could potentially be greater in Australia than other nations.
As discussed above, water is and will continue to be a key natural resource for
Australia. The Australian Government has several key policy areas to address water
issues and security:




Growing more food with less water
 Supporting farmers to grow more food with less water.
 Investment in the future of farming in the Murray-Darling Basin.
 Updating old irrigation systems and putting in new water saving infrastructure.
Delivering water back to Australia rivers
 Putting more water into the Murray-Darling Basin's river system.
 Water buy backs to put back in rivers. Purchases so far will return on average
more than 600 billion litres a year.
Securing water for Australia's cities and towns
 Alternative water supplies for cities and towns.
 Using stormwater, desalination and recycling to reduce reliance on rivers for
water supplies.
 Smart new projects to save water.
Helping families save water at home
 Better use of water in the home.
 National water efficiency standards mean that it is easier to buy water saving
washing machines, showerheads and dishwashers.
8.4.2 The Role of Enabling Technologies
Enabling technologies provide the opportunity to do more with fewer resources. This
will aid in addressing and meeting rapidly rising demands that humans are placing on
all resources. Enabling technologies also provides the opportunity to take advantage
of previously considered waste such as wastewater, sewage and other industrial
process by-products.
Further to the previous discussions on biofuels, competition for natural resources and
agriculture will need to be carefully managed between food and feedstock
requirements and those associated with energy production processes. Biotechnology
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will play an important role in genetically modified crops that reduce resource input
requirements and more efficiently produce feedstock for biomass processes.
Catalysts for Conversion of Natural Gas
Australia has large reserves of natural gas. However many of these reserves are in
hard to access and reach areas. The potentially limited scale of many of these fields
means that improved efficiency of catalytic conversion is required to make these
reserves economically viable. Research into nanostructured catalysts is currently
being conducted to develop more cost-effective processes for natural gas recovery.
Forestry
Biotechnology is currently being used to develop faster-growing tree species for
timber, pulp, paper, and biofuel production. Improved tree varieties provide
commercial opportunity in a range of areas, particularly for sustainable use within
new biorefineries that can use tree and pulp products and therefore reduce the reliance
on food crops. A number of biotechnologies could also be widely used in forestry
programs. Improved pest resistance is an important goal for tree breeding programs,
however there may be resistance from groups looking to protect native biodiversity.
Tropical conditions favour tree plantations for wood, fibre and biofuels. As a result,
biotechnology and GM are being investigated to replicate tropical efficiencies in more
arid conditions. These investigations include breeding programs focused on new
varieties of fast-growing, short-rotation trees such as pine and eucalyptus species.
8.5
Ageing of the Population and Health
8.5.1 Overview
Australia, like other OECD countries, is currently experiencing a shift in its
population profile to an ageing population. At June 2010, the median age of the
Australian population was 36.9 years, up from 36.5 years in 2005.256 Furthermore,
there were 3.01 million people aged 65 years and over in Australia at June 2010, an
increase of 370,600 people or 14 per cent since June 2005. Figure 19 shows the age
profile of the Australian population as at June 2010.
256
Australian Bureau of Statistic, June 2010.
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Figure 19: Australian Population Age Profile
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistic, June 2010
As a result of this ageing population profile, the 2010 Intergenerational Report
projected that Australia’s health expenditure will increase from four per cent of GDP
in 2009-10 to 7.1 per cent by 2049-50.257 Key drivers include; technological
innovation (the development of new drugs), increasing demand for health services,
and consumer demands for higher levels of care. Ageing is predicted to account for 40
per cent of this rise. Technological innovation actually results in increased
expenditure on health care due to increased range, quality and expectation of health
services. Efficiency in delivery then becomes very important such as eHealth and
other emerging technologies.
By 2030, the share of the global population over age 60 will increase while the share
under 15 will decrease. This demographic shift will occur in both developed and
developing regions, but the increase in the share of older people will be more
pronounced in the developed countries.
The effects of an ageing population profile will place increasing pressure on pension
and healthcare systems. Health aspects have been of particular focus, as preventing or
delaying chronic diseases is identified as key to improving wellbeing and containing
health care costs. According to the CSIRO, the three major chronic disease burdens
throughout the world are cancer, neurodegenerative diseases and obesity. Within
Australia, the Government has identified seven disease burdens; cancers,
cardiovascular diseases, nervous system and sense disorders, mental disorders,
257
The 2010 Intergenerational Report (2010) Australian Government, available at:
http://www.treasury.gov.au/igr/igr2010/.
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chronic respiratory diseases, diabetes and injuries. Exploiting technical advances in
biology and other areas will play an important role in tackling these issues. 258
Scientists and researchers are working across a large number of health related areas
including:



Better screening for and early detection of disease.
Better understanding how environment and diet contribute to disease.
New protective foods and personalised nutritional and lifestyle approaches to
disease prevention.
 Better ways to monitor and measure health, incorporating improved use of health
data through more effective sharing of electronic health records.
Further to issues associated with an ageing population, increases in populations and
incomes are also expected to have a large impact on the global economy that will
have flow on effects to Australia.
The world population will reach approximately 8.3 billion in 2030 according to the
UN. Almost all population growth, 97 per cent, is expected to occur in developing
countries. Asia will continue to dominate the world’s population, with China and
India accounting for over a third of the global population. This sustained economic
growth and associated higher incomes in developing nations will create additional
demand for healthcare, meat, fish and specialty foods, consumer durables,
automobiles, higher education, and travel.
8.5.2 The Role of Enabling Technologies
Enabling technologies such as nanotechnology, biotechnology and synthetic biology
have the opportunity to make a difference to human kind through advances in a wide
range of medical applications; ageing-in-place applications, medicines and vaccines,
early screening for cancer, synthetic components and replace or complement faulty or
defective natural elements such as genes. Technologies and applications range from
preventative (i.e. skin protection) through to curative (medicines). However, this is
also the area in which the majority of ethical debates arise.
Australia is in a position to leverage current strong research capability in
nanotechnology, biotechnology and information technology in the medical science
area. This research has led to medical breakthroughs such as the cochlear implant and
bionic eye.
Gerontechnology
The application of enabling technologies to ageing is termed ‘gerontechnology’,
linking medical aspects of ageing (gerontology) with technologies to assist in daily
living. The Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering (ATSE)
identified three main categories of interest in gerontechnology related to enabling
technologies:


Security and safety – elderly-friendly homes, prevention of falls, communication
and social interaction.
Diagnosis and treatment – telehealth, coping with degenerative diseases,
nanomedicine.
258
CSIRO Preventative Health Flagship website, accessed 1/08/2011, available at:
www.csiro.au/org/P-Health-Flagship.html.
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 Assistive technologies – biorobotics, brain/machine interaction, mobility systems.
A key concept linking these categories is eHealth; telemedicine and telecare to
support the needs of older adults and caregivers remote from medical centres.
Enabling technologies have the ability to contribute to many of these areas, which are
summarised in Table 16.
Table 16: Possible Technology Areas with Potential Impact on Elderly Australian
AREA
2008-13
2013-18
2018-23
Security and
 Tracking systems
 Implants for
 Personal sensory
safety
monitoring vital
devices to provide
 Improved house
symptoms
data about social
design
and physical
 Smarter homes
 Smart homes
environments
 Falls alleviation
 Improved
 Sensors to detect
networking/
 Smart clothes
composition of
sensors
 communications
drugs, foods and
 Safer transportation
biohazards
 Sociable
technology to
enhance
relationships with
one another and
with machines
Diagnosis and
 Telemedicine for
 Rehabilitation
 Diagnosis and
treatment
remote health
robots
control of
monitoring
neurodegenerative
 Tele-rehabilitation,
diseases
 Devices for
low cost haptic
medication
systems
compliance
 Nanodelivery
 Wider use of
systems for
biosensors for
medication
diagnosis
 Biometric devices
for identification
Assistive
 Audio GPS for
 Brain/neuro
 Service robotics
Technologies
visually impaired
computer
 Artificial molecular
interaction
 Aids for driving
muscles

Improved
vision
 Ultra lightweight
and hearing
wheel chairs
devices
 Improved
 Exoskeletons for
prostheses
lifting objects
 Handling devices
 Enhanced mobility
systems
Source: Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering, 2010
The convergence of enabling technologies with cognitive science will play an
important role in addressing issues associated with health and an aging population.
Cognitive science coupled with enabling technologies may yield new approaches to
difficult areas such as brain-machine interfaces and dementia.
Nanotechnology
Research and applications of nanomedicine can be classed as predictive, pre-emptive,
personalised and regenerative. Predictive refers to nanotechnology that can help
clinicians predict diseases. Pre-emptive refers to the early detection of diseases that
could lead to early treatment and long term management (e.g. diabetes, cardiovascular
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disease, hypertension and cancer). Personalised refers to effective personalised
medical strategies for patients (e.g. tailored / personalised drugs).
Short term nanotechnology benefits to human health and well-being include
incremental improvements over existing methods in medical health care such as
needleless vaccines. Nanomaterials are also being used in tissue engineering, medical
imaging, tissue/organ regeneration, smart implants, medical diagnostics, drug
delivery, nano-arrays, nanoparticles to improve sunscreens and cosmetics,
nanoengineered structures for prosthetics, nanocomposites in integrated diagnostic
devices, supramagnetic nanoparticles for use in MRI detection and carbon nanotubes
for scanning probe tip, atomic force microscope and drug delivery.
Nanotechnologies enable the diagnosis at single cell and molecule level and can be
incorporated into current molecular diagnostics such as biochips. Use of this
technology on a lab-on-a-chip would refine the examination of fluid droplets
containing trace chemicals and viruses. As such, these technologies will extend the
limits of current molecular diagnostics and enable point-of-care diagnosis as well as
the development of personalised medicine. Most important applications are foreseen
in the areas of biomarker research, cancer diagnosis, and detection of infectious
microorganisms.
Nanodevices such as silica-coated micelles, ceramic nanoparticles, dendrimers and
cross linked liposomes are being used for cancer therapy. Nanodentistry is aiding
periodontology, implantology, prosthetic dentistry, orthodontics and endodontics,
tooth regeneration, dental root implants, soft and hard tissue reconstruction using
nanfibrous biomimetric membranes.
Nanosensors are being used in the treatment of oral and systemic diseases, DNA
sequencing, nucleic acid detection, genomic testing, proteomics, pharmacogenomics,
pathogen and virus detection, blood screening, respiratory monitoring, glucose testing
and in vivo radiation monitoring. Nanobiosensors are being researched for integration
into other technologies such as lab-on-a-chip to facilitate molecular diagnostics. Their
applications include detection of microorganisms in samples, monitoring of
metabolites in body fluids and detection of tissue pathology such as cancer.
Nanowires and nanotubes are being investigated to potentially be used in building
blocks for nanoscale electronics and optoelectronics. Boron-doped silicon nanowires
have been used to create highly sensitive, real-time electrically based sensors for
biological and chemical species. The small size and capability of these semiconductor
nanowires for sensitive, label-free, real-time detection of a wide range of chemical
and biological species could be exploited in array-based screening and in vivo
diagnostics.
Genetic Nanomedicine for Gene Detection and Gene Delivery259
Gene delivery is an area of considerable current interest. DNA, RNA, and
oligonucleotides have been used as molecular medicine where they are delivered to
specific cell types to either inhibit undesirable gene expression or express therapeutic
proteins. To date, the majority of gene therapy systems are based on viral vectors
259
Battelle Memorial Institute and Foresight Nanotech Institute (2007) Productive Nanosystems, A
Technology Roadmap.
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delivered by injection to the sites where the therapeutic effect is desired. Viral genetransfer techniques can deliver a specific gene to the nucleus of a cell.
Nanosystems such as nanoparticles, dendrimers, micelles, molecular conjugates, and
liposomes can be designed with different biological properties. These have been
extensively investigated for drug and gene delivery applications.
Nanotechnology-Based Regenerative Medicine260
Combining biodegradable polymer scaffolds and specific cell types, various tissues
including cartilage, bone, and blood vessels have been reconstructed, all be it only at a
laboratory level. Cell sheet engineering is also being investigated which utilises
temperature-responsive culture surfaces. These allow for the non-invasive harvest of
cells by temperature reduction. These harvested cell sheets have been used for various
tissue reconstructions, including ocular surfaces, periodontal ligaments, cardiac
patches, oesophagus, liver, and various other tissues.
Oncology Nanomedicine for Early Diagnosis and Early Treatment in
Cancer261
A key challenge in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer is targeting and local tumour
delivery. Research into cancer therapies is focusing on a better understanding at the
molecular level. Nanobiotechnology is being used to refine biomarkers, molecular
diagnostics, drug discovery, and drug delivery, which are important basic components
of personalised medicine. Management of cancer through nanobiotechnology is
expected to enable early detection of cancer and more effective treatment.
Recently, many nanotechnology tools have become available which can make it
possible for clinicians to detect tumours at an early stage. A new technology
technique named bioMicroNano-technologies have the potential to provide accurate,
realtime, high-throughput screening of tumour cells without the need for sample
preparation. These rapid, nano-optical techniques may play an important role in
advancing early detection, diagnosis, and treatment of disease.
Nanolaser spectroscopy using the biocavity laser represent new tools that hold
promise for detecting early stage cancer and may help to limit delays in diagnosis and
treatment. Nanotechnology can help diagnose cancer using dendrimers and kill
tumour cells without harming normal healthy cells by tumour selective delivery of
genes using nanovectors. These and other technologies are currently in various stages
of discovery and development.
Pharmacological Nanomedicine for Drug Delivery and Drug
Design262
Nanobiosensors and nanobiochips are used to improve drug discovery and
development. Nanoscale assays are being investigated to contribute to cost-saving in
screening. Many drugs discovered in the past could not be used in patients because a
suitable method of drug delivery was not available. Nanotechnology is currently being
260
Battelle Memorial Institute and Foresight Nanotech Institute (2007) Productive Nanosystems, A
Technology Roadmap.
261
Ibid.
262
Ibid.
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used in the development of new drugs by considering drug-delivery at the earlier
stages of drug design.
Cardiovascular Nanomedicine for Heart and Vascular Diseases263
Current technology limits clinicians to diagnostic techniques that either image or
functionally assess the significance of large obstructive vascular lesions. Current
imaging modalities do not allow for the possibility of imaging atherosclerotic disease
at its earliest stages nor do available techniques allow routine assessment of
atherosclerotic lesions susceptible to rupture and/or thrombosis. Techniques have
been developed recently to achieve molecular and cellular imaging with most imaging
modalities, including nuclear, optical, ultrasound and MRI.
Nanotechnology is being utilised in cardiovascular diagnosis through applied
nanosystems to the area of atherosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology. The
future of cardiovascular diagnosis already is being impacted by nanosystems that can
both diagnose pathology and treat it with targeted delivery systems. Advanced
imaging methods and new targeted nanoparticles for early characterisation of
atherosclerosis and cardiovascular pathology might represent the next frontier for
combining imaging and rational drug delivery to facilitate personalised medicine. The
rapid growth of nanotechnology and nanoscience could greatly expand the clinical
opportunities for molecular imaging.
Neurological Nanomedicine for Neuroscience Research264
Applications of nanotechnology in basic neuroscience include those that investigate
molecular, cellular and physiological processes. Nanoengineered materials for
promoting neuronal adhesion and growth to understand the underlying neurobiology
of these processes or to support other technologies designed to interact with neurons
in vivo. Imaging applications using nanotechnology tools, in particular, those that
focus on chemically functionalised semiconductor quantum dots are also being
investigated.
Applications of nanotechnology in clinical neuroscience include research aimed at
limiting and reversing neuropathological disease states. Nanotechnology approaches
are designed to support and/or promote the functional regeneration of the nervous
system; neuroprotective strategies, in particular those that use fullerene derivatives;
and nanotechnology approaches that facilitate the delivery of drugs and small
molecules across the blood-brain barrier. Applications of nanotechnologies for
neuroprotection have focused on limiting the damaging effects of free radicals
generated after injury, which is a key neuropathological process that contributes to
central nervous system ischaemia, trauma and degenerative disorders.
Medical Devices
An example of enabling technologies being used for drug delivery involves modified
autologous cells that produce biopharmaceuticals in the patient, avoiding the need for
ongoing injections. Another early-stage innovation that could reach the market by
263
Battelle Memorial Institute and Foresight Nanotech Institute (2007) Productive Nanosystems, A
Technology Roadmap.
264
Ibid.
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horizon 2 and 3 is a nanodevice that releases drugs in response to over-expression of
undesirable proteins.
Biotechnology
Biotechnology has the potential to bring substantial improvements to healthcare
delivery through more effective personalised therapies and the development of
predictive and preventive medicine. Assisting this trend will be the continual decrease
in genome sequencing costs.
Almost all research into improving human health will and is using biotechnology.
This includes identifying drug targets, improving drug delivery, or tailoring
prescribing practices to the genetic characteristics of patients. Testing for serious
genetic diseases into the future will become widespread and inexpensive. Testing for
genetic profiles that increase the risk of chronic diseases such as arthritis, type II
diabetes, heart disease, and some cancers will also become inexpensive.
Biotechnology is aiding human health and well-being through gene based applications
such as genetic screening and targeted, personalised medicines. Genomic medicine
and RNA based therapeutics may also provide improved patient outcomes through
personally targeted therapeutics. Furthermore, previously incurable diseases are being
addressed with regenerative medicine using stem cell technology. Technology
incorporating biotechnologies and nanotechnologies are improving diagnostic tools
that will leverage discoveries in epigenetics, genomics, bioinformatics and microarray
technology, allowing professions to better characterise disease.
Therapeutics
Biotechnological knowledge in small molecule drug development is expected to
increase significantly over the next decade meaning that a growing percentage of
small molecule pharmaceuticals are likely to be developed or produced using
biotechnology. For instance, biotechnology could be used to fight against antibiotic
resistance through the development of new antibiotics. Looking to horizon 2 and 3,
almost all drugs will have used biotechnology at some point in their development.
Diagnostics
Diagnostic tests based on modern biotechnology are used to identify both genetic
diseases and non-genetic diseases. In general, there are two main types of
biotechnology-based in vitro diagnostic tests: immunological based on the specificity
of antibodies to bind to a target molecule and molecular genetic based on the binding
properties of similar gene sequences. Antibodies specific to a very wide range of
molecules can be generated and used to detect signs of diseases or to detect foreign
substances in a variety of human fluids, such as blood or urine.
Genetic tests can identify specific genes, and determine the presence or absence of
mutations or other changes in an individual’s genetic material. Genetic testing can
yield information in a wide variety of circumstances from pre-implantation screening
of embryos during in vitro fertilisation, screening of foetuses, or of children or adults
to diagnose genetic conditions, to identify a person’s risk profile for developing or
passing on certain medical conditions, or even to detect infectious agents such as the
Human Papilloma Virus.
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Genetic testing is likely to shift from identifying single genetic mutations to tests for
multiple genes that increase the risk of diseases caused by a large number of different
factors.
Pharmacogenetics265
Pharmacogenetics examines the way in which genes and drugs interact. The method
uses diagnostics and bioinformatics to identify subgroups that respond or do not
respond to specific drugs. This technology could pave the way to personalised health
therapies where the type of prescribed drug and dosage are determined by an
individual’s genome. An increasing number of drugs tailored to groups of people who
share specific genetic characteristics are likely to reach the market by horizon 2 and 3.
Synthetic Biology
Synthetic biology is improving and providing breakthroughs in technologies that have
reached their natural limit through biotechnology and nanotechnology. Synthetic
biology is also providing a platform on which general scientific knowledge about how
human cells and genomes function and operate. Combining nanotechnology,
biotechnology and synthetic biology, scientists are advancing medicines through
metabolic engineering for more efficient large-scale screening methods, smart
proteins and programmed cells for the molecular classification of tumours,
personalised medicines and accelerating the development of vaccines through rapid
classification of viruses. Bio and nanosensors will also play a very important role in
the collection of quantitative dynamic data in minimally invasive ways.
Brain/Machine Interaction
Human-machine interfaces cover any technology that allows humans to interact with
technological devices. Examples include techniques that make use of neural impulses
in the brain through brain imaging technologies that are used to control a device
through non-invasive interfaces. Various enabling technologies play a role in these
techniques such as sensors, biomaterials and microcontrollers.
A subset of brain-machine interface technologies related to ageing healthcare is brain
stimulation and regulation. Potential benefits of brain stimulation are for severe cases
of disease or illness where alternative, less invasive techniques have failed. These
may include severe cases of epilepsy or depression and age-related diseases such as
Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease.
8.6
Food Security
8.6.1 Overview
Population growth and dietary changes are the main drivers in global food security
considerations. With an increasing global population, the world is facing an
approximate 70 per cent increase in food demand out to 2050 from current levels. The
global challenge will be to increase food production through raising agricultural
productivity efficiently, whilst decreasing the environmental footprint of these
activities. Since food production is heavily reliant on water and land resources, the
265
Battelle Memorial Institute and Foresight Nanotech Institute (2007) Productive Nanosystems, A
Technology Roadmap
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effects of climate change and use of natural resources play an important role in food
security. Australia doesn't currently have a problem feeding its own population but
has a humanitarian interest in food security and stability for its neighbours and other
developing countries.266
Demand for agricultural products will rise from an increase in both population and
income. The latter will increase demand for meat, fish and dairy products, which
require large inputs of natural resources including water and animal feed. An increase
in intensive agriculture and rising demand for many goods will exacerbate some of
today’s environmental problems.
The Australian Government commissioned a report “Australia and Food Security in a
Changing World” that was delivered in October 2010. This report highlighted
Australia’s strengths in dealing with food security issues:

Australian agriculture has maintained its leading position by producing food on
the driest inhabited continent, on low quality soils and in the face of continual
climate variability.
 Australia has built strong links and capabilities in delivering technological
developments to developing countries in the region.
 Australia has a strong research and development (R&D) base and agricultural
R&D capability ranks among the best in the world.
 Australia has developed a strong capability in climate change research including
studies on impacts, adaptation and mitigation.
 Australia has expertise in human health and nutrition research.
From these strengths, several key areas were identified as important to Australia’s
food security:

A national approach to food (bringing together food related policy, regulatory
agencies and research organisations).
 Investing in R&D to reverse declining agricultural productivity growth (improved
water use, sustainable management of natural resources and accelerated advances
through new plant, livestock and fish breeding strategies).
 Building human capacity to meet the challenges and opportunities.
 Raising the importance and awareness of food in the public consciousness.
The Australian Government is also actively involved in promoting the benefits of
open trade and efficient markets, to expand opportunities for farmers in developing
countries to maximise returns on their output and improve their incomes. Concluding
the Doha Round of multilateral trade negotiations will reduce the distortions to global
agricultural trade, especially production and export subsidies in developed countries.
8.6.2 The Role of Enabling Technologies
The role of enabling technologies in addressing food security will be important in
ensuring sustainable food production for human and animal consumption, but also to
ensure there is a balance with field feedstock production for biomass and biofuel
production. Nanotechnology can help in a variety of ways including agrosensors
(nanoagriculture) to monitor the health of crops and farm animals and nanosensors for
monitoring spoilage bacteria and other indicators in the food industry. Biotechnology
266
CSIRO Food security explained: issues for Australia and our role in the global challenge, accessed
1/08/2011 www.csiro.au/science/Food-security-explained.html.
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and synthetic biology will provide a platform for the development of metabolites,
health products, genetically engineered preservatives, flavours and fragrances that are
typically difficult to grow. High-yield and disease-resistant plant feedstock are also
being developed using synthetic biology for a number of industries.
Food, Feed, and Beverages
Sustained high demand for food and water will drive agricultural biotechnologies. Of
particular interest are technologies that increase yield and tolerance to salinity and
drought in new plant varieties. Water shortages and health risks from underdeveloped
sanitary systems could also drive the development of industrial biotechnologies that
reduce water consumption or purify polluted water sources, particularly for
developing nations.
By horizons 2 and 3, approximately half of global food and feedstock production is
estimated to come from varieties developed using biotechnology. By horizon 2, it is
estimated that GM crops could account for more than 75 per cent of hectares planted,
particularly for soybeans and cotton crops. The developing nations of China, India
and Brazil are expected to drive this growth.
The characteristics of new GM crops that are expected to reach market by horizon 2
include herbicide tolerance and pest resistance for barley, sugar beet, peanuts, peas,
potato, rice, and safflower, amongst others. Research is also being conducted to
improve yield and resistance to drought, salinity and higher temperatures from global
warming. Further, research is being conducted on product quality. Breakthroughs in
these research areas could provide benefits to farmers, industrial processors,
consumers and entire nations (through better food security).
Enzymes are another area of research utilising enabling technologies. Enzymes are
used in the production of cheeses, breads and fermented beverages. Many enzymes
are already being produced using genetically engineered microorganisms to improve
production efficiencies.
Enzymes can also be used in animal feed to improve digestibility and nutrition. For
instance, up to 80 per cent of phosphorous in pig and poultry feed is bound by a
molecule known as phytate. Phytases increases the nutritional value of the feed by
releasing phosphate and by optimising the animal’s phosphorous intake. This intern
reduces the release of phosphorous into the environment and therefore reduces water
pollution.
Plant diagnostics is another important area where enabling technologies are being
utilised. Early diagnostics has the ability to identify a plant disease and treat it before
it causes significant crop and/or economic damage.
Marker Assisted Selection (MAS) and GM may also be used for insects as they are an
important part of plant industries. Research is being conducted into the use of insects
and pest-resistant varieties of honeybees and diagnostic tests for pathogens that attack
honeybee hives. Improved honeybee varieties are unlikely to be commercially
available before horizon 2, but new diagnostic tests could eventuate in the short term.
Animals
Biotechnology has three main applications in the livestock, poultry and aquaculture
industries: breeding, propagation and health (diagnostic and therapeutic). Techniques
used in these industries reflect and leverage the work done in the plant sectors.
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Diagnostics can be used to identify inherited diseases in order to remove afflicted
animals from breeding.
The largest commercial application of biotechnology in animal breeding is the use of
MAS to improve the accuracy and speed of conventional breeding programs. MAS is
often used by pig breeders to screen for genetic problems and remove defective stock.
Cloning (somatic nuclear transfer) utilises advanced biotechnology and consists of
removing the nucleus of an egg cell and replacing it with the nucleus (and DNA) of a
donor individual of the same species. The cloned animal is identical to the animal that
donated the DNA. This technique is too expensive to be widely used for basic animal
breeding.
Horizon 2 and 3 will see MAS and other biotechnology techniques that do not involve
GM likely to be widely used to improve commercial livestock species such as pigs,
cattle, dairy cows, and sheep as knowledge in the area increases and costs decrease.
8.7
Biosecurity
8.7.1 Overview
Biosecurity aims to protect communities against the misuse of pathogens, or their
toxins in indirect or direct acts against humans, livestock or crops. Government,
industry, and society have a requirement to develop robust biosecurity systems that
ensure public safety. Biological materials pose unique security challenges that require
non-conventional security mechanisms. The amount of biological material required to
undertake an attack is much less than that of chemicals.
While Australia’s geography provides many natural advantages in keeping threats at
bay, biosecurity needs to remain a priority area of consideration due to Australia’s
plant and forestry industries being worth AUD $25 billion annually, 60,000 km of
coastline and Australia’s large area of pristine natural environments.267
The National Centre for Biosecurity highlights the importance of containing the
spread of unwanted pests and diseases. This is vital for the success of some of
Australia’s important industries, including horse racing, meat and livestock, and for
protecting and preserving Australia’s native wildlife. Key areas of research focus in
Australia are developing and refining diagnostic tests, improving understanding of
disease ecology, and advancing surveillance methods for disease tracking.
8.7.2 The Role of Enabling Technologies
Enabling technologies could potentially play a large role in addressing the major
challenges faced in establishing and enforcing biosecurity in Australia. These include:
 Infectious disease outbreaks.
 Biological weapons and bioterrorism.
 Dual use dilemmas in the life sciences.
 Laboratory safety and security.
 The impacts of disease on economies, societies and governments.
The growing fields of biotechnology and synthetic biology will bring rise to a
biosecurity industry. Various applications for emerging technologies exist including
267
Biosecurity Australia website, accessed 1/08/2011, available at: www.biosecurity.com.au/.
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gold core oligonucleotides for bio-defence from the nanotechnology sector,
biotechnology tools and platforms (e.g. DNA sequencing technology) for applications
in biometric security devices and the ability to uniquely tag genetic codes for
biosecurity using synthetic biology technology and concepts.
RNAi and transgenic technologies could be applied to treat significant biosecurity
risks that have an impact on trade and health. In one example, the generation of
transgenic cattle that are resistant to the Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) virus would
eliminate one of Australia’s biggest biosecurity threats and transform the red meat
industry. FMD is exotic to Australia and represents the single biggest risk to our meat
export market, with a single outbreak estimated to cost a potential $8-16 billion in lost
trade and tourism.268
Policy approaches with respect to biosecurity require international discussions to
develop a common approach to securing dangerous pathogens and to mitigate the
potential for misuse of research results, both intentional and unintentional. This will
need international collaboration on biosurveillance, outbreak detection, development
and distribution of medical countermeasures, and response to an incident. This will
ultimately require the participation of all stakeholders including individual scientists,
businesses, national governments, and international institutions to develop a
comprehensive biosecurity strategy.
8.8
Global Competitiveness and Productivity of Australian
Industry
8.8.1 Overview
The Australian manufacturing sector is a significant contributor to the Australian
economy. It produces around 12 per cent of GDP and almost 40 per cent of exports. It
also conducts 31 per cent of business R&D nationally.269 Furthermore, there is
evidence that manufacturing has a multiplier effect on the rest of the economy by
driving jobs, investments and sales in other sectors. The US Bureau of Labor
Statistics has, for example, calculated that each dollar worth of manufactured goods
creates another USD $1.43 of economic contribution towards other sectors, the
highest multiplier of any sector. Manufacturing is also the primary source of
technological innovation in the Australian business sector. Much of Australia’s higher
value added activity is as a direct result of R&D activities of manufacturing firms.
However, the Australian manufacturing industry is facing increasing competition
from regional trading partners and the associated rise of low cost, low wage
manufacturing economies. To meet these challenges, Australian industry needs to find
new ways of doing business that are more efficient. Further to increasing productivity
and reducing costs, Australian businesses will also need to increase their energy and
water efficiency and reduce emissions, restrictions that do not necessarily apply to
regional trading partners.
According to the Australian Business Foundation, key changes that are redefining
manufacturing are:
268
CSIRO Submission 12/434 Enabling Technologies Roadmap (2012).
Future Manufacturing Industry Innovation Council (2010) Submission to the Victorian Government
Inquiry into Manufacturing in Victoria.
269
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

The disappearing boundary between manufacturing and services.
New niches to be exploited through outsourcing and in wider and more distributed
global value chains.
 New understandings of innovation based on smart problem-solving for customers
which are accessible to all companies, not just those who can afford formal R&D
and frontier technologies.
 Manufacturing is no longer characterised by standardised mass production.
 Intangible assets, like know-how and know-who, are increasingly important to the
sustained success of manufacturing firms.
The Australian Business Foundation also identifies key forces of change likely to
shape the future environment for manufacturers:
 More intensified competition.
 More complex and varied opportunities for doing business globally.
 Shift from mass production to customisation and personalisation.
 Growing importance of the low carbon economy.
 Changing skills needs and imperatives.
 Technology that transforms entire business models.
 Collaboration and connectivity that accelerates innovation and competitiveness.
Australia’s global competitiveness will also be affected by the changes in workforce
demographics of developing neighbours. In 2030, 90 per cent of the global workforce
will be in developing countries, with China and India alone accounting for 40 per cent
of the total. Most employment in developed countries will be in the service sector,
while employment in developing countries will shift out of agriculture and into
manufacturing and services.
A Deloitte report on manufacturing competitiveness identified a number of areas of
importance for the Australian manufacturing industry. At the top of the list was access
to talent which is a change from traditional factors such as labour, materials and
energy. Australia needs to have a steady supply of highly skilled workers including
scientists, researchers and engineers, as they have been identified as the main drivers
of manufacturing competitiveness across a range of nations.
The educational qualifications of the global workforce will also continue to change
and improve. Investment in education is expected to result in a much larger share of
the global working-age population in 2030 with some form of tertiary education. In
the OECD area, the share of the population with a tertiary degree is expected to
increase from 26 per cent in 2005 to 36 per cent in 2025. In developing countries, the
share of the population with a tertiary education is projected to grow from just over
five per cent to over 10 per cent in China, and to increase from 6.5 per cent to nearly
14 per cent in both Brazil and India in 2030.
Global workforce demographic shifts and increasing education levels may create
opportunities for the enabling technologies sector. Given the high knowledge intensity
of biotechnologies, an increase in the global population with a tertiary education will
increase the size of the labour pool available for biotechnology R&D. In developing
countries, a larger and better-educated workforce could support greater investment in
industrial and primary production biotechnology.
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8.8.2 The Role of Enabling Technologies
The future of manufacturing in Australia is reliant on high technology, high skill, high
wage, value added manufacturing where Australia has world class capabilities and
technology. This requires an increasing focus on advanced processes, materials,
enabling technologies and education. Examples of such manufacturing industries
where this technology is relied upon and Australia has world class capabilities are:
scientific and medical instruments, pharmaceuticals, specialist engineering
concentrating on design for manufacture, aerospace and defence component and
system design, automotive component design and manufacture, smart machine and
assembly tools, advanced metals manufacturing and specialist food and beverage
production.
In Australia, advances in technology have long been acknowledged as a key
contributor to the health and survival of manufacturing and will continue to do so,
particularly with reference to enabling technologies. Access to and take-up of
enabling technologies, either through investment in R&D or through technology
transfer strategies are central to the ability of manufacturers to survive in an
increasingly competitive world.
However, for Australian manufacturers looking to compete on the global stage,
technology alone is no longer enough as a key differentiator. The Australian Business
Foundation highlights there is evidence that manufacturing is evolving to meet the
challenges and realities of a knowledge-based economy. Two key features include;
the increasing interdependence between manufacturing and other sectors of the
economy, particularly services; and how the knowledge economy operates in practice
as a potential driver of new sources of business innovation and productivity for
manufacturing.
This leads to more integrated manufacturing businesses where they operate as
inventors, innovators, global supply chain managers and service providers.
Manufacturers are now engaged not only in production, but in research, design and
service provision. In essence, manufacturing is the collection of activities that is
required to develop, produce and deliver goods and services to customers.
In order to compete internationally and increase the value add of their manufactured
products, Australian manufacturers are moving away from “build to print” contracts
to complete design to build capabilities. With respect to enabling technologies, this
will mean building the knowledge and capability within a firm to integrate
nanotechnologies and biotechnologies into new and existing products. This includes
R&D (including tapping into research organisations), engineering, prototyping, design
and testing services during the production process, and services like maintenance,
training and information/help desks. Service firms will also play a role in this
development as they look to add value to physical products acquired from
manufacturers by bundling them with other services. This results in more competitive
capabilities in the enterprises involved, adding to the resilience of Australian
manufacturing.
As stated above, new technologies will drive new manufacturing products and
process. As a result, new services (such as engineering solutions) will need to be
developed to capitalise on new opportunities. Services such as design and engineering
of nanotechnology and biotechnology will require extensive in-house knowledge (or
effective outsourcing options) of enabling technologies. With many enabling
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technologies still at the research or laboratory stage of development, this capability
will take time to develop and integrate into commercial offerings.
Nanotechnology
Nanotechnologies are providing the first applications of enabling technologies into the
manufacturing industry. These include nanoscale electronic memory applications,
nanoparticles for high performance coatings, nanowhiskers for moisture wicking and
stain resistant apparel, “Smart” nanomaterials which feature intrinsic properties and
added properties and nanowires in circuitry such as micro/nanofluidic systems.
Carbon nanotubes is an area of significant investment as their applications are wide
ranging, including use in polymer additives, carbon composite fillers, electrodes,
transistors, sporting goods, super capacitors, efficient electricity and heat conductors.
Further advanced applications include advanced optical lithography tools for the
production of nanoscale features on microelectronic devices.
Production of Chemicals
Investment in biotechnology and synthetic biology also has potential to drive
Australian competitiveness. Applications include direct processing uses such as
processing aids in food manufacturing to eliminate and treat industrial waste byproducts such as the conversion of industry waste in carbon dioxide or water and the
use of bio-surfactants. The role of enabling technologies in protecting the
environment and the added costs of pricing carbon will become more important in the
future as developing countries begin to tackle with these problems.
Biotechnology can be used to produce a large number of biofuels and bulk and
specialty chemicals, including enzymes, solvents, amino acids, organic acids,
vitamins, antibiotics, and biopolymers.
In chemical production, biotechnological processes can substitute one or more
traditional chemical steps. This can have several advantages including more specific
reactions, less demanding production conditions such as lower temperature and
pressure, and milder pH conditions, lower energy inputs, lower waste output and
reduced environmental impacts. Despite these advantages, the uptake of
biotechnology in chemical production is limited, due to the high costs of enzymes or
bioreactors and the costs of building or modifying production facilities to use
biotechnology.270
As research continues and the use of enabling technology increases, biotechnology
will become more cost competitive through improved production methods and the use
of genetic modification and metabolic pathway engineering to increase the output
efficiency of microorganisms. Fermentation systems that permit more than one strain
of a microorganism in a bioreactor could dramatically reduce production costs. This
approach is already established for ethanol production.
Horizons 2 and 3 may see new biocatalysts and advanced fermentation processes that
are faster, less expensive and more versatile than current practises.
270
Battelle Memorial Institute and Foresight Nanotech Institute (2007) Productive Nanosystems, A
Technology Roadmap.
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Production of Biomaterials
Biobased chemicals have the potential to replace traditional materials such as wood
and cotton in the production of packaging and containers, fabrics and consumer
durables (e.g. electronics casings and car components). Bioplastics, manufactured
from biopolymers are already commercially available.
Detergents, Textiles and Pulp and Paper
There are many different enzymes currently on the market. Many are produced using
modern biotechnologies, with current research aimed at expanding the range of useful
enzymes. Biotechnology can create new enzymes through the use of a number of
techniques including genetic manipulation, protein engineering, directed evolution,
and by advanced selection techniques.
In horizons 2 and 3, metabolic pathway engineering could radically change the types
of products that can be produced by living cells, particularly in closed industrial
system applications. The rate of development of competing technologies will impact
the use of enabling technologies in this sector. For examples, some countries are
investing heavily in solar, wind, wave, geothermal or nuclear power instead of
biorefineries. The relative prices and availability of petroleum versus biomass
feedstocks will also drive the industry as this influences the commercial viability of
biotechnological production processes compared to processes based on petroleum.
The most probable industrial uses of biotechnology in horizon 3 is to produce
enzymes for a range of industrial processes; one-step synthesis of high-value
chemicals and plastics using microorganisms in bioreactors; and the production of
high energy-density biofuels from sugar cane and cellulosic crops. Large-scale
commercial production of bulk chemicals or biofuels from microorganisms or algae is
difficult to estimate due to technical difficulties in scaling up production to
commercial levels.
8.9
National Defence and Security
8.9.1 Overview
Australia’s national defence and security is growing increasingly complex. Australia’s
defence forces are not only tasked with defending the nation, but also in engaging
with Australia’s neighbours, countering terrorism and protecting borders. Defence
also needs to ensure that Australia is ready for the challenges presented by broader
environmental, social, economic changes and catastrophic events. In this respect,
Australia must remain technologically and scientifically alert, agile and robust so as to
anticipate and respond to new and emerging threats. Remaining at the leading edge of
enabling technologies is vital for the nation’s security. It will make Australia more
effective in preparation, smarter in preventative measures, stronger in response and
more rapid in recovery.271
National security is increasingly affected by technological change in the broader
community. Breakthroughs or advances from other sectors or fields of research can be
applied to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of national security capabilities.
271
Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet (2009) The National Security Science and Innovation
Strategy.
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New technologies transform how societies communicate, travel, store valuable
information and manage finances. Terrorists or criminals can create or target
vulnerabilities by exploiting ubiquitous or emerging technologies.
The National Security Science and Innovation Strategy highlighted the relationship
between national security issues and various topics discussed in this paper.272
Emerging concerns highlighted in this discussion related to the ET Futures report
included:



Impact of climate change,
Impact of demographic change, and
Impact of energy and resource security.
8.9.2 The Role of Enabling Technologies
Defence and national security is a combination of food, energy, biosecurity and other
forms of security, not just military and defence operations. Therefore, many of the
applications of enabling technologies discussed in this section are applicable to
defence and security.
Defence and national security often are at the forefront and drive technology
development. In this respect, defence applications will play an important role in the
development of a wide range of enabling technology applications. However, with
nanotechnologies and biotechnology, defence is actually adapting research from other
sectors, particularly medical biotechnology.
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)
A factor to consider is Australia’s defence relationship with other NATO countries. In
particular, Australia has very close ties with the US military. Of significance to
enabling technologies is Australia’s collaboration with US Military research
operations. With organisations such as the DARPA receiving considerable funding for
research into military applications of enabling technologies, there may be
opportunities for Australian researchers to collaborate with organisations in the US
and other countries. This will ensure Australia remains at the forefront of research in
this area.
DARPA are currently investing heavily in enabling technology development for
defence and military applications. These include:


Nanoelectronics, optoelectronics and magnets for:
 Network centric warfare
 Information warfare
 Uninhabited combat vehicles
 Automation/robotics for reduced manning
 Effective training through virtual reality
 Digital signal processing
Nanomaterials for:
 High performance, affordable materials
 Multifunction, adaptive (smart) materials
272
Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet (2009) The National Security Science and Innovation
Strategy.
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
 Reduced maintenance
Bionanotechnology for warfighter protection through:
 Chemical/biological agent detection/destruction
 Human performance/health monitor/prophylaxis
Human Enhancement and Protection
In a similar manner to general society, enabling technologies have the ability to
enhance many aspects of defence and military personnel. Opportunities for
enhancement include improved pharmaceuticals, advances in combat medical care,
advanced sensors, new lighter and stronger materials, amongst others. As with
applications in general society, military applications of emerging technologies could
also raise ethical concerns.
An example of pharmaceutical applications for warfighters includes advances in
biotechnology to manipulate circadian rhythms to enhance pilot alertness on long
missions. Further research is also being conducted to increase soldier awareness out to
several days without adverse effects, whilst also allowing for rapid recovery. Other
applications involve the development of foods that can provide vaccines and nutrients
to soldiers more efficiently.
Below is a general list of areas where enabling technologies may enhance future
warfighters:







Extreme “hardened” endurance.
Enhanced performance.
Artificial life, immune systems and intelligences.
Self-healing and adaptive materials for protection and performance enhancement.
Biochip / integrated implants.
Extended sensory capacities.
Integration of humans and autonomous intelligences including brain-computer
interface for equipment and weapons control.
 Nano-enhanced tissue for trauma applications and human enhancement.
Future advances in biotechnology will also improve the protection of both the general
public and military personnel from deadly biological agents. The creation of broadspectrum vaccines may provide the ability to vaccinate a country's entire population
against endemic diseases and biological weapons.
Sensors
A key area of importance for defence and security applications of enabling
technologies is sensor technology. Examples currently under development include
nanosensors and the use of synthetically produced biosensors that are many times
more sensitive than existing sensors for the detection of a wide range of chemical and
biological threats. Much of the sensor development for military use is coming from
commercial applications such as medical devices. Another area of development is the
"lab on a chip" that incorporates rapid biological agent detection.
Enabling technologies have the ability to enhance the following characteristics of
existing sensors:


Low-power requirements.
Compact and lightweight.
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape


Ability to be incorporated into distributed networks.
Sensors utilising polymer electronics, carbon and silicon nanotubes and
biomimetics (electronic noses).
It is important to note that the new generation of sensors will need to integrate several
fields of enabling technologies. The biotechnology, materials and micromachining
techniques required to assemble an integrated biosensor are complex and require
further development.
Materials and Equipment
In the short term, the application of enabling technologies in defence and security
products and services will be via enhancing existing products with new materials such
as nanomaterials and nanobiomaterials.
Applications of nanomaterials in defence applications include:

Enhancements to stealth, human protection, intelligence, energy systems,
hazardous environments.
 Memory materials and fabrics.
 Living organisms as biofoundries and nanomechanical systems.
 Biologically aware materials.
 Explosives and propulsion systems.
 Aerogels, batteries and fuel cells.
 Nano-optical materials in photonics and organic LEDs.
 Nanostructures in electrochemical systems.
 Enhanced nanostructured energetic materials.
Applications for biotechnology based materials include:



Camouflage – biomaterials with stealth and non-illuminating characteristics.
Biomarkers in combat identification.
Lightweight and self-healing armour produced from bio-derived and inspired
material.
 Bio-derived and inspired materials for increased mobility of humans, vehicles and
robots.
 Performance enhancements through neuro interaction with prosthetics.
 Nanobiotechnology for use in radiation resistant electronics.
 Synthetically produced enzymes to fight infectious agents and neutralise toxic
chemicals.
Naturally, these new materials will find their way into military and security
equipment, promising advances over current products and altering the way military
operations are conducted. Soldiers are currently burdened with carrying large amounts
of equipment and weight, restricting movement and increasing fatigue. The
applications of enabling technologies has the potential to reduce weight in existing
components such as reduced weight of mobile power generation through biological
and synthetic photovoltaics and reducing the power requirements of existing products
leading to fewer batteries to be carried and disposed of in the battlefield. Future
applications involve improvements to the exoskeleton to allow soldiers to carry heavy
loads without fatigue or physical injury and incorporating power generation.
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Robotics
Short term targets for robots in military applications are to reduce the risk of injury or
death in dangerous missions. A current example is bomb detection, particularly in
current conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan where improvised explosive devices have
been used in unprecedented levels.
Research into long term applications of robots includes “smart” autonomous robots
that incorporate distributed sensors and intelligence. Longer term research includes
neurobiologically inspired robots that have control systems based on principles of the
nervous system. Research is also being conducted into the mechanics and biology of
flight to be used in the design of software for flight control systems.
Other applications of robots incorporating biomechanically inspired technologies
include:




Enhanced vehicles to be used to conquer complex terrain better and more
efficiently,
Better underwater performance,
Robotic climbers, and
The use of robots in confined spaces and squeezing through cracks.
8.10 Summary
Table 17 provides a summary of how the enabling technologies discussed in this
paper can contribute to addressing a number of Australia’s major national challenges.
It is important to note that when assessing the potential benefits that enabling
technologies can bring to addressing national challenges, that they are not considered
in isolation. In many cases, breakthroughs in one area will bring about flow on effects
and complimentary benefits to other areas. For example, developments in the biofuels
have the potential to address energy security issues, however, will also benefit climate
change issues, improve resource efficiency and reduce energy costs, which
subsequently increases competitiveness.
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Table 17: Contribution of Enabling Technologies to National Challenges Matrix
NATIONAL
NANOTECHNOLOGY
BIOTECHNOLOGY
CHALLENGE
Mining
 Oil and gas sector could use
 GM plants and microbes for
nanosensors to assist in the high
bioremediation of polluted mine sites
throughput detection of uncharted oil
and wastewater
and gas reserves
 Biomining will improve environmental
and production performance of mines
 Bioleaching in copper and gold mining
 Biohydrometallurgy to recover metals
from sulphide ores
 Microbial enhanced oil recovery
(MEOR) to increase oil recoverably
Climate Change




The potential for nanodevices and
engineered nanomaterials to convert
carbon emissions to molecules that can
be re-used e.g. artificial photosynthesis
Metal oxides for slurry additives
Geoengineering technologies may be
able to re-habituate specific
environmental ecologies that may be
threatened
Nanomaterials used in advanced
filtering and other applications for water
purification and recycling





Energy


Nanomaterials may provide lighter,
stronger and increased thermal and
electrically efficient materials
Nanomaterials: more efficient power
plants and enable new energy
production systems based on
renewable sources
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
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

GM technology will help agricultural
crops better adapt to the effects of
climate change
Biofuels can supplement and replace
carbon intensive fossil fuels for some
applications
Bioremediation to reduce, eliminate,
contain, or transform benign products
contaminants present in soils,
sediments, water, or air
Biosensors to detect or measure
chemical compounds
Pre-treatment for chemicals or fuels to
reduce harmful compounds
Biofuels provide clean and renewable
fuel sources
Organic waste conversion to fuels e.g.
biogas
Integrated energy storage systems
Harnessing biological systems for
energy production
SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY

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
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
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
Harvest Coal bed methane through
synthetic microbial digestion
Advances in biotechnology to increase
leaching rates, increased tolerance and
to improve oil recovery
Biosensors to monitor soil for nutrient
quality or environmental degradation
Integrated systems to manage soil
nutrients and water for crops and
animal farms based on the outputs of
the biosensors e.g. precision
agriculture
Biofuels: cellulosic ethanol, superfermenting organisms
Bioalcohols: butanol
Photosynthetic algae: synthetic /
modified algae
Bio-hydrogen: extracting hydrogen
from water
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NATIONAL
CHALLENGE
NANOTECHNOLOGY










Resource
Efficiency


Nanomaterials and nanostructures
providing cleaner coal, fuel cells,
portable solar cells, portable energy
cells, integrated solar cells, efficient
lighting
Nano-based metal/organometallics to
improve catalytic converters
Nanomaterials being used to improve
storage capacity in batteries
Nanoparticles in fuel cells for enhanced
catalytic properties
Ceramic nanopowders to improve
fabrication of electrode membranes in
fuel cells
Increasing energy efficiency:
lightweight materials in transport, solidstate lighting, self-optimising motor
systems, smart roofs with reflectivity
control and energy-efficient separation
membranes
Hydrogen production, storage and use
Nanostructured catalysts to improve
the efficiency of reforming and
gasification in producing hydrogen
Carbon nanotubes: aid in accelerating
chemical reactions and catalysis and
improving the efficiency of chemical
processes
Nanostructured organic photovoltaics
to reduce costs of PV systems
Aerogels for the use of smart glazing
New engineered nanomaterials can
substitute or replace rare elements or
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
BIOTECHNOLOGY

Self-powered devices and systems
SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY



GM plants will reduce resource input
requirements in agriculture


Making electric current from synthetic
living cells
Development of crops tailored to
bioenergy production with increased oil
content or maize and new processes
that improve the conversion of biomass
to fuel
Bio-mass: more efficient feedstocks
Bio-remediation: microorganisms to
141
NATIONAL
CHALLENGE
NANOTECHNOLOGY

diminishing raw materials
Nanofabrication can provide new
designs that minimise waste material
but also promote re-use and efficient
lifecycle management
BIOTECHNOLOGY

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
Health and
Wellbeing

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

Nanomaterials in tissue engineering,
medical imaging, tissue/organ
regeneration, smart implants, biomaterials, medical diagnostics, drug
delivery, nano-arrays
Nanodevices for cancer therapy: silicacoated micelles, ceramic nanoparticles,
dendrimers and cross linked liposomes
Nanodevices that releases drugs in
response to over-expression of
undesirable proteins
Nanosensors: treatment of periodontitis
and other oral and systemic diseases,
DNA sequencing and nucleic acid
detection, genomic testing, proteomics,
pharmacogenomics, pathogen and
virus detection, blood screening,
respiratory monitoring, glucose testing
and in vivo radiation monitoring
Nanodentistry: periodontology,
implantology, prosthetic dentistry,
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
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Bioenzymes will improve efficiency of
industrial processes
Biofuel technologies convert waste byproducts into fuel
Catalysts for conversion of natural gas
Development of faster-growing trees
for timber, pulp, paper, and biofuel
production
Replication of tropical growing
efficiencies in more arid conditions
GM plants which more efficiently use
water and nutrients
Identifying drug targets, improve drug
delivery, tailor prescribing practices to
the genetic characteristics of patients
Genomic medicine will provide
improved patient outcomes, and
personally targeted therapeutics
Regenerative medicine using stem cell
technology will address previously
incurable diseases
RNA based therapeutics will expand
the number of ‘druggable’ targets,
improving patient outcomes
Tools and platforms will enhance our
understanding of disease biology
Improved diagnostic tools will leverage
discoveries in epigenetics, genomics,
bioinformatics and microarray
technology to better characterise
disease
Therapeutics: small molecule drug
development
SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY


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


accumulate and/or degrade substances
Environmentally friendly
microorganisms to minimise water use
and replace chemical fertilisers
Medicines: metabolic engineering,
efficient, large-scale screening
methods
Vaccines: accelerate the development
of vaccines
Personalised Medicine: molecular
classification of tumours, smart
proteins and programmed cells
Biosensors: collection of quantitative
dynamic data in minimally invasive
ways
Disease biomarkers for those working
on biomedical research
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NATIONAL
CHALLENGE
NANOTECHNOLOGY
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
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
orthodontics and endodontics, tooth
regeneration, dental root implants, soft
and hard tissue reconstruction using
nanofibrous biomimetic membranes
Nanoparticles to improve sunscreens
and cosmetics
Silicon Quantum dots for in-vitro
diagnostics, gene expression assay,
medical imaging
Carbon Nanotubes for scanning probe
tip, atomic force microscope and drug
delivery
Nanoengineered structures for
prosthetics
Nanocomposites in integrated
diagnostic devices
Supramagnetic nanoparticles for use in
MRI detection
Identification of biomarkers will help
predict disease susceptibility, enable
point-of-care diagnosis and the
development of personalised medicine
Genetic nanomedicine for gene
detection and gene delivery
Nanotechnology-based regenerative
medicine: cell sheet engineering
Oncology nanomedicine for early
diagnosis and early treatment in cancer
Pharmacological nanomedicine for
drug delivery and drug design
Cardiovascular nanomedicine for heart
and vascular diseases
Neurological nanomedicine for
© Commonwealth of Australia 2012
BIOTECHNOLOGY
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


SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY
Diagnostics: in vitro diagnostic tests
and molecular genetic based tests
Pharmacogenetics
Medical devices: modified autologous
cells to avoid the need for ongoing
injections
New foods with preventative health
properties
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NATIONAL
CHALLENGE
Food Security
NANOTECHNOLOGY


neuroscience research
Nanoagricultural: agrosensors to
monitoring the health of crops and farm
animals
Nanosensors for monitoring spoilage
bacteria and other indicators in the
food industry
BIOTECHNOLOGY








National Security


Global
Competitiveness


Gold core oligonucleotides for biodefence
Nanosensors for military and security
use for detection of biological and
chemical threats

Nanoscale electronic memory
applications
Nanoparticles for performance coatings

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
High-yield, drought, disease, salinity
and high temperature resistance for
plant feedstocks
Herbicide tolerance and pest
resistance for barley, sugar beet,
peanuts, peas, potato, rice, and
safflower
Enzymes to improve digestibility and
nutrition in animal feed
Plant diagnostics for early diagnostics
to identify a plant disease and treat it
before it causes significant crop and/or
economic damage
Livestock, poultry and aquaculture
industries: breeding, propagation and
health
Marker assisted selection to improve
the accuracy and speed of
conventional animal breeding programs
Somatic nuclear transfer (cloning)
Stepwise increase in yields of key food
crops
Biotechnology tools and platforms (e.g.
DNA sequencing technology) may
have applications in biometric security
devices
Biological electronic interfaces and
implantable RFID tags for monitoring
the movement of specific threats
Production of biofuels and co-products:
bulk and specialty chemicals, enzymes,
solvents, amino acids, organic acids,
SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY


Metabolites; health products;
genetically engineered preservatives,
flavours and fragrances
Insecticides and pest-resistant varieties
of honeybees and diagnostic tests for
pathogens that attack honeybee hives

Biosecurity: unique tagging of genetic
codes

Conversion of industry waste in carbon
dioxide or water
Bio-surfactants

144
NATIONAL
CHALLENGE
NANOTECHNOLOGY





Nanowhiskers for moisture wicking and
stain resistant apparel
Carbon nanotubes for polymer
additives, carbon composite fillers,
electrodes, transistors, sporting goods,
super capacitors, efficient electricity
and heat conductors
Advanced optical lithography tools
(produce nanoscale features on
microelectronic devices)
“Smart” nanomaterials which feature
intrinsic properties and added
properties
Nanowires in circuitry such as
micro/nanofluidic systems
BIOTECHNOLOGY




vitamins, antibiotics, and biopolymers
Chemical production: substitute one or
more traditional chemical steps; lower
temperature and pressure, and milder
pH conditions, lower energy inputs,
lower waste output and reduced
environmental impacts
New biocatalysts and advanced
fermentation processes that are faster,
less expensive and more versatile
Bio-based chemicals for the production
of packaging and containers, fabrics
and consumer durables
Enzymes for a range of industrial
processes; one-step synthesis of highvalue chemicals and plastics using
microorganisms in bioreactors; and the
production of high energy-density
biofuels from sugar cane and cellulosic
crops
SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY

Processing aids in food manufacturing
Source: AIC, 2011
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
9. INFLUENCES AFFECTING THE ADOPTION OF
ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES
The next decade promises the emergence of revolutionary enabling technologies that
have the potential to provide new opportunities, deliver new applications, influence
existing manufacturing practices, develop new products and services, and solve
complex societal challenges. However, to obtain significant value from enabling
technologies they must first be successfully translated, commercialised and adopted.
Therefore, a number of factors have been identified that influence the successful
adoption and utilisation of enabling technologies. Figure 20 outlines an integrated
model of enabling technologies and the influences determining successful adoption
and utilisation.
Figure 20: Integrated Enabling Technologies Model
Source: AIC, 2011
The following sections highlight major influences affecting the adoption and
development of enabling technologies.
9.1
Market-pull Commercialisation
Commercialisation of technologies and scientific discoveries traditionally has
involved technology-push approaches, generally through research organisations that
have developed the particular technology. Numerous case examples have shown that
traditional technology transfer has been a difficult pathway in commercialising new
technologies. New concepts in commercialisation that have emerged in recent years
involve demand driven “market-pull” strategies. Although the concept of market-pull
commercialisation is relatively new, it offers comparatively higher opportunities for
successful commercialisation of new technologies because it takes into consideration
the existing needs of the market represented by commercial organisations involved in
product and services development. Successful commercialisation of enabling
technologies therefore will be dependent on fulfilling the needs of the market in
developing new products and services or addressing existing problems and
challenges.
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Enabling technologies are currently in an emerging stage of development and
integration into other industries. At this point of an emerging sectors life cycle,
particularly in a high technology industry, market forces are traditionally a mixture of
market pull and technology push. In the early stages, research and technologies
breakthroughs necessitate a technology push approach and other industries are
educated and informed as to the benefits to their market segments. It is not until this
critical mass of education and knowledge is reached that the industry will be market
pull driven.
9.2
Absorptive Capacity
The absorptive capacity of an organisation is defined as its ability to recognise,
exploit and integrate external knowledge for its own use.273 A number of factors exist
that can effect an organisation’s absorptive capacity and adoption. A firm’s prior
related knowledge enables it to recognise valuable new information, assimilate it and
apply it to commercial ends. Therefore, a firm with a better developed knowledge
base in a particular field will have a higher absorptive capacity for new
opportunities.274 Absorptive capacity allows firms to pursue projects with a higher
probability of success due to their superior knowledge.275
A key aspect of absorptive capacity is the ability to recognise an opportunity arising
from new knowledge about technology, a customer’s needs, or market trends. A firm
will be better placed to uptake a new enabling technology when it possesses the
absorptive capacity to recognise the potential value created from the exploitation of
the new technology in servicing the needs of customers and the market.
Effective management of technology acquisition involves:276






Understanding technology needs in relation to strategic plans. Technology
roadmapping, competitive analysis and complementary internal capabilities are
important considerations.
Identifying external technology through mechanisms such as searches, networks,
brokers and alliances.
Evaluation and assessment of technology leads. Strong internal expertise is
needed to evaluate value and internal resources needed to exploit it. Cross
functional team and objective assessment criteria are used.
Valuation of the technology which considers costs to further develop and
implement the technology.
Developing a technology agreement such as through licensing, collaboration or an
alliance framework.
Metrics for measuring success.
273
Cohen, W. M. & Levinthal, D. A. (1990) Absorptive Capacity: a New Perspective on Learning and
Innovation. Administrative Science Quarterly, 35(1 (Special Issue: Technology, Organisations, and
Innovation)), 128-152.
274
Hine, D. & Kapeleris, J. (2006) Innovation and entrepreneurship in biotechnology, an international
perspective: Concepts, theories and cases. Edward Elgar Publishers UK.
275
Deeds, D.L. (2001) The role of R&D intensity, technical development and absorptive capacity in
creating entrepreneurial wealth in high technology start-ups, Journal of Engineering and Technology
Management, Vol. 18, pp 29-47.
276
Slowinski, G. et al (2000) Acquiring External Technology, Research Technology Management,
September-October, Vol. 43, No. 5, pp 29-36.
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
As discussed above, absorptive capacity is related to the lifecycle stage of relevant
industries. It is a function of technology push and market pull forces as well as the
overall general knowledge of emerging technologies such as enabling technologies
discussed in this report.
9.3
Government Support for Research and Enabling
Technologies
Government supports and funds research activities as part of its commitment to the
development of the highest-quality research that leads to the discovery of new ideas
and the advancement of human knowledge through education and knowledge transfer.
This takes the form of direct funding for research, financial assistance towards
facilities and equipment that researchers need to be internationally competitive,
support for the training and skills development of the next generation of researchers
and incentives for talented researchers to collaborate with other researchers nationally
and internationally. Therefore, underlying skills in enabling sciences such as physics,
chemistry and mathematics are vital for the development of enabling technologies and
their applications.
Research is supported at various stages, with varying levels of commitment between
discovery and application-based research, subject to the preferences underpinning the
prevailing policy settings of the day. In this respect, much of the pure research on the
enabling technologies discussed in this paper is undertaken at universities and within
centres of excellence with Australian Research Council funding, whilst more
application based research is conducted at the CSIRO.
The emergence of enabling technologies has been influenced by singular discoveries
in a range of fields that when aggregated or integrated offer unique platform
capabilities that provide a further and more efficient means to create greater leaps in
performance, productivity and knowledge outcomes. The enormous impact and future
potential for research, science, innovation and commerce is immense, drawing
government attention and focus.
9.4
Convergence of Technologies
Convergence of disciplines, particularly in nanotechnology, biotechnology and
synthetic biology, has occurred over time as interdisciplinarity increases through
enhanced interrelatedness and interdependence of prior disciplines. The integration
and convergence of prior disciplines creates new disciplines that develop new
technological trajectories. Convergence leads to technologies that are applicable
across a wide range of applications, and subsequently become the enabling
technologies that support the emergence of new disciplines. The need to master the
complexity of combining a number of disciplines, which at the same time are
evolving, is the challenge at the heart of interdisciplinarity.
The National Science Foundation commented on the importance of convergence and
integration of the emerging scientific disciplines.277 As the sciences and arts emerged
half a millennium ago, it was common for scientists to be masters of several fields
simultaneously. Today, however, specialisation means that no one can master more
277
Roco, M. & Bainbridge, W., (2002) Converging Technologies for Improving Human Performance
Nanotechnology, Biotechnology, Information Technology and Cognitive Science, National Science
Foundation.
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Enabling Technology Futures: A Survey of the Australian Technology Landscape
than a tiny fragment of human creativity. The sciences have reached a point at which
they must unify if they are to continue to advance. This will drive a comprehensive
understanding of the structure and behaviour of matter from the nanoscale up to the
most complex systems, the human brain.
The most exciting opportunities for the convergence of nanotechnology,
biotechnology and synthetic biology are the interactions and convergence with the
cognitive sciences. Cognitive science is the study of the mind as an information
processor and therefore has a direct correlation with synthetic biology, particularly
with respect to convergence with the ICT industry. As synthetic biology develops the
ability to produce sufficiently complex synthetic systems, its interactions with
psychology, artificial intelligence, philosophy, neuroscience, linguistics,
anthropology, sociology, and education will produce new convergent technologies
and their applications in a range of areas such as education, medical prostheses,
defence force applications for the ‘soldier of the future’ and raise challenges for the
international sporting industry, as well as the more problematic area of human
enhancement in general.
The confluence of technologies that now, through the development of
nanotechnology, biotechnology and synthetic biology and convergence with the
cognitive sciences, offers the promise of improving human lives in many ways.
According to the National Science Foundation, examples of opportunities includes
improving work efficiency and learning, enhancing individual sensory and cognitive
capabilities, revolutionary changes in healthcare, improving both individual and group
creativity, highly effective communication techniques including brain-to-brain
interaction, perfecting human-machine interfaces including neuromorphic
engineering, sustainable and “intelligent” environments including neuro-ergonomics,
enhancing human capabilities for defence purposes, reaching sustainable development
using enabling technologies and cognitive science tools, and ameliorating the physical
and cognitive decline that is common to the ageing mind.
Developments in systems approaches, mathematics, biological processes and
computation (including general ICT) allow for the understanding of the natural world
and cognition in terms of complex, hierarchical systems. This convergence of
technologies means that through a co-evolutionary process, progress in one area
accelerates progress in many others. This is particularly prevalent in new technologies
for studying brain function using nano and synthetic biology techniques. Through this
process, the existing boundaries between industry sectors become increasingly
blurred.
The convergence of emerging technologies with the cognitive sciences and the current
evolution of technical achievement mean that improvement of human performance
through integration of technologies is becoming increasingly possible.
In broad terms, the integration of cognitive sciences into emerging technologies will
have long term implications to human activity such as working, learning, ageing,
group interaction, and human evolution. The natural progressions of any of these
fields could result in a turning point in the evolution of human society.
However, it must also be noted that convergence of enabling technologies also brings
with it significant issues, such as, regulatory changes, funding requirements and skills
development, amongst others. These areas are discussed in detail throughout this
report.
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9.5
Collaboration between Research and Industry Sectors
As discussed above, the enabling technologies sector is currently in a technology push
phase of research and commercialisation, which means that the collaboration between
research and industry sectors is of utmost importance.
Australia is ranked poorly among OECD countries when measuring the level of
collaboration between industry and the research sector. Collaboration between
industry and academia is an important driver of national innovation capacity,
enhancing knowledge exchanges, and increasing the impact of research outcomes in
global markets. Establishing networks, not only nationally but also internationally and
across industry sectors, is one of the key drivers of innovation. Additionally,
collaboration amongst different scientific disciplines encourages the exchange of
knowledge and ideas that create new opportunities at the intersections of disciplines
facilitating convergence and the development of new enabling technologies.
Open innovation is the process by which organisations use both internal and external
knowledge to drive and accelerate their internal innovation strategy in order to fulfil
existing market needs or to access new market opportunities. Collaboration plays a
key role in open innovation involving the engagement of external organisations to cocreate future opportunities, technologies and products that address existing or new
markets. By encouraging and facilitating an open innovation paradigm, organisations
may have the inclination to seek opportunities outside their organisation and be more
receptive to adopting and utilising enabling technologies.
If the Australian society is to take advantage of enabling technologies, public
participation during the innovation process is required. As stated by Block & Keller
(2011) “The whole society needs shared narratives about technological possibilities,
and this requires including the public in the conversation from an early stage.”278
9.6
Incremental, Radical and Transformational Innovation
Innovation can be described as incremental, radical or transformational.279 However,
innovation can also be continuous or discontinuous, affecting existing processes in an
organisation.280 An extension of this thinking describes innovation as incremental
improvements punctuated by discontinuous change (radical innovation).281 More
recently the concept of disruptive innovation has been described which can have a
transformational effect on existing organisations, markets and systems.282
While product life cycles in enabling technologies vary in time, they are
comparatively long, taking an average of eight to twelve years from idea to
commercialisation. Innovation speed, a fundamental competitive factor in many
industries, is a significant challenge to enabling technology based companies. Based
Block, F., & Keller, M.R. (eds) (2011). State of Innovation: The US Government’s Role in
Technology Development. Paradigm Publishers, CO, USA.
279
Cooper, R.G. (2001) Winning at New Products: Accelerating the Process from Idea to Launch,
Third Edition, Perseus Publishing, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
280
Tushman, M. & Anderson, P. (1986) Technological Discontinuities and Organizational
Environments, Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol.31, Issue 3, pp.439-465.
281
Tushman, M.L. & O’Reilly, C.A. (1997) Winning Through Innovation: A Practical Guide to
Leading Organizational Change and Renewal, Harvard Business School Press, Boston.
282
Christensen, C.M. & Overdorf, M. (2000) Meeting the Challenge of Disruptive Change, Harvard
Business Review, March, Vol.78, Issue2, p.66.
278
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on the R&D cycle, innovation speed refers to the length of time it takes for a product
to move from idea to commercialisation.283 Limitations exist in the ability to reduce
R&D cycles in enabling technologies, and this is one of the key barriers to successful
commercialisation and adoption of enabling technologies. The main area in this
respect is scalability the ability to replicate findings in the laboratory on larger
commercial scales.
The successful development of new enabling and converging technologies and their
applications will predominantly emerge from incremental innovation, however,
radical and transformational innovation will also have an impact on new
developments.
9.7
Product Innovation versus Market Innovation
Product innovation is generally the focus of breakthrough technology innovations.
Firms have brought new products to market by successfully commercialising
breakthrough technologies. However, it is not always the product innovation that
creates significant success for a firm. An emerging area of practice is business model
innovation which allows firms to enter into new market spaces. Business model
innovation allows firms to leverage their existing resources, better understand their
markets and to extend their domination into new or adjacent markets. A new business
model may require a new value network where interaction occurs with customers,
suppliers and competitors.
The practical application and commercialisation of enabling technologies to solve
existing problems and to develop new products and services, will generally be more
successful if market innovation is a key focus. Market innovation rather than product
innovation will facilitate better understanding of customer and stakeholder needs
thereby facilitating successful adoption and uptake of enabling technologies by the
market.
9.8
Knowledge of Enabling Technologies
The importance of knowledge and education of enabling technologies has been
discussed at length in this report. Organisations that are well informed of the
advantages provided by enabling technologies are more likely to adopt new
technologies. Commercially driven organisations are willing to consider adopting
enabling technologies if they address a need in the marketplace and are commercially
feasible for the organisation. Organisations that had previous negative experiences or
had negative views are less likely to adopt enabling technologies. At times the shortterm commercial focus of organisations is in conflict with longer-term technology
investments.
An important factor influencing uptake of enabling technologies is public attitudes.
These influence markets, industry confidence, regulatory responses and public policy.
Given the novelty and disruptive potential of enabling technologies, they are often
subject to controversy. Controversy may be focussed on potential risks to health or
environment, specific ethical issues raised, e.g. when technologies challenge
understandings of what it is to be human (see Section 9.11.1), or broader societal
issues about the role of technology in society, societal impacts and technology
283
Kessler E.H. & Chakrabarti A.K.(1996). "Innovation speed: A conceptual model of context,
antecedents, and outcomes." The Academy of Management Review 21(4), 1143-1191.
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governance.284 There is international recognition of the importance of promoting
public awareness of enabling technologies and of democratic engagement with the
wider community in decision making about technology development.285 Under the
National Enabling Technologies Strategy, the government supports public awareness
and education about enabling technologies, including a dedicated website (TechNyou)
and a curriculum-linked education resource. NETS has also recently developed a
community engagement framework (STEP – Science & Technology Engagement
Pathways) that seeks to bring members of the wider community into dialogue with
those making decisions about enabling technology development, management and
future directions.
9.9
Regulatory Environment
Any new technologies bring potential risks along with potential benefits. The
regulatory environment is an important factor in managing these risks. Decisions
about the regulatory environment take into consideration various factors including the
impact on innovation, public perception about apparent risk/benefit balance and
capability to enforce any regulation.
The topic of regulations in an emerging industry sector always incites opinions from
many different perspectives. Regulatory requirements and frameworks are often
perceived as either a commercial risk that can sometimes be a hindrance to innovation
or present an opportunity that defines the operating guidelines for business to exploit
market opportunities. This is particularly relevant for enabling technologies.
Regulation and the predictability of the regulatory environment can influence the
direction of enabling technology research, the type of research that is commercially
viable, and the costs of research and development. It establishes the guidelines for the
safety, efficacy and effectiveness of nanotechnology and biotechnology products.
Many enabling technologies are regulated to protect humans, animals, plants and the
environment. Research to establish environmental and consumer safety is required to
meet regulations for biotherapeutics, animal therapeutics, GM plant varieties, and GM
microorganisms intended for open release. Products that are perceived as less harmful
to humans or the environment are less strictly regulated. These include in vitro
diagnostics, non-GM biotech crops, and GM microorganisms for use in a closed
bioreactor. As a result, these products can typically be brought to market relatively
quickly compared to products that are highly regulated.
9.9.1 Effects of Regulation on Innovation
High regulatory costs can provide a competitive advantage to large firms compared to
small or medium sized firms. This is especially the case in agriculture, where the costs
of bringing some products to market exceed the financial capacity of small firms.
High regulatory costs can also impede some types of innovation, especially when they
have relatively small markets. Many environmental applications of industrial
284
Directorate-General for Research, European Commission (2007). Taking European Knowledge
Society Seriously. Report of the Expert Group on Science and Governance to the Science, Economy
and Society Directorate.
285
House of Lords (Select Committee on Science and Technology) (2000). Science and Society. United
Kingdom Parliament, London. Available at:
http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199900/ldselect/ldsctech/38/3802.htm.
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biotechnology, such as bioremediation, have small markets because the
microorganisms need to be adapted to local temperature, humidity, and soil
conditions.
Regulation that effectively prohibits the use of a technology can have more damaging
effects on innovation. The de facto moratorium on growing GM plant varieties in
Europe is an example of the influence of regulation to alter long-term market
structures and future business opportunities.
A similar decline in agricultural biotechnology research occurred after several
Australian states implemented a moratorium on GM plantings. An Australian Federal
Government review concluded that the “moratoria were having negative effects on the
agricultural and research sectors”.286 For health applications of biotechnology,
technical developments and high research costs create a different set of regulatory
challenges, namely the need to balance risks and benefits with the costs of developing
health treatments. Experience in the long-established field of drug regulation shows
that the balance of risks and benefits can change abruptly as science develops and
experience is gained, requiring adjustments to health regulations.
The type of regulatory requirements that could be enforced in the future for
regenerative medicine based on stem cell therapies and tissue engineering could also
require adjustments to health regulations. One perspective is that these technologies
should be regulated as pharmaceuticals, requiring the submission of full clinical trial
data, while an alternative perspective is that they should be more lightly regulated as
medical devices. An argument in favour of lighter regulation is that regenerative
medicine based on the patient’s own tissues or cells would have a very low rate of
adverse immune system reactions, thereby reducing risks.
9.9.2 Regulatory Barriers
It is not unusual for a clear regulatory environment to lag technology and this is seen
in many industries. However, the lack of a clear regulatory environment results in a
cautious approach to new technologies in the early stages of an emerging sector. All
exporters of products face established regulatory environments overseas, and will
need to adapt to meet those regulations in order to sell their products or be excluded
from potentially very large markets such as those found in the US and Europe.
An example is that GM agricultural crops that are approved as safe in the US are
facing significant regulatory hurdles in gaining access to the European Union. The
development and commercialisation of GM crops illustrate a complex challenge
facing trade diplomacy - the challenge of regulatory regionalism created by social and
economic regulatory barriers.
9.10 Intellectual Property Rights
Biotechnology R&D is performed in the public sector (government research institutes
and higher education institutes), by the business sector, and by the private non-profit
sector. As such, organisational drivers to discover, invent, protect and commercialise
from each of these sectors will vary. Businesses which commercialise products and
services in biotechnology, nanotechnology and synthetic biology arenas are capital
286
Statutory Review of the Gene Technology Act 2000 and the Gene Technology Agreement, 2006.
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intensive by nature and generally have comparatively long and costly lead times to
product development.
In relation to patenting in the nanotechnology sector, a correlation between the
technical breadth of an individual patent (and thereby the size of the marketplace to
which the patent is relevant), and the intensity of the investment the applicant is
willing to make in its protection has been observed. That is, the more commercially
viable nanotechnology patent portfolios are technically broader in nature.287
Technically, the fields found to have the most commercialisation potential are more
chemical in nature, i.e. inks, paints, coatings and cosmetics. On the other hand, nonchemical nanotechnologies and nanotechnical applications, despite heavy patent
activity and associated R&D activity, would appear to be more immature, and can
perhaps be seen as the reason for the reduction in activity by corporate entities in the
last few years.
In addition to organisation drivers, emerging technology areas are often highly
complex as they can play on multiple technologies and disciplines, e.g.
nanotechnology and synthetic biology. Adding further to the technology complexity is
that a market may not yet exist. One ramification of such a complex and costly
environment is the need for protecting technology investment by the use of patents.
The primary purpose of patents is to provide incentives for innovation. Intellectual
property rights (IPRs) are attractive to business because they create the prospect of
recouping their investment by charging others monopoly prices for access to their
intellectual capital and preventing others (‘free riders’) from taking away their
competitive advantage. Governments grant IPRs for limited periods to enable
recovery of investment costs and encourage innovation. In return, the government,
and the public are ‘taught’ how to work the invention and enable further innovation in
many related as well as unrelated applications. The knowledge taught in the patent
literature is globally disclosed, vast and is for all to learn from and access at the
appropriate time.
With regards to human gene patenting, ethical-based objections have been raised
questioning its eligibility for patent protection. Recently in the US, a Federal Appeals
Court has re-considered the validity of gene-based patents to patentee Myriad
Genetics for diagnostic breast cancer tests, and in doing so, stirring public opinion on
the ethical rights of patenting “isolated DNA” in the process. 288 Perhaps striking a
balance, the recent decision found that “isolated DNA” was patentable, however
diagnostic methods “comparing” or “analysing” DNA sequences, e.g. BRCA1 and
BRCA2 genes were not.
The same gene patent debate continues in Australia, with the Federal Government
previously considering whether to ban the patenting of biological materials as a result
of a proposed amendment to the Australian Patents Act 1990 (Cth) (Patent
Amendment – Human Genes and Biological Materials – Bill 2010). In September
2011, the proposed Bill was rejected by the Senate Legal and Constitutional Affairs
Legislation Committee. There is also corresponding action before the Australian
287
White, E., (September 2011) Nanotechnology IP Landscaping Analysis, prepared for the
Department of Innovation, Industry, Science & Research, Cth of Australia, Thomson Reuters IP
Consulting.
288
Association for Molecular Pathology et al v US Patent and Trademark Office et al 702 F.Supp.2d
181 (S.D.N.Y.2010).
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Federal Court with a decision expected before the end of 2012.289 Aside from the
result of the federal action, there is a current trend amongst researchers not to patent
human genes and this is expected to continue into the future.
Further to human gene patenting discussed above, broader areas of ethical debate
exist that include patenting of non-human genes, patentability of biological materials
and other forms of “life”.290
9.10.1
Regulation and Legislative Environments
Various factors influence the development and adoption of enabling technologies.
Government regulation has long added to the required product development pathway.
This is most visible with products that are directed to animal health, and more so to
human health. In recognition of the overall regulatory delays (e.g. patent, industrial
regulations, health regulation, a number of jurisdictions, including Australia and the
US, offer incentives by way of expedited patent examination to assist with the lengthy
process. In the US, expedited examination via the “patent prosecution highway” can
now be requested without incurring extra official fees and ‘green technology’
inventions are considered to be suitable for expedited examination and automatically
qualify.
Changes in patenting legislation are routinely made in Australia to ensure that the
patent system strikes the right balance between protecting the patent owner and the
public interest. For example, in 2006, the “Springboarding for Pharmaceuticals”
provisions opened up exploitation of pharmaceuticals patents for the purposes of
gaining regulatory approval (globally). In addition, the recently enacted Intellectual
Property Laws Amendment (Raising the Bar) Act 2012 seeks to raise patentability
standards and exempt research and experimental activities from patent infringement.
The very complex nature of the emerging technologies has given rise to its own
burdens. The multi-disciplinary nature of nanotechnology and biotechnology requires
patent expertise to be drawn from several different fields when
partnering/collaborating, patenting, assigning and licensing out new technologies. For
example, a recent study by the U.S Department of Agriculture291 highlighted two
problems in the patenting of synthetic biology research and products. Firstly, the
creation of overly broad patents may foster monopolies, hamper collaboration and
stifle innovation by other researchers; and, conversely, the creation of unduly narrow
patents may impede subsequent applications because of the complexity of licensing
arrangements required to deal with multiple patent owners. To address some of this
complexity, alternatives to conventional patenting arrangements are being utilised, for
example the sharing of information in ‘patent pools’ by the pharmaceutical industry.
289
Cancer Voices Australia & Anor v Myriad Genetics Inc & Ors (Federal Court, NSD643/2010).
Parens, E., et al (2009) Ethical Issues in Synthetic Biology, Woodrow Wilson International Centre
for Scholars.
291
Rejeski, D. (2011) Synthetic Biology A Trip Around the Neighbourhood, U.S Department of
Agriculture.
290
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9.10.2
Commercialisation
‘Patent thickets’ have been identified as a specific barrier to commercialisation of
enabling technologies.292 They are described as a dense web of overlapping IPRs that
organisations must ‘hack’ their way through in order to commercialise new
technology.293 Thickets are a consequence of multiple upstream (core technology)
patents. As an example, a number of isolated genetic materials covered by a series of
patents of related technical nature (core technology) may be required in developing
further inventions such as diagnostic tests or pharmaceutical products from which
they depend (downstream applications and products).294 Recently, to address patent
thickets, commercial entities (for example, http://www.intellectualventures.com) now
license grouped technologically-based patent portfolios to provide invention rights to
users. This serves to offer users a competitive advantage by leveraging from preformed patent rights, ensuring freedom to operate in the technology space and thereby
reducing exposure to infringement actions or blocking access to the core technology.
However, in an alternative view, the creation and use of “thickets” or other patenting
strategies provide a legal right in which many Australian researchers rely upon to
‘level the playing field’ globally and provide the requisite protection and business
diligence to attract investment for commercialisation purposes.
Many in the field advocate openness and minimal patenting, while others indicate that
in some cases, having a strong IP regime that you can control is the best way to
protect openness.
In relation to biotechnology in general, the sharing of genetic materials within the
research community is important for the progress of research and development.
Living organisms are difficult to describe and often impossible to duplicate from a
written patent description.295 Due to the increased commercialisation of research
results, the need for formalise arrangements which govern the transfer of biological or
other research materials from the owner or authorised licensee to a third party for
internal research purposes has grown significantly. At issue is striking a balance
between the need to appropriately articulate the scope of the work, the technical
description and the limitations of use to adequately protect intellectual property and
the drive to streamline the increasing volume of material transfer agreements
(MTA’s) required. The use of model or template MTAs to streamline this process has
led to discrepancies involving patent ownership and reach-through claims to
subsequent inventions.296
Related to patenting synthetic biology in particular, the following concerns have been
raised:297
292
Australian Government, Australian Law Reform Commission, Patents and Biotechnology Industry,
Barriers to Commercialisation, Accessed 02/09/2011, Available at:
http://www.alrc.gov.au/publications/18-patents-and-biotechnology-industry/barrierscommercialisation#_ftnref7.
293
Ibid.
294
C Shapiro, Navigating the Patent Thicket: Cross Licenses, Patent Pools, and Standard-Setting
(2001), 1 2.
295
Jong, S., Cypress R., (1998) Managing Genetic rMaterial to Protect Intellectual Property Rights,
Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology 95, 99.
296
Australian Government, Australian Law Reform Commission (2004) Genes and Ingenuity: Gene
patenting and human health, (Updated 2010).
297
European Academies Science Advisory Council (2011) Synthetic Biology: An Introduction.
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Patents: the world of patents is highly complex, and is particularly so for
disciplines which play on multiple technologies such as synthetic biology.
Moreover, there are a range of unresolved patent issues that are anticipated to
have a major impact in shaping the future of synthetic biology (e.g. patentability,
how prior art is applied and non-obviousness tests).
In relation to public sector research, unanswered questions as to how university
technology transfer offices (TTOs) are developed and how they operate.
Interaction and bundling of IP rights: design rights and how they apply to bundled
technologies have been raised as a potential issue
Database operations: information and materials arising from synthetic biology
research are currently being placed in registries or other databases. Concern
around how these databases might operate, for example in isolation or integrated
has been raised.
Copyright: copyright protects originality and expression. In synthetic biology,
there is an increasing decoupling of design from manufacturers and processes. The
concern is that this may increase the likelihood of copyright issues.
9.11 Ethical Considerations
The perceived potential of enabling technologies will drive, and has driven, the
development of a wide variety of products and technologies. These technological
advances are surrounded by ethical issues that need to be addressed as the industry
develops, including how we can or should change ourselves and our environments.
Use of these technologies also requires consideration from an overall society and
community perspective, for example the socio-economy in which technological
applications are developed and marketed, and the ensuing political implications.
9.11.1
Human Enhancement
There are potentially significant impacts that can arise from the use of enabling
technologies to enhance human life. Ethical debate is particularly important in relation
to the use of technology for human enhancement. The topic of bioethics and the
associated arguments surrounding human enhancement, particularly through genetic
means, is currently a hotly debated topic with a wide variety of opinions.298
Developments in genetic, genomic, and reproductive technologies have raised many
ethical and moral questions. Biotechnology breakthroughs in this area, like genetic
engineering, genetic screening, and cloning, are highly profit-driven, delivering
personalised services to those who can afford them. Human biotechnology techniques,
for instance, can screen fertilised human eggs for specific traits, such as gender, or the
propensity to develop certain diseases, allowing scientists to eliminate those that carry
undesirable traits. Genetic screening also allows insurance agencies the chance to
identify and discriminate against people predisposed toward certain illnesses. Cloning
and synthetic biology techniques could allow fast reproduction of these desirable
traits.
Concerns around human enhancement are usually summarised by considering the
question: “Once we set off on the project of human enhancement, where or why we
298
Buchanan, A. (2011), Beyond Humanity? The ethics of Biomedical Enhancement, Oxford
University Press.
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should stop?” These arguments logically extend to non-genomic applications of
human enhancement, including the human-machine interface.
Convergence of GRIN Technologies
Due to the increasing rate of innovation in the new enabling technologies, futurists are
predicting that we are approaching a point of convergence between genetics, robotics,
informatics and nanotechnology (GRIN technologies) so that machines will
increasingly be able to behave like living things and that living things will be
increasingly enhanced by machines. The use of GRIN technologies could result in;
the enhancement of human intellectual, physical and emotional capabilities; the
elimination of disease and suffering; and the dramatic extension of the lifespan.
The US Department of Commerce and National Science Foundation’s report,
‘Converging Technologies for Improving Human Performance’ predicts that over the
next 10 to 20 years: 299

Direct connections between the human brain and machines will transform work in
factories, control automobiles, ensure military superiority and enable new sports,
art forms and modes of interaction between people.
 Wearable sensors will enhance every person’s awareness of his or her health
condition, environment, chemical pollutants, potential hazards and information of
interest about local businesses, natural resources and the like.
 Machines and structures of all kinds, from homes to aircraft, will be constructed
of materials that have exactly the desired properties, including the ability to adapt
to changing situations, high energy efficiency and environmental friendliness.
 Formal education will be transformed by an understanding of the physical world
from the nanoscale through the cosmic scale.
GRIN technologies are also being explored by the US Defense Advanced Research
Projects Agency (DARPA), and can be expected to be taken up by Defense Forces
around the world as nations seek to ensure their own competitive advantage in terms
of national security.300 Examples include:

The Bioinspired Dynamic Robotics program, for example, mimicking the ability
of geckos to walk up vertical walls and hang from ceilings.
 The Mesoscopic Integrated Conformal Electronics program, for example printing
electronic circuits on the frames of eyeglasses and helmets, woven into clothes,
and attaching them to insects, and extending this to antennas, fuel cells, batteries
and solar cells.
 The Biological Input/Output Systems program, for example allowing plants,
microbes and small animals to serve as remote sentinels, reporting the presence of
chemical or biological particles.
 The Brain-Machine Interface program, for example, putting wireless modems into
people’s skulls.
These applications demonstrate the more radical approach to the possibilities opened
up by GRIN technologies and suggests the possibility of transitioning to an
299
Roco, M. & Bainbridge, W., (2002) Converging Technologies for Improving Human Performance
Nanotechnology, Biotechnology, Information Technology and Cognitive Science, National Science
Foundation.
300
Ostman, C. (2010) Visions of the Future: Impacts of Nanotechnology on National Defense, Institute
for Global Futures.
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engineered evolution of posthumans; beings whose basic capacities so radically
exceed those of present humans as to no longer be unambiguously human by our
current standards. This drive to transhumanism involves assumptions about:

The undeniable competitive advantages that the genetic, robotic information and
nanotechnologies convey for economic, medical, educational, military or artistic
reasons.
 That the GRIN technologies will enable the augmentation of cognition,
metabolism and allow us to become designers of our own evolution.
 That the GRIN technologies will allow us to eliminate pain, infirmity, mental
illness and biological cravings, and allow us to have better memory, better
immune systems, renewable organs, stronger skeletons, cells that do not age, more
muscle mass, increased ability to process vast amounts of information quickly, the
ability to speak many languages, an absence of genetic disease and more talent in
visual and performing arts.
Many of the technologies that are being identified as supporting human enhancement
are those initially developed to overcome genetically-based diseases and disabilities,
injury, diseases of ageing, and organ and joint degeneration. They can expect to be
explored initially in the areas of competitive sport and defense, but are likely to be
exploited by individuals seeking a competitive advantage in cognitive and physical
human performance. One example of this was the recommendation of a US National
Science Foundation report, as far back as 2002, calling for highest priority to be given
to the ‘Human Cognome Project’, a multidisciplinary effort to understand the
structure, functions, and potential enhancement of the human mind.301
9.11.2
Social Implications
Nanotechnologies may provide new solutions for developing countries that lack
access to basic services, such as safe water, reliable energy, health care, and
education. However, concerns are frequently raised that the benefits of
nanotechnology will not be evenly distributed, and that any benefits associated with
nanotechnology will only reach affluent nations. Furthermore, producers in
developing countries could be disadvantaged by the replacement of natural products
(including rubber, cotton, coffee and tea) by developments in nanotechnology. Their
substitution with industrial nano-products could negatively impact the economies of
developing countries. Other societal risks from nanotechnology include the possibility
of military applications (implants and other means for soldier enhancement) as well as
enhanced surveillance capabilities through nano-sensors. Ethical debates in this
sphere concentrate on the “need” and “want” of using machines to enhance human
performance.302
National Science Foundation (2002) ‘Converging Technologies for improving Human
Performance’, June 2002.
302
Cozzens, S. & Wetmore, J. (2010), Nanotechnolgoy and the Challenges of Equity, Equality and
Development Springer.
301
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10. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
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Bio-SG – Bio-synthetic gas
BtL – Biomass-to-liquids
CAGR – Compound Annual Growth Rate
CDR - Carbon Dioxide Removal
CMP – Chemical Mechanical Polishing
DNA - Deoxyribonucleic Acid
dsRNA – double stranded RNA
ESF – European Science Foundation
ET Futures – Enabling technology futures
GFC – Global Financial Crisis
GM – Genetically Modified
GMO – Genetically Modified Organisms
HESC - Human Embryonic Stem Cells
Horizon 1 – technologies currently available
Horizon 2 – technologies currently under development with expected
commercialisation within the next decade
Horizon 3 – Long term (greater than 20 years) technologies and applications
HPLC – High Performance Liquid Chromatography
HVO – Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil
IB – Industrial Biotechnology
ICT – Information and Communication Technology
IPR – Intellectual Property Rights
iPS – Induced Pluripotent Stem
IVF – in vitro Fertilisation
Manufactured nanomaterials – “nanomaterial intentionally produced for
commercial purposes to have specific properties or specific composition”.
miRNA – micro RNA
MRI – Magnetic Resonance Imaging
MTA – Material Transfer Agreements
Nanomaterial – “material with any external dimension in the nanoscale or having
internal structure or surface structure in the nanoscale”. This generic term is
inclusive of nano-object and nanostructured material.
Nano-object – “material with one, two or three external dimensions at the
nanoscale”. This is a generic term for all discrete nanoscale objects.
Nanoscale – “the size range from approximately 1 nm to 100 nm”. Properties that
are not extrapolations from a larger size will typically, but not exclusively, be
exhibited in this size range. For such properties the size limits are considered
approximate.
NETS – Australian National Enabling Technologies Strategy
OECD – Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
PGD – Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis
R&D – Research and Development
rDNA – Recombinant DNA
RNA – Ribonucleic Acid
RNAi – RNA Interference
SCID – Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Disease
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SCNT – Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer
siRNA - small interfering RNA
SME – Small and Medium Sized Enterprises
SRM - Solar Radiation Management
Technical Recession – two consecutive quarters of negative economic growth as
measured by a country's GDP
TTO – Technology Transfer Offices
US – United States of America
USD – US Dollars
UV – Ultraviolet
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11. REFERENCE LIST
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2007, Productive Nanosystems, A Technology Roadmap, Battelle Memorial
Institute and Foresight Nanotech Institute.
A NEST Pathfinder Initiative, (2007) Synthetic Biology.
ABB (2007) Energy Efficiency in the Power Grid.
Addressing National Challenges, 2008, CSIRO, available at:
http://www.csiro.au/files/files/piih.pdf.
Annual Australian Climate Statement 2009, Bureau of Meteorology, 2010,
available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/announcements/media_releases/climate/change/20100105
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