4.0. Glossary
This is the period of English history dominated by the settlement of Northern Europeans and
Scandinavians in the northern and eastern counties of England. The Anglo-Saxon age, or the
Early-Medieval period as it is often referred to, spans the period after the collapse of the
Roman economy in the early-fifth century until the Norman Conquest of 1066. The early part of the Anglo-Saxon period is sometimes known as the Dark Ages because of the lack of surviving historical documentation and historical understanding of this time.
“Archaeology is the study of the past, made from the surviving material consequences of human action in the past, this can include architecture, landscapes and standing monuments as well as artefacts and features recovered through excavation” (
Tarlow, S.
1999. p263).
The majority of iron production during the medieval period took place in small hand powered smelting heaths that produced lumps of iron called ‘blooms’. These blooms required further working by a blacksmith to remove impurities in the iron before it could be shaped into objects ready for use. Bloomeries are likely to have been common in the High Furness throughout the medieval period until the seventeenth century during which time they began to be superseded by the bloomsmithies in the sixteenth century and later by the blast furnaces that appeared in the early-eighteenth century.
A boon was a unit of service or labour, usually quantified in units know as ‘boon days’, that formed part of the obligations due to the Lord of the Manor from his tenants. Boons were often collected by the Lord of the Manor at busy times in the farming calendar such as around lambing and harvest time. Labour could also be collected through other non-farming activities such as wall buildings, beck scouring and tree felling.
The Bronze Age follows the Neolithic and is used to refer to the period between 2300 and
700BC. This period saw an intensification of farming and the appearance of permanent field systems and settlements. Single burials and cremations increase throughout this period, often culminating with the abandonment of chambered tombs and the appropriation of earlier
Neolithic monuments with individual burials and tombs. The decline of activity at large communal monuments during the second half of the Bronze Age may suggest that the social needs of the communities were being played out more discretely on a local level.
See Forest.
Coppice describes woodland that has been managed by regular cutting, often at an interval of
15 or 16 years in the Lake District, to produce a crop of straight poles from a single base or stool. A vast area of coppice woodland was maintained in the Lake District to supply the burgeoning local iron industry between the seventeenth and mid-nineteenth centuries. The amount of coppice wood in the Lake District declined sharply after the 1890s after the Lake
District blast furnaces closed or relocated to Scotland. After this time the majority of coppice

woods appear to have been singled up to produce timber trees, although some coppice was grown to supply the local bobbin mills.
See Forest.
The term ‘cup mark’ is a term used to describe the roughly circular concave indentations that are a common motif in prehistoric rock art through Britain. Cup marks are formed through the repeated chipping or ‘pecking’ of a particular area, probably using a piece of bone or antler.
A dale is the name for a parcel or unit of land within the common meadow. Individual dales were not separated by boundaries, instead the line separating two dales was established by two stakes or boulders positioned at the edge of the field between which a straight line could be traced by eye.
The ‘demesne’ or ‘demesne-lands’ was the parcel of land managed in-hand by the Lords for the Manor, either to supply their own table with food or to provide an income from the working of that land. Tenanted land was not considered as demesne land as it was in the customary possession of another, although it was held in return for a rent paid by the tenant to the Lord.
The term forest was applied to define the legal status of the vast areas of private hunting grounds belonging to the great feudal landowners. Forest land or ‘closed forest’, as it is sometimes known was managed by the Lord of the Manor, usually for hunting. Such land was often referred to as an area of ‘chase’. Tenants of the Lord of the Manor could often claim certain privileges on this land in exchange for rent. Common privileges including collecting underwoods and grazing animals. In some cases areas of forest were set aside for farming by tenants by the Lord of the Manor in an attempt to encourage settlement and increase the rental value of their estate. Such land is often referred to as ‘free or open forest’.
See Forest.
Herdwicks, like many other breeds of mountain sheep, have the ability to identify with the particular piece of fell on which they were weaned and will always return to their own heaf if they stray. Such sheep are said to be ‘heafed’ or ‘hefted’.
Intakes is a name used to describe the small irregular shaped fields that developed outside the ring-garth. Most intakes were established in areas of open forest through private agreement between Lord and tenant. Most intakes were set up to enclose areas of wood pasture or open grazing land, although others may have been cultivated at various periods in the past.
Sometimes large intakes on the valley sides are referred to as ‘closes’. Areas designated as
‘closes’ were usually areas of better fellside land managed as cattle pastures and were commonly located on the lower slopes.

This period of later prehistory follows the end of Bronze Age and includes the period between 800BC and the arrival of the Romans in the first century AD. The Iron Age saw a significant deterioration in climate, resulting in the abandonment of many settlements in the higher and wetter parts of Britain. In southern Britain Iron Age communities are characterised as living in farmsteads and villages overlooked by hillforts, a reflection of the uncertainties and social upheavals prior to the Roman invasion. There is very little evidence for occupation in the Lake District during the Iron Age.
The low earthen bank built to support the roots of a hedgerow, the kest often survives even when the hedgerow had long since disappeared.
Rather than being used to simply describe an area of land, the word landscape is used to acknowledge the visible modifications or alterations to that land that have resulted from human activity, these modifications make have taken place in the past, or may be ongoing, and may including dwelling, agriculture or industrial exploitation.
This is the period dating from the Norman Conquest of 1066 AD to approximately 1500 AD and is sometimes known as the Middle Ages. These centuries are distinguished by the development of towns, nucleated settlements and the reorganisation of the agrarian landscape.
This period also saw the establishment and development of social hierarchies and feudal systems of government on national and local levels.
After around 1750 the beginning of industrialisation began to rapidly transform the existing society and landscape. The shift of people into towns, the advent of the capitalist economy and an increasing thrust towards progress and improvement characterise this period. The term modern can be used to describe archaeology, architecture and material culture from the mid-eighteenth century to the present day.
The Neolithic period dates from roughly 4000 to 2300 BC. The advent of the Neolithic is associated with the appearance of settled population and the development of arable agriculture. Many large ceremonial monuments such as henges and causewayed enclosures were constructed during this period perhaps in response to the developing social complexity and diversity of prehistoric culture. The axe factory sites in Langdale were being exploited throughout the Neolithic period, although little is known regarding the pattern of settlement in the Lake District during this period.
See Forest.
An outgang refers to a lane or route leading from a farm or enclosed area to another source often set apart from the farm buildings, this is most often grazing land, woodland etc. The majority of outgangs provide communication between lowland farms and unenclosed upland common and are a common feature of Lake District farming landscapes. Outgangs are often associated with a gate or yeat that would have been opened for stock movement at certain times of the year.

While a view or landscape may be ‘picturesque’, the term Picturesque refers to a fashion or movement concerned with the philosophical appreciation of scenery and landscape during the mid to late-eighteenth century.
A pitstead is the Cumbrian name for a charcoal burning platform. The prefix pit may hint at an earlier tradition of manufacture of charcoal in pits suggesting that the term may pre-date the widespread manufacture of charcoal on platforms, although this is unproven.
Pollarding, often referred to as ‘lopping and topping’ in old documents refers to the tradition of removing the topmost boughs and branches of a tree, and allowing new growth to replace the old without causing the lower part of the tree to die. Pollards were maintained to providing stock with additional grazing from the leaves and young shoots on the cut boughs and also produced useful straight poles for use as fence posts and building timbers.
The period which succeeds the end of the medieval age, beginning at approximately 1500 AD and continues until the mid-eighteenth century. The post-medieval centuries are characterised by a centralisation of organised government and development of a national identity. Towns grew in size throughout this period and agricultural regimes were improved and intensified.
A term used to describe the period of British history before the introduction of written texts and historical documents at the start of the Roman period in the first century AD. In chronological terms British prehistory includes all periods of human activity from the end of the last Ice Age to the first century AD.
The ring-garth is a name applied to the boundary, usually a stone wall, that separates the enclosed valley bottom land from the open fellsides. The ring-garth was also an important political boundary between the tenanted lands and the manorial waste or forest land and the resources on either side of it were managed quite separately and were subject to different law.
The conquest of Britain took place in the first century AD and was to last until the early-fifth century AD. The effects of the social transformation brought about by Roman rule is often referred to as ‘romanisation’, and is best understood as the trickle down effect of ideas and material into native British life which started during the later Iron Age and continued during the first centuries AD.
A term used to refer to the native population and settlement traditions during the Roman occupation that retained and developed characteristics associated with the pre-conquest Iron
Age. Although many local farming communities adopted some Roman products, such as superior pottery and luxury items, their way of life continued much as it had done in the past.
Set apart from the Roman towns and outside the influence of the Roman provincial economy, ideas of a Romano-British culture is useful in understanding the north west of Britain in the first centuries AD.

The term shieling or scale both refer to an upland dwelling site that is occupied seasonally, often in association with the livestock being moved from the lowland farms onto the uplands for the summer months. Shieling were often one or two roomed structures, and are found throughout the upland valleys of the Lake District.
The term ‘smoot’ is used to describe various types of wall furniture. For example rabbit smoots are often found at the base of stone walls and were used to trap rabbits, water smoots allow water to pass through the bottom courses of a wall without damaging the upper layers and gate smoots refer to type of stone posts that hold in place horizontal wooden hurdles.
A ‘stinted’ pasture is an area of fell land on which the number of animals is controlled and monitored. Each tenant with rights on a particular common would possess a certain number of grazing units or ‘stints’ on that fell. Each grazing unit permitted him a set number of animals, this number was adjusted for the type of animal according to how much grazing land the animal would require.
Vaccaries were demesne stock farms that supported large herds of cattle belonging to the
Lord of the Manor. This type of farming was ideally suited to exploit the large areas of wooded valley side land within many of the Lake District valleys.
The term waste was applied to the area of moorland or fell over which a particular farm had common rights. Most waste was once former ‘forest’ land. The term was used to describe areas of upland common, rather than areas of common arable or meadow land.

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Harrison Coppice (Beta 166035), Angler Crag (Beta 166036), Colwith Wood Beta (Beta
166037), Water Park (Beta 166038).
Beta Analytic, Miami, Florida.
Unpublished document prepared for the Lake District National Park Authority.
Wells, C. 2000. ‘Recent revisions of late-Holocene Cumbria Vegitational history’.
Advisor to the Scottish Natural Heritage Upland and Peat Group.
Unpublished document prepared for the National Trust.