West Midlands Regional Research Framework for Archaeology, Seminar 6: Pearson
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Environmental archaeology in the West-Midlands in the
early post-medieval period.
Do we really need environmental archaeology?
Liz Pearson
Worcestershire Archaeological Service
Lpearson@worcestershire.gov.uk
Introduction
When environmental archaeology is suggested for an archaeological project of the postmedieval period, it often seems to invite the response “do we really need environmental
archaeology for this period?” Despite the case having been made for the validity of such
work previously, the feeling can still sometimes be that we have so much more
documentary, pictorial and map evidence for reconstruction. This point was debated in
1997 at a conference on science in archaeology. Grenville Astill (1998) commented that
he was puzzled at the way certain scientific techniques were used for one period and not
another, and that historic periods often miss out on the full range of scientific support.
One of the major benefits of working within the historic periods is that independent
information exists, which could be used to check, refine and validate existing scientific
methods. Scientific work provides one of many strands of evidence about past societies.
This paper covers the contribution that environmental archaeology can, or has made, to
the following themes and raises suggestions for future strategic management of this
resource:
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Rural landscape
Food, diet and agriculture
Craft and industry
Urban living conditions
Rural landscape
The early post-medieval rural landscape in the West Midlands was one undergoing
radical change, many of the changes having begun in the Middle Ages. Although large
tracts of landscape were cleared of woodland, and radically altered by an advanced
agricultural regime there was still an ongoing process of intake of upland marginal land,
drainage of marshland, reedswamp and bog, or alternatively construction of organised
watermeadows. There was still much regional variation in the landscape, and the debate
on the pattern of progression of these changes continues. Environmental evidence still
can have much to contribute whether it be small-scale and directly related to a settlement
site, or off-site environmental sequences which provide information on continuity and
discontinuity of settlement and land use over a long time scale.
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Both on-site and off-site locations can be a useful source of environmental data:
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Off-site natural deposits (peat bogs, silted up waterchannels, colluvial and alluvial
deposits)
On-site deposits (moats, fishponds, wells, ditches, buried soils)
The number of sites in the region where environmental evidence can be described as
specifically relating to the rural landscape is small. Where off-site deposits covering a
long time scale are concerned, on only one has detailed work been carried out on later
deposits dating to the post-medieval period. This site, a man-made lake at Kyre,
Worcestershire was described by Nathan Pitham during this seminar. Work on the part of
such sequences relating to the later historic period tends to be overlooked in favour of
that dating to the earlier, generally prehistoric period. Examples given in this paper will
be confined to on-site deposits, as the site at Kyre provides an example of work on
Map showing distribution of off-site and on-site environmental evidence relating specifically to landscape
deposits which although not directly associated with an archaeological site, provides
information of intrinsic archaeological value.
Lawn Farm
Stoke-on-Trent
Kings Pool
Stafford
Castle Bromwich
Hall Gardens
Cookley
Castle Moat
Leominster
Kyre Pool
Impney Farm,
Droitwich
Inkberrow
Evesham WRW
Birlingham
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Small rural farmsteads: evidence of enclosure and abandonment
Small scale on-site environmental evidence from local sites has been useful for providing
information on the history of the encroachment and enclosure of pockets of land, and
their subsequent development, adding to the “site narrative” and providing a snap-shot of
the landscape at a particular time and place.
Fishponds and moated sites are a common feature of the West Midlands landscape and
are one potentially rich source of environmental evidence on account of the variety of
organic material which can survive. Two examples are Lawn Farm, Stoke-on-Trent (Hurst
and Pearson 1998) Castle Moat, Leominster (Hurst 2002) where deposits ranging from
medieval to post-medieval date were sampled. In both cases, the environmental evidence
showed a change from a wooded environment, to a more open landscape with evidence
pointing to the importance of stock rearing, and at Lawn Farm, cultivation of flax and
possibly hemp. At Castle Moat, the only available map evidence suggested the site was
developed in open floodplain, assumed to be pastureland. Environmental evidence also
showed the abandonment of the site and a return to a more wooded landscape in the 16th
century.
Moated sites have been associated with the late intake of woodland (Evans 1975), and the
environmental evidence at the latter two sites in Staffordshire and Herefordshire certainly
suggest the development of moated sites with fishponds in wooded areas, and their
association with livestock or mixed farming. Unfortunately work of this nature has been
carried out on few sites in the West Midlands, probably because they are not generally
subject to intrusive development. The site at Lawn Farm was a community led project,
part of an urban regeneration scheme. Other community projects aimed at restoring moats
and ponds are becoming more common, and it is possible that this type of work could be
integrated as part an archaeological element to the overall scheme. Other areas of
potential for study of the environment associated with settlement sites are various wet,
waterlogged features (ditches, wells etc) and buried soils beneath earthworks.
Rise of market gardening
The early post-medieval period saw the rise of market gardening as an industry,
particularly in the Vale of Evesham. Little environmental evidence exists for this change,
although tentative evidence has resulted from the monitoring of work by Severn Trent on
the outskirts of Evesham. From a peaty deposit containing well preserved organic
remains (including leather) a combination of seed, pollen and insect remains indicated the
cultivation of cabbage/turnip (seeds and leaf miners insects of cabbage type species), and
beet (beet leaf weevil). Sainfoin (a relic of cultivation) and insect pests of cultivated plots
hint at this type of cultivation.
Landscape gardening
The prominent feature of large landscaped gardens during this period, has prompted the
use of environmental archaeology in the excavation and reconstruction of such sites.
However, there have been practical problems in recovery of information as organic
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remains do not readily survive in a (normally) well, drained, aerated and rotivated garden
soil. Nevertheless, pollen can survive well in some cases, and provide relevant results. An
example is at Castle Bromwich Hall Gardens (Chambers 1993), some pollen relevant to
the garden environment was identified from the Holly Walk garden, including, ash, holly,
ivy, walnut and privet. Geranium (which could include wild or cultivated species)
recorded in some samples. Soil micromorphology can also be useful in locating plant
beds, and providing information on past soil management. Organic deposits from
ornamental ponds, fishponds and moats would also be of value as described above.
Watermeadows and wetland restoration schemes: The development of watermeadows
was an important area of landscape change during this period, and recently we have been
seeing a return to the use of the land for wetland, but more as a wildlife conservation
initiative. There is potential for archaeological investigations to be carried out as part of
these Wetland Restoration schemes, including palaeoenvironmental work. Large areas of
the lower Severn and Avon valleys are expected to be affected by a scheme designed by
the Severn Avon Vales Wetland Partnership (SAVWP). The integration of archaeological
work as part of the scheme is presently being negotiated.
In summary, environmental archaeology could be used in answering a number of
questions relating to landscape and settlement, for example:
Small rural farmsteads:
 In what kind of environment did individual sites develop?
 If the settlement was abandoned, how did the immediate environment change? Did it
return to woodland, retain its farmed character (perhaps as part of a larger estate), or
was it used for some other purpose?
 Does the environmental evidence square up with the view of the landscape
archaeologist?
Industry:
 How has this affected the landscape? Can we see how salt and metalworking
industries, shipbuilding etc have affected woodland and chase areas?
Numerous reasons for continuous occupation or abandonment of settlement areas could
be put forward, many of which are social and political (such as the movement of people
away from small villages to industrial centres). Environmental factors which could be
considered are:
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Climatic deterioration
Soil deterioration and erosion of previously good farming land
Piecemeal loss of woodland and common land, leading to a decline in their intrinsic
value
Collaboration of environmental archaeologists, landscape historians and the
archaeological community as whole may help with answering some of the broader
landscape research questions.
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Food, diet and agriculture
Key features for the period are as follows:
The continuing importance of livestock agriculture (especially sheep rearing for wool
production). Areas such as the Cotswolds were established sheep rearing areas by this
time, and a recent project, The Cotswolds ANOB Sheep Wash project (Hurst et al 2002),
although primarily a field survey, has highlighted this. This is reflected in the animal
bone assemblages from some urban areas (for example, Evesham and Pershore in
Worcestershire) which presumably consume a significant quantity of mutton as a
secondary product. At Whitefriars, Coventry (Holmes 1981), there was some evidence for
improvements in the sheep breeds. Animal bone preservation, however, is rather poor
over much of the region and detail on animal husbandry is therefore patchy. Where
animal bone preservation is good continued recording of metrical data (age, size etc) is
needed to detect:
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Sheep rearing for wool production
New breeds
Crop variety: The variety of crops cultivated during the medieval period is still evident
during the early post-medieval period, with charred rye, oats and rivet wheat being
recorded alongside, and sometimes dominant to, bread wheat and barley. Reasons:
 This may well be an insurance strategy against crop failure, cultivating mixed (maslin
or mancorn) crops. Rye appears to be common on several sites at Lichfield,
presumably suited to the sandy acidic soils
 Rye and rivet wheat produce longer straw which is useful for thatch, fodder and
flooring. Straw from both crops was found in a deposit interpreted as straw in thatch
at Stone (Moffett and Smith 1996).
Exotic imports, new breeds of fruit etc: This period is most well known for the import of
exotics from the New World (for example the tomato and potato) and spices from the Far
East as well as the rise of cultivation of glasshouse fruits such as melons. However, finds
from archaeological sites in the West Midlands are rare and it is uncertain whether this
reflects their poor survival rate, or accessibility to new imports. Cucurbits from the
Dudley castle latrine (Moffett 1992) are one of the few new introductions characteristic
of the period recorded in the West Midlands. Continued sampling of similar wellpreserved deposits is needed to recover rare items such as these.
Craft and Industry
Tanning and hornworking: The sites where environmental evidence for these industries
has been recovered are mostly urban, for example at Evesham, Pershore, Droitwich,
Worcester and Birmingham city centre sites, illustrating the importance of the industry in
large and small urban centres alike. Not only can information on the size, breed, age and
sex of animals used in these industries can be gained from recording of horn core and
bone measurements, but sampling of tanning pits has provided well preserved plant and
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insect remains which show the materials used in the tanning process.
Flax and hemp retting, dyeing: The distribution of environmental evidence shows these
to be widespread activities in both urban and rural areas. Urban sites include Bridge St,
Hereford, The Butts, Worcester, Castle St, Evesham, Birmingham City centre sites. Rural
sites include both small farmsteads and larger estates.
Charcoal and timber use: Charcoal burning and the use of charcoal in industries such as
pottery and tile making, iron production and working has been little researched.
Identification of charcoal is needed for information on the types of timber used and
woodland management practices.
Urban living conditions
In contrast to many rural settlements, the survival of organic remains is often good in the
deep, well sealed deposits commonly encountered on urban sites. With continued
sampling there is the potential for adding detail on the urban environment, for example
on:
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Thatch
Fodder
Stabling
Flooring
Latrines
Overview (strategies for the future)
These comments could be applied to all periods:
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Environmental sampling is needed at all levels of archaeological intervention (from
watching briefs and evaluations to large-scale excavations). In the author’s
experience, some of the best environmental evidence has been recovered from the
smallest of watching briefs. Although there may be budget limitations on some of
these small projects, it is normally possible to carry out work at a basic assessment
level so that the potential of an area for such work is recognized for the future.
Sampling should not be confined merely to the larger projects, otherwise the aim of
assessing the archaeological resource will be incomplete, and potentially well
preserved or rare evidence could be overlooked.
Mapping areas of potential for environmental investigations (GIS and HER
applications). Where palaeoenvironmental evidence is concerned, some areas of
potential are either buried under deep alluvium (as are archaeological sites as a
whole) or are simply, as yet, unlocated (such as small mires and peat bogs). Much can
be done to locate or predict these areas of potential. For example, if extensive areas
classified as alluviated soils on British Geological Survey maps (now available in
digital form) were added as a GIS layer on all HER’s, this would serve to flag up
areas of potential for palaeoenvironmental evidence for the curatorial archaeologist.
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There could also be major benefits in the collaboration of archaeologists and Wildlife
Trusts in locating small local mires and peat bogs.
Pro-active field research (sampling off-site deposits)
Desk-based research and synthesis of data collected to date.
Bibliography
Astill, G, 1998 Medieval and later composing an agenda, in J Bayley, Science in
Archaeology: an agenda for the future, English Heritage
Baxter, I, 2002 Report on the animal bone, in J D Hurst, Castle Moat, Leominster:
excavation by Margaret Jones in 1962, Orphans Press of Leominster, Herefordshire
Chambers, F C, 1993 Pollen analysis, in CK Currie and M Lockock , Excavations at
Castle Bromwich Hall Gardens 1989-91, Post-medieval Archaeology, 27, 111-199
Evans, J G, 1975 The environment of early man in the British Isles, Paul Elek, London
Hurst, J D 2002 Castle Moat, Leominster: excavation by Margaret Jones in 1962,
Orphans Press of Leominster, Herefordshire
Hurst, J D and Pearson, E A 1998 Evaluation at Lawn Farm, Stoke-on-Trent,
Staffordshire, HWCC Archaeological Service internal report, 649
Hurst, J D, Robson-Glyde, S, and Lockett, N, 2002 Sheepwashes in the Cotswolds
AONB: map based survey and conditional assessment, Part 1 report and appendices 1-6,
Worcestershire County Archaeological Service Report, 940
Moffett, L, 1992 Fruits, vegetables, herbs and other plants from the garderobe, in P J
Pals, J Buurman and M van der Veen (eds) Festrschrift for Professor van Zeist, Review of
Palaeobotany and Palynology, 73, 271-286
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Holmes, J M, 1981 Report on the animal bones from the resonance chambers of the
Whitefriars Church, Coventry, in C Woodfield, Finds from the Free Grammar School at
the Whitefriars, Coventry c.1545-1557/8, Post-medieval archaeology, 15, 81-159