Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 1

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 2
This review attempts to synthesize a number of recent and past studies in the peer reviewed, governmental, and industrial literature concerning the actual and potential impacts of wind development on avian populations. The literature was also reviewed specifically to address issues and avian studies relating to North Carolina. An overview is also attempted of the major avian conservation initiatives in the Southern Blue Ridge.
These conservation initiatives present both obstacles and opportunities for wind development in the mountains of western North Carolina.
The avian life of the Southern Blue Ridge is one of the most diverse in the east with over 160 breeding species (Hunter et al, 1999). This review will address the composition of the avian community throughout the year, with an emphasis on species of conservation concern and their potential use of wind resource areas.
The Department of Technology and Dr. Dennis Scanlin at Appalachian State
University are to be commended for their efforts to assess avian impacts early in the planning and study period. While it is readily apparent that wind energy can and does have impacts on the avian and natural communities, those impacts may be mitigated or avoided with careful and thorough research of potential sites, as well as the experience of other wind development areas across the country.
Oversights, misinterpretations, and errors are the author’s alone. This review is a jumping off point for further research as we search for low impact, renewable sources of energy.

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 3
Scope of this Review………………………………………………………………….…...2
Contents….………………………………………………………………………..… ……3
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………. …….4
Avian Mortality Issues…………………….……………………………………..… ……..5
Overview of Current Research……………………………………………….……8
National Research Findings...……………………………………………..… …..10
Avifauna of Western North Carolina………………………………………………… .…16
Brief History of Ornithological Study in the Region……………………………. 17
Species of Special Concern……………………………………………………… 19
Temporal and Spatial Considerations…………………………………………………… 27
Winter Bird Use…………………………………………………………………. 27
Breeding Season………………………………………………………………….28
Migration Seasons……………………………………………………………….. 29
Nocturnal Species……………………………………………………………….. 36
Raptors…………………………………………………………………………... 36
Habitat/Species Relationships…………………………………………………… 41
Avian Conservation Overview…………………………………………………………... 46
Partners in Flight Plan…………………………………………………………… 47
National Audubon Society Important Bird Areas Program……………………... 48
Southern Appalachian Forest Coalition…………………………………………. 49
Recommendations……………………………………………………………………….. 51
Literature Cited………………………………………………………………………….. 54
Appendix I (Species of the NC Blue Ridge)…………………………………………..… 69
Appendix II (NC Bibliography)………………………………………………………… 74
Appendix III (Helpful Internet Resources)……………………………………………… 81

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 4
Wind energy development appears to be gaining momentum as an commercially viable source of energy across the country. The harnessing of wind power provides an alternative to the traditional methods of power generation that appeals to an ever more environmentally aware populace.
But wind energy does not enjoy universal acceptance. Communities faced with wind energy development often reiterate concerns over viewshed protection, property values, noise, and environmental impacts. Opponents often cite the avian impacts of wind development as a major obstacle to and drawback of wind energy.
As wind energy resources are studied for development, several issues related to avian issues arise. As is stated in the Proceedings of the National Avian/Wind Power
Planning Meeting, there are certain things we know about the relationship of wind energy development and birds. These include the fact that birds are killed at wind turbines, the impacts of those deaths can be significant (or insignificant) to local bird populations, bird usage and risk vary among different sites across the country and the world, bird usage and risk may vary within a single site, raptors are at high risk at some sites and little risk at some sites, and nocturnal migrants may be at higher risk at some sites. Additionally, the only way to mitigate the risk to birds is to situate the wind energy development in areas of low bird use ( PNAWPPM-IV, 2001 ).
It follows from these items that is is important to answer some basic questions about potential sites prior to development in an effort to reduce bird impacts. Some of these questions are:
How many birds use the proposed site?

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 5
What kinds of birds use the proposed sites?
How is that usage related to the time of year? Time of day?
What are the species of special concern that may be impacted?
Does development have the potential to impact the populations of those species of high priority?
Can research conducted at proposed sites identify potential impacts and possibly address mitigation strategies prior to construction?
This review will look in detail at these facts and questions and summarize how what we know about the national impacts of wind development can be related specifically to North Carolina.
The development of wind energy resource and generation areas creates risk for avian species. These risk factors take many forms including :



Hard structure kills (turbine blades, towers, weather towers, guy lines)
Population effects (reduction in use, increase in use, nest productivity)
Electrocutions from transmission lines
Many other forms of human caused mortality affect bird populations in the United
States. Most of these other causes (vehicular collisions, window strikes, communication tower kills, and powerlines) annually kill millions of birds. Wind turbine mortality is much lower and is on the magnitude of just over 2 birds per turbine/ year nationwide or about 33,000 birds killed per year. The recently published Avian Collisions with Wind
Turbines: A Summary of Existing Studies and Comparisons of Avian Collision Mortality

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 6 in the United States ( Erickson et al, 2001 ) summarizes the known data from collision sources of mortality:
* Vehicles 60-80 million
*
*
*
Buildings and Windows
Powerlines
98-980 million
Tens of Thousands-174 million
Communications Towers 4-50 million
* Wind turbines 10,000-40,000
(from the Executive Summary, Erickson et al, 2001)
Erickson’s estimates are based on published studies from a wide range of sources and account for the wide ranges of estimated mortality. This study is available online in full text format at www.nationalwind.org
and includes an extensive bibliography for each of the listed causes of avian mortality.
One thousand thirty-three carcasses were found at wind resource developments during the reporting period covered in the Erickson study (1999-2001). Eight hundred forty-one of these carcasses were at California sites. Of these, 40% were diurnal raptors,
19% were protected passerines, 11.5% were owl species, and 11% were unprotected species (House Sparrow, European Starling, Rock Dove). The remainder were various waterbirds, waterfowl, shorebirds and others. Estimates of nocturnal migration kills range from 2.6% to 10.2% of all carcasses. This number may be low as carcass removal by scavengers is much faster for smaller passerine species, which are more likely to be nocturnal migrants.
For non-California sites, 192 carcasses were reported. Of these, only 3% were diurnal raptors, 78% were protected passerines, 3% were non-protected birds, 0.5% were

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 7 owls, and 5% were waterfowl. Estimates of nocturnal migrant mortality ranged from
34% to 60%. This percentage of nocturnal migrants is much higher than the California estimate. This discrepancy may be due to search methodology. California wind farms tend to be much larger than other sites and searches are conducted less frequently and often do not include the entire wind resource area. It may simply be that non-California sites have higher usage and passage rates for nocturnal migrant birds.
Erickson et al. estimate national bird mortality to be 2.19 bird deaths per turbine per year for all species (total carcasses at studied sites/total number of turbines at studied sites). Raptor specific mortality is estimated to be .033 birds/turbine/year. Ignoring
California data yields estimates of 1.825 birds/turbine/year and 0.006 raptors/turbine/year. These estimates suggest that avian impacts from wind development will probably not have population level effects for most species. However, species of small population size, limited geographic distribution, or high sensitivity to development might be adversely impacted.

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 8
Even though wind energy development has been seriously considered as a viable energy alternative on a commercial scale for decades, the potential for avian impacts of that resource development did not receive rigorous attention in the United States until the early 1990’s. Part of the impetus for this attention was a ruling in United States court on the negative consequences of bird impacts, especially liability issues related to the deaths of individual birds protected under the Endangered Species or Migratory Bird Acts
(Sinclair, 2001). This ruling, and public and professional concern over the unknown impacts of wind energy development on bird communities, prompted the Department of
Energy in 1992 to direct the National Renewable Energy Laboratory to establish a direction for future research on the issue. The Avian Subcommittee of the National Wind
Coordinating Committee was formed after the first National Avian -Wind Power
Planning Meeting held in Denver in 1994 (PNAWPPM, 1995).
That meeting was the first chance for a variety of stakeholders to meet to discuss current research and to make recommendations for the future. Most of the projects in the first few years of research were in the American West and included the Altamont Wind
Resource Area (CA), Norris Hill Wind Resource Area (MT) (Harmata et al., 1998), and
Tehachapi and San Gorgonio (CA). For a review of the research programs funded and underway in 1997, see Sinclair et al. (1997).
It became apparent that a standardization of methodologies for studying mortality would be beneficial for future planning. These standards would allow for comparison among different studies and wind resource areas. The second Planning Meeting was held in Palm Springs, CA, to solidify plans for standardizing methodologies and for further

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 9 updates on current research ( PNAWPPM-II, 1996 ). Three documents were produced shortly thereafter. These include “Studying Wind Energy/Bird Interactions: A Guidance
Document ( Anderson et al., 1999
), “Avian Risk and Fatality Protocol” (Morrison, 1998), and “Development of a practical modeling framework for estimating the impact of wind technology on bird populations.” (Morrison and Pollock, 1999). Specific study methodologies will be discussed elsewhere in this review.
These publications and studies were followed closely by Planning Meetings III
(1998) and IV (2000) . At these meetings presenters reported on ongoing research projects as well as new findings on technological concerns (i.e., motion smear, acoustics).
These proceedings have been published as well (PNAWPPM-III, 2000 and PNAWPPM-
IV, 2001). A further update on current research was also published in 1999 (Sinclair,
1999). Additionally a comprehensive review of avian mortality from collisions with man made structures has been completed. (Erickson et al., 2001; see avian mortality issues section above).
The four planning meeting proceedings form the core of the Wind Power/Avian
Impacts literature to date. Most Department of Energy funded studies are summarized in these four documents, as well as summaries of international findings (See Winkleman
1995, Dirksen et al., 2000, Janss 2000, and Lowther 2000). The literature pertaining to avian impacts of wind development is updated frequently at the website of the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov./wind/avianlit.html
. This database currently (accessed 11/1/02) contains some 1800 citations. Full text of most DOE funded research as well as other NREL findings, protocols, and studies are available on line from www.nationalwind.org
.

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 10
Since the formation of the Avian Subcommittee of the National Wind
Coordinating Committee, many research projects have been funded and conducted with the standardized goals and methods of the working group as a guide ( Anderson et al ,
1999). The seminal “Studying Wind Energy Bird Interactions: A Guidance Document” has moved the study of wind power impacts on avian populations far ahead of where the industry was just a decade ago. Regular stakeholder conferences and reports
( PNAWPPM, 1995; PNAWPPM-II, 1996; PNAWPPM-III; PNAWPPM-IV, 2001 ) have allowed studies in differing regions of the country to share findings, evaluate each others data, and produce findings of use to other planners and scientists.
One of the primary goals of the national wind research program is the standardization of methodologies (PNAWPPM, 1994). The work of Anderson et al,
(1999) has laid out the basis for standardized efforts nationwide to allow planners, researchers, and reviewers to compare results in differing areas. The ultimate goal is to produce Before-After/Control- Impact (BACI) studies for wind sites. These studies require site studies before development, including control plots areas unaffected by eventual construction. These baseline usage patterns, natural mortality rates, species richness and abundance, and other measures are then repeated on the treatment area and control after development.
These base level studies are collectively labeled Level 1 studies by the NREL
Avian Subcommittee protocols (Anderson et al, 1999). Level 2 studies address specific

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 11 higher order issues such as long term population impacts, cumulative effects (noise, maintenance, traffic, etc), population modeling projects, and manipulative studies to clarify risk issues. Also included in this standardized approach are risk reduction studies.
Current work on avian hearing and the use of noise as a deterrent (Dooling, 2002), motion smear (that is, the effect of the turbine blades becoming less visible as they spin)
(McIsaacs, 2001; Hodos et al., 2001), lighting, prey abundance, and other testing of methods of reducing avian use of wind development areas or risk of collision and mortality with turbines.
To date, several major wind development sites have published major studies
(Sinclair, 2001). Some of these studies and their findings will be reviewed below.
Altamont Wind Resource Area, CA
The Altamont site is a very large site including some 5400 turbines arranged over
150 km
2
. Discovery of Golden Eagle and other raptor carcasses spawned research on bird use of the area including current studies on population and foraging ecology of raptors at the site. This study has shown that despite initial suggestions that perching behavior and electrocution might be major factors, it now appears that turbine spacing and the increase in prey abundance on the site may increase risk to Golden Eagles, Redtailed Hawks, and American Kestrels. Some of the research findings have found an increase in prey abundance and raptor use associated with foraging in the turbine area.
There is still debate over whether mortality is significantly higher at the gaps between strings of turbines versus within string locations. Mortality at the varying tower, turbine, and topographies in this extensive site are still being studied. Raptor mortality remains

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 12 higher at Altamont than at any other site in the country. The top five most commonly killed species are Red-tailed Hawk, Golden Eagle, American Kestrel, Turkey Vulture, and Common Raven. Raptors make up 54% of all bird carcasses found (Thelander and
Rugge, 2000; Hunt et al, 1995; Hunt et al, 1997; Hunt et al, 1998; Hoover et al, 2001;
Smallwood et al, 2001).
Tehachapi and San Gorgonio Wind Resource Areas, CA
These paired studies have examined baseline usage of the two sites and found lower levels of mortality than at Altamont. This study has pointed out that usage rates, mortality rates, and risk rates vary, both within and among sites. San Gorgonio contains a wetland within its resource area and so bird utilization rates are higher than at
Tehachapi. Tehachapi has a higher mortality rate than San Gorgonio however, probably due to the types of birds present and their foraging patterns. Both sites found significantly lower rates of usage and mortality for raptor species than Altamont. Also at both of these sites, mid turbine string mortality was higher than gap mortality, unlike
Altamont (Anderson et al, 2001).
Foote Creek Rim Wind Resource Area, WY
This study includes a test of Ultra Violet coatings treatment of turbine blades.
Results show that UV treatment may not work and may attract birds instead. Estimated mortality here was just under 2 birds/turbine/year consisting mostly of nocturnal passerine species. Also this study suggests that 85% of diurnal raptor activity occurs

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 13 within 50 meters of the canyon rim or escarpment and recommends placing turbines greater than 50 meters away from edges (Strickland et al, 2001a).
Norris Hill, MT
This extensive radar and visual study of a proposed wind energy development site examined bird usage rates at the proposed wind resources area. High estimated numbers of migrants (over 7 million birds within the study area in fall and 3.4 million in spring) make this one of the heaviest avian use areas documented in wind related studies. Most birds passed at a mean height of about 250 meters in fall and about 400 meters above ground level in spring. This is the first phase of a Before/After – Control/Impact (BACI) study. This wind development has however been put on hold indefinitely so the after development study will probably not be completed. This study also contains a great deal of information regarding methodology for future radar studies including suggestions for sampling effort and efficacy of the method (Harmata et al, 1998 and 1999).
Searsburg, VT
This study found very low mortality of birds with zero carcasses found in the year of the research. Results suggest some breeding bird population reduction in the immediate area near the wind development area however, possible a result of increased forest fragmentation ( Kerlinger, 2001).

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 14
Buffalo Ridge, MN
The Buffalo Ridge site contains 354 turbines in three phases of development, making it the largest single wind project in the United States. Most bird mortality was of nocturnal passerines during fall migration, and that weather factors contribute to nocturnal fatalities (cloudy, foggy). In fact, 76.4% of all carcasses were of passerine species. Diurnal bird use was highest in wooded and wetland habitats near turbine strings, leading the researchers to suggest avoiding those habitats. Little mortality was observed among raptors or waterfowl with total estimated rates of mortality for all species of about 2 birds/turbine/year. Additionally, this study suggests that risk rates are higher for shorter turbines, as more bird use the lower turbine rotor swept area. The two tower sizes studied were 120 feet and 160 feet. Bird usage rates overall were lower after construction, and especially within 100 meters of the turbines, reducing avian risk. The researchers conclude that local and migratory populations are not likely to be significantly effected by the wind development (Strickland et al, 2001b).
Buffalo Mountain, TN
This Tennessee Valley Authority project includes three turbines currently with plans for additional capability in the near future. Rates of mortality for birds is as much as five times the national average (approximately 9.5 birds/turbine/year). Bird mortality is mostly nocturnally migrating passerine species. No raptor mortality has been seen at this site so far. Monitoring activities continue. Bat mortality is also higher than the

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 15 national average at just under thirty bats/turbine/year (Tennessee Valley Authority,
2002).

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 16
Most of the mountainous region of North Carolina is included in the Southern
Blue Ridge physiographic region. For the purposes of this review, it includes all or parts of 24 western North Carolina counties and follows the North Carolina Natural Heritage
Program delineation of the mountain physiographic province of North Carolina (NCNHP,
2002).
Some 160 avian species breed in the Southern Blue Ridge (Hunter et al, 1999;
Lee et al, 1985). In addition, another 40-50 species occur regularly as migrants and winter residents. Twenty to thirty species have occurred as accidentals in the past thirty years, bringing total species diversity in the region to approximately 250 species (Eller and Wallace 1979; Simpson, 1992; New River State Park, 1999; Smalling, 2000). Areas such as the Grandfather Mountain/Wilson Creek drainage, Roan Mountain massif and others with large elevational gradients may support the highest breeding bird assemblages in the east (Lee et al, 1985).
One of the reasons for this diversity is the range of topography, elevation, plant communities, hydrology, and weather patterns occurring in western North Carolina.
Northern species reach the southern end of their breeding range here (Lee, 1985; Simpson
1992), northern winter irruptives and winter residents (i.e. White-winged Crossbills,
Evening Grosbeaks, Purple Finches, Common Redpoll, White-throated Sparrow, Swamp
Sparrow) are found in the region (Root, 1988; NASCBC, 2002), and relatively high diversity of migrant waterfowl, shorebirds, and others pass through the area in the spring and fall (Haggerty, 1979; Knight, 1993; Brinkley, 1995; Smith and Triplett, 1996).

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 17
Large numbers of neotropical migrants make the mountain habitats their home during the breeding season, including high numbers of certain family groups including the Parulidae (wood warblers), Tyrannidae (flycatchers, especially genus Empidonax ),
Turdidae (thrushes), and Vireonidae (vireos). Roughly 44% of the breeding birds of the
Southern Blue Ridge are classified as neotropical migrants (Franzeb, 1996; Hunter et al,
1999). Three fourths of those depend on forest land for their primary breeding habitat.
The species regularly using the Southern Blue Ridge are listed in Appendix I.
The Southern Blue Ridge region has been of considerable interest to ornithologists, naturalists, and conservationists for a number of years. Some of the earliest workers to explore the region include William Bartram in 1791, William
Brewster in the 1880’s, Charles Batchelder, and J. S. Cairns. Most of these individuals focused their efforts in the southwestern portion of the state. The modern era of bird study in the region was heralded by the Brimley brothers, C. S., and H. H., who helped to bring the NC Museum of Natural Sciences into the 20 th
century and who published extensively about the birds of North Carolina. A review of this early work is found in
Pearson, Brimley, and Brimley (1942) as well as Potter (1986).
Arthur Stupka (1963) added his records to the literature with his Notes on the
Birds of Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Marcus B. Simpson, Jr., published prolifically during the 1970’s and 1980’s culminating in his Birds of the Blue Ridge
Mountains (1992). Also in the past three decades, work by the staff of the North Carolina

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 18
Museum of Natural Sciences have added to our understanding of the birds of the Blue
Ridge (Lee et al, 1985; Lee, 1985; Lee and Browning, in prep).
Many recent studies have focused on species of special concern. Studies have been conducted on the Cerulean Warbler (Birdsource.org, 2002; Auer, 2002; Hamel,
2000), Golden-winged Warbler (Birdsource.org., 2002; Smalling, 2002a), and Northern
Saw-whet Owl (Tamashiro 1996, Milling et al. 1997, Milling 2000). A wide variety of other topics including habitat use (Bullock, in prep), the effects of clearcutting (Horn,
1984), forest fragmentation (Simons et al., 1999), and other issues of mountain avian populations have been addressed as well (Wilcove, 1988). Simons et al. (1999) summarize some of the landscape scale avian studies currently underway. A recently created list on the North Carolina Partners in Flight website lists known avian research and monitoring projects underway in the state, separated by region (Johns, 2002).
Much of the early work in the mountain region was of a distributional nature, with elevational, seasonal, and breeding activity being the most commonly published accounts. Late or early sightings, unusual and accidental migrants, and other notes of interest are regularly published in the Briefs for the Files section of the Chat, the quarterly publication of the Carolina Bird Club. These citations are too numerous to review here. Appendix II lists most of the major articles and General Field Notes from the past thirty years of the Chat. In addition, some of the work published during the same period in the peer-reviewed literature is also included. This is by no means a complete bibliography of the bird life of the region, but is included here for future reference on individual species or sites.

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 19
At least three different organizations have published lists of proposed species of special concern in the North Carolina mountains. The North Carolina Biological Survey
(Lee and Parnell, 1990) lists some 64 species. The North Carolina Natural Heritage program cites 53 species statewide with 23 found in the mountains (NCNHP, 2002).
Partners in Flight includes 64 species of conservation concern in the Southern Blue Ridge
(Hunter et al, 1999). The species listed by the NC Natural Heritage Program include
Federal and Global Rankings of each species and is the list providing the basis for this review. A list of these species and their rankings are found in Table 1.
The Bald Eagle is currently the only Federally Threatened species that has nested in the North Carolina Mountains or is known to use the region during migration. This species was proposed for de-listing in 1999 (USFWS, 2002). Two species listed as
Endangered under the Endangered Species Act potentially use the region as a migratory pathway (Whooping Crane and Kirtland’s Warbler). Six species are Federal species of special concern (Northern Saw-whet Owl, Cerulean Warbler, Red Crossbill, Blackcapped Chickadee, Yellow-bellied Sapsucker, and Bewick’s Wren).
State of North Carolina Natural Heritage Program Rankings are typically more conservative and include higher conservation priority rankings for more species. Three species, the Bald Eagle, Peregrine Falcon, and Bewick’s Wren are all listed as endangered species in North Carolina.
Another important topic for North Carolina bird conservation is the high level of subspecific endemism in the region (Lee and Browning, in prep). Twelve endemic

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 20
Table 1
North Carolina Natural Heritage Program
Avian Species of Special Concern (NCNHP, 2002)
Species State Status USFWS NC Rank Global Rank
Sharp-shinned Hawk
Northern Saw-whet Owl
American Bittern
Hermit Thrush
Brown Creeper
Northern Harrier
Black-billed Cuckoo
Olive-sided Flycatcher
Cerulean Warbler
Magnolia Warbler
Alder Flycatcher
Peregrine Falcon
Bald Eagle
Loggerhead Shrike
Red Crossbill
Savannah Sparrow
Black-capped Chickadee
Vesper Sparrow
Yellow-bellied Sapsucker
Bewick's Wren
Golden-winged Warbler
Blue-winged Warbler
Accipiter striatus
Aegolius acadicus
Botaurus lentiginosus
Catharus guttatus
SR
SC(PT)
SR
Certhia americana
Circus cyaneus
Coccyzus erythropthalmus
Contopus cooperi
SR
SR(PSC)
SR
SR
Dendroica cerulea
Dendroica magnolia
Empidonax alnorum
Falco peregrinus
Haliaeetus leucocephalus
Lanius ludovicianus ludovicianus
Loxia curvirostra
Passerculus sandwichensis
SC
SR
SR
SR
E
E(PT)
SC
SR(PSC)
SR
Poecile atricapilla practica
Poocetes gramineus
SC
SR
Sphyrapicus varius appalachiensis SR(PSC)
Thryomanes bewickii altus E
Vermivora chrysoptera
Vermivora pinus
SR
SR
FSC
FSC
T(PD)
FSC
FSC
FSC
FSC
S2B,S4N
S2B, S4N
S1B, S3N
S1B, S5N
S3B, S5N
S1B, S4N
S2B, SZN
SUB, SZN
S2B, SZN
S1B, SZN
S2B, SZN
S1B, S2N
S3B, S3N
S3B, S3N
S3B, S3N
S1B, S5N
S3
S2B, S2N
S2B, S5N
SHB, SZN
S3B, SZN
S2B, SZN
G5
G5T?
G4
G5
G5
G5
G5
G5
G4
G5
G5
G4
G4
G4T4
G5T?
G5
G5T?
G5
G5T?
G5T2Q
G4
G5
Warbling Vireo Vireo gilvus SR S2B, SZN G5
State Status Codes = SR(Significantly rare); SC(Special Concern); PT(Proposed Threatened Status);
PSC (Proposed Special Concern; E(Endangered)
USFWS Status Codes = FSC(Federal Species of Concern); T(Threatened); PD(Proposed De-listed)
NC Rank = S1(Critically imperiled population); S2(Imperiled in North Carolina); S3(Rare or uncommon in NC);
S4 (Secure in NC); S5(essentially ineradicable in NC); SU(Status uncertain); SH(historical occurrence but not recent);
SZ (population not of concern); **B(breeding season status); **N(non-breeding populations, i.e. migrants)
Global Rank = G4(apparently globally secure but locally rare), G5(demonstrably secure globally but rare locally)
T(subspecies rank);?(unknown status); Q(questionable taxonomy of subspecies)

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 21 subspecies of birds are found in the Southern Blue Ridge and are listed below in Table 2.
Some of these subspecies may be ancestral relicts, representing the paternal populations of more widespread species (see Tamashiro, 1996). The presence of these subspecies can have ramifications for wind development as many of the endemic taxa are restricted to higher elevation areas that may be potential wind sites. Also efforts are underway to more actively study some of the subspecies in this group (Yellow-bellied Sapsucker,
Northern Saw-whet Owl).
Table 2
Southern Blue Ridge Endemic Subspecies
(From Lee and Browning, in prep)
Subspecies name Scientific Name (ref.)
Appalachian Ruffed Grouse
Northern Saw-whet Owl
Appalachian Yellow-bellied Sapsucker
Appalachian Black-capped Chickadee
Southern Brown Creeper
Appalachian Bewick’s Wren
Southern Winter Wren
Mountain Blue-headed Vireo
Black-throated Green Warbler
Cairn’s Black-throated Blue Warbler
Red Crossbill
Carolina Dark-eyed Junco
Bonasa umbellus monticola Todd (AOU, 1957)
Aegolius acadicus acadicus Gmelin (AOU, 1957)
Sphyrapicus varius appalachiensis Ganier (AOU, 1957)
Poecile atricapillus practicus Oberholser (AOU, 1957)
Certhia americana nigrescens Burleigh (AOU, 1957)
Thryomanes bewickii altus Aldrich (AOU, 1957)
Troglodytes troglodytes pullus Burleigh (AOU, 1957)
Vireo solitarius alticola Brewster (AOU, 1957)
Dendroica virens virens Gmelin (AOU, 1957)
Dendroica caerulescens cairnsi Coues (AOU, 1957)
Loxia curvirostra minor ? Brehm (AOU, 1997)
Junco hyemalis carolinensis Brewster (Auk, 1886)
Species of conservation concern are important for potential wind energy development and other land uses for a variety of reasons. High priority species can galvanize opposition toward proposed projects, can result in legal action, or slow down environmental assessment and evaluation processes. At the same time, funding is often available to study the distribution and effects of proposed development in an effort to minimize impacts on species of high conservation concern.

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 22
Because of these factors, the remainder of this section will address the 23 species listed in Table 1, as well as the 2 additional Federally Endangered Species, which may migrate through the region, in more detail.
Sharp-shinned Hawk
This small Accipiter hawk is a bird predator that nests in mixed forests of the region. Current nesting records are limited in the mountain region to mid elevations in the following counties: Watauga, Avery, Mitchell, Yancey. This species also occurs in high numbers as a migrant through the region and is fairly common in winter as a predator near bird feeders and developed areas.
Northern Saw-whet Owl
This smallest of the eastern breeding owl species is limited during the breeding season to the spruce-fir zone at high elevations in the state. Recent work by students and faculty at Appalachian State University have revealed that it may be an altitudinal migrant in winter moving just downslope into the mixed forest, especially areas with hemlock cove composition. Nesting was not confirmed until the 1970’s and now is known from several locations, including most areas with measurable amounts of sprucefir forest. Counties of breeding season occurrence: Avery, Buncombe, Graham,
Haywood, Jackson, Macon, Mitchell, Swain, Transylvania, Watauga, and Yancey.
American Bittern
This secretive bird of marsh and swamp habitats is poorly known as a migrant in the mountain region and may breed sporadically in some mountain counties. Estimates of passage rates and breeding status are not available. No confirmed breeding in the mountains but there are late spring records from Watauga.
Hermit Thrush
This northern thrush species has only recently been found with regularity in the highest spruce-fir zones of the state with breeding season records from Grandfather and
Roan Mountains. It is a common winter resident at lower elevations and a fairly common migrant at mid-elevations. Additional counties of suspected breeding include Avery,
Mitchell, Haywood, Swain, and Yancey.
Brown Creeper
This small hemlock and spruce-fir specialist is fairly widely dispersed in the mountain region but is not abundant even in suitable habitat. It requires dead older growth trees with loose bark for its nesting substrate and so is limited in its range. It may also be an altitudinal migrant, moving downslope during winter. Counties of occurrence include Watauga, Avery, Mitchell, Buncombe, Haywood, Jackson, Swain,
Transylvania, and Yancey.

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 23
Northern Harrier
This coastal nester is an uncommon migrant in the mountainous regions of the state.
Black-billed Cuckoo
This cuckoo is limited as a breeder in the mountains and seems to occur at higher elevations than its congener the Yellow-billed Cuckoo. It inhabits mixed forest, coves, and northern hardwoods. It is uncommon at all elevations as a migrant in the fall.
Counties of occurrence: Ashe, Avery, Buncombe, Burke, Caldwell, Haywood,
Henderson, Jackson, McDowell, Mitchell, Transylvania, and Watauga.
Olive-sided Flycatcher
This flycatcher is very uncommon with few recent breeding season records from
North Carolina. It prefers spruce fir areas with lots of openings. Counties of occurrence include Haywood, Macon, McDowell, Mitchell, Swain, and Yancey.
Cerulean Warbler
This species occurs largely on east facing slopes of mature hardwoods with little understory vegetation. It breeds in small colonies or loose associations of territories.
Counties of occurrence include Watauga, Avery, Wilkes, Buncombe, Graham, Haywood,
Macon, McDowell, Clay, and Rutherford. See Hamel (2000) and Auer (2002).
Magnolia Warbler
This northern spruce-fir specialists reaches its southern breeding limit in North
Carolina. Breeding is assumed but no nest has been found. Counties of occurrence include Watauga, Ashe, Avery, Mitchell, McDowell, Jackson, Haywood, and Yancey.
Alder Flycatcher
This flycatcher inhabits alder swamps, early successional, and bald margin areas of the high elevations in the North Carolina mountains, usually over 3000 feet in elevation. Counties of occurrence include Alleghany, Ashe, Watauga, Avery, Buncombe,
Haywood, Jackson, Mitchell, and Yancey.
Peregrine Falcon
This cliff nesting falcon was listed as a federal level Endangered species in 1972.
Reintroduction programs on Grandfather Mountain, Roan Mountain, and other areas of
North Carolina and the nation have proven successful, and the species was de-listed in
1999 by the US FWS. It is still endangered in North Carolina however, as only ten active nesting areas are known (Grandfather, Hanging Rock, Big Lost Cove Cliffs, Whiterock,
Blue Rock, Looking Glass, Devil’s Courthouse, Whiteside, Panthertail, and Shortoff) All known sites are currently monitored by USFWS personel (Rupp and McGrath, 2002).
Bald Eagle
The Bald Eagle is currently listed as a Threatened Species under the Endangered
Species Act (since 1967). It was proposed for de-listing in July of 1999, but no action has been taken. It is currently still listed as Endangered in North Carolina. It historically

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 24 was a rare breeder in western North Carolina with only three counties with breeding season records (Burke, Haywood, and McDowell Counties; NCNHP, 2002). Recently, unconfirmed reports of possible breeding have come from Caldwell, Wilkes, and Burke
Counties. Migrant numbers have increased dramatically at Mahogany Rock, reflecting the increase in population numbers in the Southeast (see Figure 1 below). As numbers increase, it will likely return as a breeder to the region.
Bald Eagles / Hour Mahogany Rock
1984-2002
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
Bald Eagles / Hour
Figure 1 Mahogany Rock 1984-2002
Loggerhead Shrike
Only a handful of breeding records exist for this species in the mountains. These include two successive years in Ashe County and several records from the Tryon area in
Transylvania County.
Red Crossbill
This highly erratic species is widespread in the region in the spruce-fir zone and apparently in table mountain pine/yellow pine areas as well. The taxonomy of the nine
Crossbill subspecies is complicated and not completely resolved. Most mountain specimens are of the Population 1 variety. Their breeding status has been confirmed by several records of nests and adults feeding young, but they can breed anytime that cone crops are plentiful from March to October and are highly nomadic, making their status difficult to define.
Savannah Sparrow
North Carolina is at the extreme southern end of the breeding range of this grassland sparrow. It evidently is expanding its range southward. Records during the breeding season are from Watauga, Ashe, and Alleghany Counties. It is found as a common migrant in the spring and fall in the mountain region.
Black-capped Chickadee
This species exists only as remnant populations in the spruce-fir zone on several of the highest peaks in the mountain region. It can hybridize with the more common

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 25
Carolina Chickadee but seemingly isolates itself during the breeding season by moving downslope in the winter months and pushing the Carolina Chickadee lower. Research in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park suggests that it may be more common there than previously thought (Simons, pers. comm.) Counties of occurrence include Avery,
Buncombe, Haywood, Jackson, Swain, Transylvania, and Yancey.
Vesper Sparrow
This grassland species nests at high elevations (over 4000 feet) on disturbed agricultural areas and balds, reaching its highest numbers in the Amphibolite range of peaks in Watauga and Ashe Counties. It requires early successional grassland habitats like grassy balds and high elevation cattle pastures. Counties of occurrence include
Ashe, Avery, Watauga, and Mitchell.
Yellow-bellied Sapsucker
This keystone species is a primary excavator of nesting cavities that are used by other secondary cavity nesters. It is currently thought to be an endemic subspecies and as such is one of the highest species of concern in the Partners in Flight ranking scheme. It prefers high elevation (over 3000 ft) declining forests. It is also found in chestnut oak forests. It is currently the focus of study of a working group composed of governmental, private, and institutional partners studying its ecology, distribution, and conservation.
Counties of occurrence include Watauga, Avery, Buncombe, Clay, Graham, Haywood,
Jackson, Macon, Mitchell, Swain, and Yancey.
Bewick’s Wren
This wren is one of the three state listed endangered species and may be extirpated from the region. It began to decline as a breeding species in the early 1900’s as agricultural practices changed and one author suggests that its decline is related to the increase in Song Sparrows as a breeder during the same period (Simpson, 1978).
Counties of historical occurrence include Ashe, Avery, Buncombe, Haywood, Jackson,
Macon, and Transylvania.
Golden-winged Warbler
This species is an early successional specialist preferring upland shrubby fields, bald margins, and abandoned farms. It is not very common in the state but is fairly widespread, occurring in most of the mountain counties, although in limited numbers. It readily hybridizes with its congener the Blue-winged Warbler to form identifiable hybrids known as Brewster’s and Lawrence’s Warblers. Hybrids are now confirmed from Buncombe, Watauga, and Ashe Counties. After several generations of hybridization, the dominant Blue-winged Warbler phenotype replaces the Golden-winged
Warbler phenotype and Golden-winged Warblers disappear. This process has begun in
North Carolina and so the conservation status of Golden-wing Warblers may continue to escalate as time progresses. They are also an uncommon migrant through the mountain region.

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 26
Blue-winged Warbler
Closely related to the Golden-winged Warbler, this species had been restricted to lowland areas of Cherokee, Graham, and Macon Counties in extreme southwestern North
Carolina, but in recent years has been found in Ashe and Alleghany Counties. A Bluewinged Warbler also remained on territory in Watauga County in 2002 as well. They may become more widespread as time progresses for the reasons given above, but are a rare breeder in the state currently, still below 3000 feet. They are also an uncommon migrant in the mountain region.
Warbling Vireo
This vireo is limited to the lower river valleys of the region as a breeder, especially rivers with Sycamore in the riparian corridor. They are typically found below
2800 feet in elevation as a breeder but are also an uncommon migrant in the region.
Counties of occurrence include Ashe, Watauga, Alleghany, Avery, Buncombe, and
Macon.
Whooping Crane
The major population of the Whooping Crane that winters in Texas and the Gulf is an Endangered species with less than 1000 individuals left in the wild. An experimental migratory population has been established that is being trained to migrate to central Florida. It should also be noted that this experimental population is regarded officially as experimental/non-essential by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. East
Tennessee birders have been excited the past two seasons as Whoopers have been stopping at TVA Lakes in the Ridge and Valley province on their guided flight to Florida.
If this population becomes established and increases, the potential exists for their numbers to increase to the point that some sightings of migrants may begin to occur in western North Carolina. One sighting posted in 2001 was less than 30 miles from the
North Carolina border. It is unlikely that this population or this species will ever become a major species of concern for North Carolina, but mortality events at a wind facility could be bad for public relations if they occur.
Kirtland’s Warbler
Small numbers of this warbler exist in the wild. They do apparently migrate at least partially through the Appalachian mountains. Two of the four accepted state records for this warbler have been migration records in western North Carolina Cook,
2000). They were both from the Blue Ridge Parkway, one in Alleghany County and one in Buncombe County. Again, this species population is so small that the likelihood of an encounter is trivial, but it may be that a significant portion of the population travels through our region in the fall and spring. Moreover, as with the Whooping Crane, a single turbine caused death of a Kirtland’s Warbler would be a public relations disaster.

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 27
Bird usage of the North Carolina mountains, like other areas of the country, is defined by four broad seasons. These seasons roughly coincide with the solar seasonal cycle and include wintering use, spring migration, the breeding season, and autumn migration. Different species, family groups, and guilds have differing seasonal variations in their migration timing, extent of migration, and temporal distributions. Diel, or daily, patterns also exist within each of these broad seasonal cycles.
Because a high number of the breeding birds of the region are neotropical migrants, winter bird diversity drops considerably from breeding season numbers. A small number of permanent resident species, coupled with northerly species immigrating into the area for the winter, produce a species richness in winter of about 60 to 75 species. Many of these species are widespread and common (i.e. Carolina Chickadee,
Tufted Titmouse, Northern Cardinal, Downy Woodpecker). Others are highly nomadic, irruptive species like Purple Finch, Pine Siskin, and Evening Grosbeak. Sparrows
( Emberizidae ) make up a significant percentage of the overall bird abundance of the region during the winter, with White-throated, Song, and Field Sparrows, along with
Dark-eyed Juncos being the most common. Raptors continue to be present in the region during winter, although numbers typically are fairly low and widely dispersed. These generalizations are taken from Christmas Bird Count (CBC) data from the six regularly reporting CBCs in western North Carolina (NASCBC, 2002).

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 28
Birds in the winter season in the mountains tend to be clumped rather than randomly distributed as they are during the breeding season. Mixed flocks of chickadees, titmice, nuthatches, and woodpeckers forage together, as do mixed flocks of sparrows.
Most starlings, blackbirds, and thrushes (Eastern Bluebird, American Robin) also travel and forage as flocks rather than individuals. Birds are often found in higher concentrations on southern slopes as well. Shields and Grubb (1974) found that bird preference for southern aspects versus northern aspects was on the order of 4 to 1 with
82% of all bird sightings in their New Jersey study area on southern slopes. They attribute this to leewardness from prevailing winds, higher thermal gain, and drier conditions.
Most of the breeding birds of the region spend their time actively defending territories, feeding young, and foraging. For a majority of species, these activities occur at heights below average turbine height. There are exceptions including aerial foragers like swallows and swifts, nesting raptors (especially the common Red-tailed Hawk and
Broad-winged Hawk as well as the endangered and rare Peregrine Falcon), and some nocturnal foragers (Common Nighthawks, various owls).

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 29
Much of the original concern over potential avian impacts is rooted in a fear that the large numbers of birds that migrate twice each year across the continent may be subjected to high risk from wind turbines . The study of migration has been a major concern of researchers for decades (Lowery and Newman, 1966; Heppner, 1974; Terrill and Able, 1988; Alerstam, 1992; Hayes, 1995; Alerstam, 1996). . For the purposes of this review the individual impetus for migration, physiological processes, orientation, and differential nature of migration will not be reviewed but can add valuable information to an overall understanding of migratory behavior (Schmidt-Koenig 1979 and Berthold
1996).
Many, if not most, passerines and near passerines (woodpeckers, doves, cuckoos), waterfowl, and shorebirds complete at least a portion of their migratory flights at night
(Raptors, which typically migrate diurnally, are treated in a separate section of this review). Early studies used a variety of methods to attempt to study nocturnal migration.
Moonwatching, ceilometer monitoring, and a few other direct methods were undertaken, and are still used, to try to quantify the amount and mechanics of the nocturnal migration
(Gauthreaux, 1969; Nisbet and Drury, 1969; Hebrard, 1971; Lietchi et al, 1995; Liechti,
1996). With the advent of radar systems during World War II and their subsequent adaptation for bird study, radar studies of nocturnal migration have become common in the literature of ornithology. For a summary of radar study up to 1967 see Eastwood
(1967). Also two summaries by Gauthreaux (1979 and 1996) are helpful. Methodologies in radar ornithology have advanced with technological improvements as well (Bruderer and Steidinger, 1972; Cooper et al, 1991; Harmata et al, 1998; Harmata et al, 1999).

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 30
Large-scale mortality events at communication towers, airport ceilometers, and other man-made obstacles have also contributed to our understanding of nocturnal migration. Accounts of these large scale mortality events fill the literature (Lord, 1951;
Chamberlain, 1954; Adams, 1962; Taylor, 1973; Hall, 1976; Crawford, 1981;
Buckelew et al, 1986; Taylor and Kershner, 1986) and several summaries and bibliographies of avian mortality are available (see Avery 1978; Avery et al. 1980;
McCrary et al. 1986; Bevanger 1994; Hebert et al. 1995; and Erickson et al. 2001).
Detailed study of these “tower kills” have added to our understanding of the timing of migration, its differential nature with regard to age and sex ratios, and the weather patterns associated with large scale movements of birds (Taylor, 1973; Crawford, 1981;
Crawford and Stevenson, 1984).
Several patterns of migratory behavior have emerged from these direct observations, radar studies, and hard structure kills. In general, nocturnal migrants spend the early to late evening foraging, resting, and performing feather maintenance activities in preparation for the night flight (if weather conditions are conducive). Approximately
30 minutes after sunset, birds take off and begin gaining altitude rapidly to between 200 to 1000 meters for most passerines and near passerines (Eastwood, 1967; Pennycuick,
1969; Able, 1970; Bellrose, 1971; Hebrard, 1971; Able 1973; Blokpoel and Burton,
1975; Grazulevicius and Petraitis, 1990) . Flight heights apparently depend on such variables as winds speed and direction aloft, cloud cover, temperature and other factors.
Some researchers have developed mathematical models to explain and predict these optimal flight heights (Kerlinger and Moore, 1989; Hedenstrom and Alerstam, 1994;
Bruderer et al, 1995; Cooper and Ritchie, 1995; Liechti et al, 2000) . Densities of birds

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 31 in the night sky also continues to increase until around midnight when both density and flight height begin to gradually decrease. Most passerines appear to have landed by 4 o’clock a.m. Although they have a range of flight heights from 20-2000 meters above ground level, in most studies, up to 80% of birds fly between 50 and 500 meters
(Eastwood, 1967; Able, 1970; Bellrose, 1971; Kerlinger and Moore, 1989).
Nocturnal migrants appear to follow the general direction of favorable winds without much correction for drift during their nocturnal flight (Gauthreaux and Able,
1970; Able, 1974b; Butler et al, 1994; Gauthreaux, 1970; Gauthreaux, 1991; Gauthreaux,
1996), but some researchers have suggested that birds do make corrective flights when the wind changes, it becomes daylight, or if they become disoriented (Gautheraux, 1972).
Nocturnal migrants do at times become disoriented in foggy conditions and seem to be attracted to lights, a theory which explains the massive mortality at communications towers, ridgetop buildings, and other lighted structures following heavy flights in poor weather.
Differing groups of birds have slightly different behavior from the above generalizations. Shorebirds (Family Scolopacidae ) tend to fly longer, often taking off before sunset, and to fly higher, often over 3000 feet. Waterfowl (Order Anseriformes ) also tend to fly higher, are not as subject to wind drift, and may fly both during the day and night (Kerlinger and Moore, 1989). Large flocks of Chimney Swifts (Family
Apodidae ) migrate during the day, descending near dusk to find nightly roosts in large chimneys and other suitable cavities.
There has been little study however, on the effects of large scale topological variation (mountainous areas) and nocturnal migrant responses to this changing

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 32 topography. Many of the studies cited above have been conducted in coastal and relatively flat terrain, minimizing ground clutter from radar screens. Newer radar systems hold promise for addressing migrant use of the mountains in a reliable manner however, and recent work by Sidney Gauthreaux at Clemson University and CUROL
(Clemson University Radar Ornithology Laboratory) are beginning to shed light on migration routes and bird usage of mountainous terrain (CUROL, 2002).
Prior to the work being done at CUROL, few researchers have attempted to directly address use of the Appalachian Mountains by nocturnal migrants. Bellrose
(1971) attempted to quantify bird migration in the air space by using direct measure of migrants encountered from a fixed wing aircraft at varying heights over a variety of landscapes. In the Appalachian region his location of “migrants only over the mountain valleys, where the ridges were visible, rather than over the actual ridgetops” (p. 421) might mean that migrants use the mountain landform as a visual cue set against the night sky, flying lower than ridge level on dark nights with no moon light to illuminate the land below. This supports some researcher’s observations of morning corrective flights of birds flying perpendicular to the ridge line and presumably perpendicular to their eventual migratory flight path (Hall and Bell, 1981). It is thought they are nocturnal migrants, blown slightly off course by normal northwest to southeast winds overnight, correcting their trajectory to their most prominent landmark, or “leading line” (Mueller and Berger, 1967). This type of corrective flight is often observed at coastal areas as well
(Bingman, 1980; Gauthreaux, 1978; Moore, 1986; Wiedner, 1992).
Hall and Bell (1981) report that the morning corrective flight begins a little after sunrise and birds fly just to the leeward edge of the ridge line at the Alleghany Front

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 33
Migration Observatory in the mountains of West Virginia. In the period from 1958-1980, over 66,000 birds were banded, most of them nocturnal migrants moving in the morning as diurnal migrants. Dr.George Hall (pers. comm.) reports that the morning flight starts promptly at 7:15 and lasts about two hours. At the Alleghany Front, most migrants funnel through a transverse gap in the ridgeline (Hall and Bell, 1981) and similar flights are seen regularly by birders in the region (Keighton, pers. comm.; Smalling, pers. observ.). Indeed, spring migration watchers know to look on the east facing slopes early in the morning, or at gaps running west to east for fallouts of warblers in the region.
Weather can play a large role in determining the magnitude of the daily and seasonal movements of birds through the region (Richardson, 1971; Richardson, 1972;
Richardson, 1978; Perdeck and Speek, 1985). Favorable winds can cause irruptions after passage of cold fronts, dramatically increasing numbers (Nisbet, 1969; Able, 1973; Able
1974a; Lee, 1986; Aborn, 1994; Brinkley, 1995), but very strong or unfavorable winds can stop migration in its tracks or cause birds to use leeward slopes or lower elevations
(Hall, pers. comm., Smalling, pers.observ.).
Of course it would be beneficial for wind energy development, aircraft safety, and wind facilities if the magnitude of bird flights during migration periods could be predicted. Attempts have been made, but have met with limited success (Blokpoel, 1970;
Able, 1974a; Leshem and Gauthreaux, 1996; Birdsource.org, 2002). It should be noted however that migratory movements are detectable in real time on Doppler radar
(Gauthreaux and Belser, 1998) when migration magnitude is high enough. This technology may eventually allow for real time forecasting of heavy flights at wind energy

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 34 facilities and allow for disruption of operation during short periods when birds are at highest risk.
Doppler radar imaging may also help predict areas that are typically used for large scale roosts. Blackbirds, crows, swallows, martins and other birds routinely form large
(>1,000,000 individual birds) roosts during migration or wintering seasons. These are easily identified using radar images (Gauthreaux, 1998; Gauthreaux and Belser, 1998;
Russell and Gauthreaux, 1999). Large scale blackbird roosts have not been common in western North Carolina since the 1970’s when roosts of over 2,000,000 birds were found on the Buncombe County Christmas Bird Count (NASCBC data). If roosts are suspected near wind resource areas, Doppler radar may allow for identification and tracking of roosts and flight patterns.
There are still numerous unanswered questions about the way in which migrants use mountainous terrain. Preliminary estimates place overall numbers of migrants in the eastern United States in the millions (Gauthreaux, 1992) with up to a 50% decline in the number of trans-Gulf migrants over the past twenty years (Gill, 1995). How many of those birds utilize the Appalachian chain is unknown, even as a simple percentage of the total migratory stream. It does seem probable that more adults utilize the region than first year birds, which are more common on the coast (Rappole et al, 1979; Hall, 1981;
Ralph, 1981; Ketterson and Nolan, 1983; Francis and Cooke, 1986). Also unknown are fine scale use of topological features (gaps, ridges, forested crests versus balds or grassy areas, aspect, degree of slope) by migrants, both diurnal and nocturnal. Several studies from Russia (Bolshakov, 1985; Bolshakov and Popov, 1985; Dolnik, 1985 and 1990;
Popov and Bolshakov, 1985; Pulatov, 1985) have looked at migratory behavior in the

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 35
Pamyr Range of middle Asia and Kasahkstan. Their findings suggest patterns of use depending on wind flow as well, but available English abstracts or reviews found are too general for detailed analysis. Two papers here in the United States have looked at these issues (Sielman et al, 1981; Williams et al, 2001). Both of these studies, set in the east on
Appalachian Mountain sites, have shown that in general birds migrate in broad fronts.
Both also have shown that under certain weather and wind conditions, migrants may be concentrated along ridgetops or in gaps or passes. Any of these usage patterns are likely to be site dependent, and need to be incorporated into assessment studies prior to final decisions regarding placement of wind resource developments.
While these spatial patterns are largely unknown and variable in the region, the seasonal timing of migration is well documented. Most passerines migrate in April into
May in the spring and August into October in the fall. Sparrows and waterfowl tend to peak in October and November in the fall and March and April in the spring. These cycles and times are well documented in a variety of sources including local checklists
(Eller, 1979; Simpson, 1992; Potter et al, 1980; Smalling, 2000). A more detailed summary of warbler activity for western North Carolina is found in LeGrand (1975).
These temporal patterns of migratory movement are important considerations for the operation of wind energy turbines. Periods of peak usage by migratory birds may be delineated for study design (fatality and carcass searches), operational timing, and intensive predictive modeling of migration activity.

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 36
In general, diurnal species outnumber nocturnal species by a ratio of about 20 to 1 during the breeding season. Four species of owl occur regularly in the Southern Blue
Ridge (Great-horned, Northern Saw-whet, Screech, and Barred). Two others (Barn and
Long-eared) are currently quite rare (Simpson and Ruiz, 1973; Lee, 1985). Additionally,
Common Nighthawks, Whip-poor-wills, and American Woodcock are typically active at night. These three are distributed regionally in a widely scattered, low density manner.
(Holland, 1974; Simpson 1971a; Simpson 1971b). Most breeding owl species are permanent residents or short distance migrants. Evidently, northern populations of the
Northern Saw-whet Owls may migrate through the area. Multiple sightings in Watauga
County over the past several years in November, away from local breeding population areas, would seem to indicate a general movement through the area (Smalling, pers. observ.). Large movements of Common Nighthawks also occur in the fall with some flocks in the hundreds seen prior to sunset. The primary period of migration appears to be late August until mid September with peak numbers often occurring between August
25 th
-September 5 th
(Smalling, pers. observ.; Keighton and Alderman, unpub. data, 2002).
Because of the high incidence of Golden Eagles mortality at the Altamont site in
California, raptors have a received a good deal of treatment in the literature on wind power impacts (see Stahlecker, 1978; Hunt et al, 1995; Hunt et al, 1997; Hunt et al,
1998; Smallwood et al, 2001). Raptors have also received a great deal of study in the peer reviewed literature as well. Long-term studies at hawk monitoring sites have

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 37 revealed many aspects of diurnal raptor biology including migration mechanics, migratory corridors, and weather effects.
Flight behaviors have been studied in detail (Kerlinger and Gauthreaux, 1984;
Kerlinger, 1989; Preston, 1981). Diurnal raptors have three basic migratory flight strategies. These are flapping flight, soaring flight assisted by thermal air masses, and riding on deflective currents from ridge lines and other barriers. Different species use all three methods to varying degrees depending on body and wing shape, speed of migration, and other variables.
Raptors utilize the Appalachian chain for their long distance migrations. A national network of hawk migration monitoring sites exists that report to a central location at the Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology, and results for the past five years are available on-line at www.birdsource.org
. Two regularly reporting monitoring sites are located in North Carolina (Mahogany Rock in Alleghany County, and Mount Pisgah in
Henderson/Transylvania Counties). Table 3 summarizes the past 16 years of counts at
Mahogany Rock.
The effects of weather on raptor migration have also been studied in detail (see
Allen, et al., 1996; Niles, et al., 1996; Titus and Mosher 1982). Raptors appear to be most active immediately following the passage of a low pressure system, during the subsequent clear calm days. This weather pattern is conducive to thermal production, the preferred flight method for Buteo species. Peak passage rates occur throughout the fall depending on species as well. Broad-winged Hawks stage the most dramatic flights with thousands passing each year. The numbers of migrating Broad-winged Hawks typically peak rapidly in mid to late September and end abruptly by the end of that month. The

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 38
Table 3
Mahogany Rock, NC
Hawk Migration Data 1986-2002
Species 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
Black Vulture 0 66 75 14 39 70 31 318
Turkey Vulture
Osprey
Bald Eagle
Golden Eagle
58
13
0
1
240
4
1
1
69
7
0
3
43
13
0
0
178
10
0
1
452
13
0
0
209 1080
23
4
0
27
4
0
Northern Harrier
Sharp-shinned Hawk
Cooper's Hawk
Red-shouldered Hawk
Broad-winged Hawk
Red-tailed Hawk
American Kestrel
Merlin
13
101
12
0
4
343
30
2
863 4488
167
7
2
203
19
2
9
176
20
1
458
359
12
0
7
121
23
0
159
17
0
9
168
59
3
970 1532 1794 1722 7098
664
23
1
10
225
97
3
352
33
18
12
178
59
9
247
26
8
18
201
111
10
440
35
12
Peregrine Falcon
Unidentified Raptor
Total
Hours of Observation
Birds/Hour
Species
Black Vulture
Turkey Vulture
Osprey
Bald Eagle
Golden Eagle
Northern Harrier
Sharp-shinned Hawk
Cooper's Hawk
Red-shouldered Hawk
Broad-winged Hawk
Red-tailed Hawk
American Kestrel
Merlin
Peregrine Falcon
Unidentified Raptor
Total
Hours of Observation
Birds/Hour
0
7
1
6
0
5
0
9
0
33
3
65
1
31
4
71
1244 5410 1194 1376 2720 3135 2560 9429
85 181 112 79 162 224 204 336
14.6 29.9 10.7 17.4 16.8 14.0 12.5 28.1
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
19
219
20
9
0
8
114
84
5
11
240
32
4
0
4
122
37
12
68
27
5
1
11
134
59
39
28
34
2
0
10
83
47
35
82
16
13
0
10
93
61
9
20
24
6
0
2
82
33
66
56
41
12
0
3
104
52
0
2
105
59
37
58
40
14
2782 4430 3537 2200 3322 1609 6381 2893
307
44
7
10
36
223
2
382
21
2
2
39
237
4
130
32
9
8
51
202
16.4 22.5 20.2
1
32
21
12
7
51
263
2
77
12
8
9
39
271
9.8 13.9
3
49
29
12
0
34
238
3
22
15
4
2
26
262
2
66
21
13
6
25
3664 5328 4088 2567 3779 1912 6787 3341
227
8.0 25.9 14.7
1994
277
1239
34
5
0
24
223
119
17
15108
659
17857
408
43.8
73
21
12
46
Average
65.76
255.24
22.24
4.65
0.41
9.18
151.35
56.59
3.94
3599.24
253.82
25.88
7.71
3.82
33.76
4493.59
218.47
18.78

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 39 thirteen other commonly encountered species also show their own peak periods, but tend to be more diffuse in their passage rates.
Hawk monitoring stations, often set on the escarpment or other high, prominent features, can record large numbers of migrating diurnal raptors. Record seasons occur, like 1994 at Mahogany Rock, where over 15,000 birds were seen during the season
(Keighton, 1998). If we use the average passage rates from Mahogany Rock for the period 1986 through 2002, and estimate the of length of the migration season for each species (from Allen et al. 1996) we arrive at an estimate of some 6500 migrating raptors at Mahogany Rock per year (see Table 4). This number is probably a very low estimate of the actual number of migrating diurnal raptors using the region during the migration period.

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 40
Table 4
Estimation of average annual hawk migration at Mahogany Rock
Alleghany County, North Carolina
Species
Black Vulture
Turkey Vulture
Osprey birds/hour a migration period b
0.262543013
0.99144471
0.104619196
(days)
60
60
57 estimated # c
( per yr.)
126.0206
475.8935
47.70635
Bald Eagle
Golden Eagle
Northern Harrier
Sharp-shinned Hawk
Cooper's Hawk
Red-shouldered Hawk
Broad-winged Hawk
Red-tailed Hawk
American Kestrel
Merlin
Peregrine Falcon
Unidentified Raptor
0.018796582
0.003246977
0.048601017
0.811606916
0.25357793
0.015420386
14.61988802
1.336966665
0.120562757
0.031176284
0.01481845
0.147793389
111
79
91
60
77
64
37
70
76
66
82
60
Annual total
16.69136
2.05209
35.38154
389.5713
156.204
7.895238
4327.487
748.7013
73.30216
16.46108
9.720903
70.94083
6504.029 a from Mahogany Rock raw data (Table 3) b number of days based on those reported in Allen et al (1996) c calculation = birds/hr X days X 8 hours per day

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 41
The diversity of habitats in the southern Blue Ridge is well-known, widely studied, and reported (LeGrand et al, 2001; Hunter et al., 1999). Many of the specific plant communities are host to specific groupings of the bird species of the region. This review will follow the descriptions of major habitat communities and their associated bird populations used by Hunter et al., (1999).
Forested lands dominate the vegetative coverage of the region with approximately
80% of the mountain region in some type or successional stage of forested lands. These forests are further subdivided into spruce-fir forest, northern hardwood, hemlock cove, cove hardwood, and xeric oak forests. Lower elevation forests include yellow pine and lowland riparian corridors. These low elevation systems, as well as highly disturbed or developed areas (urban, suburban, and intensively agricultural lands), are not treated in this review as they typically occur at lower elevations or do not contain special concern that would have impacts on wind energy development. Of these, the spruce-fir forest occurring at the highest elevations in the region is the most threatened (Noss, et al.,
1995). In North Carolina, larger tract and remnant stands of this forest type in North
Carolina include just 7 macro sites in North Carolina. These include the Great Smoky
Mountains National Park, Plott and Great Balsams, Black Mountains, Roan Mountain,
Grandfather Mountain, and Long Hope Valley. Some 12 species are largely breeding season spruce-fir obligates. These include several of the species of highest conservation concern in the State (NCNHP, 2002; Hunter et al, 1999). Additionally, six species may occur as extra-limital breeders in the spruce-fir zone. (See below)
Spruce-Fir Habitat Breeding Species (from Hunter et al, 1999)

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 42
Spruce-fir Breeders
Northern Saw-whet Owl
Olive-sided Flycatcher
Black-capped Chickadee
Red-breasted Nuthatch
Brown Creeper
Winter Wren
Golden-crowned Kinglet
Red Crossbill
Hermit Thrush
Magnolia Warbler
Purple Finch
Pine Siskin
Extra-Limital or Potential Breeders
Northern Goshawk
Long-eared Owl
Yellow-bellied Flycatcher
Swainson’s Thrush
Yellow-rumped Warbler
Northern Waterthrush
These high elevation spruce-fir habitats are of high conservation concern for most entities involved in management in the southern Blue Ridge (USFWS [Hunter et al,
1999], USDAFS [2002], US Park Service [Rabenold, 1984]). They are also a high priority for public conservation organizations (NCNAS, 2002; Irwin et al, 2002; Nature
Conservancy, 2000). For a review of the management concerns see Nicholas, et al.
(1999).
Other forested landscapes are also important to a wide variety of birds as both breeders and migrants. Northern hardwood forests are dominant in certain mid to high elevations (4000-6000 ft). In certain areas these forests grade into spruce-fir zones or in drier and more exposed areas, into grassy balds. These northern hardwood forests are home to several bird species of special concern. Two of the most notable are the Yellowbellied Sapsucker and Ruffed Grouse. Other migrants of concern typical of this habitat include the Veery, Rose-breasted Grosbeak, Black-billed Cuckoo, and Black-throated
Blue Warbler. Also, several species that are typically found in the spruce fir zone regularly use the hardwood zone as well. An example is the downslope use in winter and

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 43 post-breeding dispersal of the Northern Saw-whet Owl (Milling 1996). Similarly,
Rabenold (1984) studied the differential aspects of altitudinal and short distance migration by age and gender in the Dark-eyed Junco.
Hemlock cove forests (Hemlock-pine in Hunter, et al, 1999) also contain breeding communities of species of special concern. Some of these species are Blackburnian
Warbler, Acadian Flycatcher, Black-throated Blue Warbler, Canada Warbler, and
Swainson’s Warbler. These cove forests occur in a wide range of elevations from 2500-
4000 feet. Red Crossbill populations may also utilize these mixed conifer forests.
[Smalling, (2002b), Simpson (1974)]. These forests are under threat from an invasive pest, the hemlock wooly adelgid, and may be subject to rapid decline in the near future.
These habitats also are used as wintering habitats of higher elevation species like Goldencrowned Kinglet, Winter Wren, Red-breasted Nuthatch, and Northern saw-whet Owl.
Hardwood Cove Forests, like Hemlock coves, support specialized avian communities including the Cerulean Warbler, Swainson’s Warbler, and many other neotropical migrants. These coves typically have higher canopy heights, more complex vertical structures, and cooler temperatures than surrounding mixed forests. They can have the highest abundance and densities of breeding species of any habitat in the region.
Cove forests are widespread from 1000 to 4500 feet in elevation and are widespread geographically across the region.
Oak forest is very common in the region, especially on xeric slopes with more wind and sum exposure. Up to 50% of the Southern Blue Ridge forests are oak forest
(Hunter, et al, 1999) Chestnut, red, and white oak occur in varying amounts and with highly variable understory and vertical structures depending on past land use,

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 44 disturbance, and fire cycles. These areas support lower abundances of bird species than some of the cove forests, but contain high numbers of neotropical migrants including
Wood Thrush, Black-and-White Warbler, Scarlet Tanager, and Eastern Wood Peewee.
Broad-winged Hawks appear to be a common breeder as well (Smalling, 2002b).
Early successional areas of the region are a smaller, although important, component of the habitat mix in the region. Species of special concern include Goldenwinged Warbler, Vesper Sparrow, Bewick’s Wren, and Yellow-bellied Sapsucker.
Recent surveys of Golden-winged Warblers are summarized by the Cornell Laboratory of
Ornithology (Birdsource, 2002) and Smalling (2002a). High elevation balds may also be important winter foraging areas for the locally rare Golden Eagle (DeVore, 1973; Grant,
1970; Brodeur, et al, 1996). Other wintering species seen at high elevation open areas include Goshawk (Lee, 1985), Snow Bunting, and a variety of northern finches (Eller,
1979).
Sometimes included with early successional habitats are mountain wetlands like bogs, seeps, and beaver wetlands. Recent work by Jason Bullock (2002, in prep) have shown that these small habitats may be important habitat for locally uncommon breeders like Alder Flycatcher, Golden-winged Warbler, and a host of others (and see Haggerty,
1980).
These habitat summaries are offered as beginning points for selection of potential wind sites. No matter where potential sites are selected, they will occur in one or more of the aforementioned habitats. Certain of these habitats (i.e. spruce-fir) are so threatened that conservation and public outcry from their development would probably be too large a hurdle to overcome for wind energy development. Other habitat types may actually

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 45 provide opportunities for cooperative partnerships with land managers. This may include conversion of oak dominated forest into early successional habitats around wind energy areas to support early succesional species of special concern (e.g. Golden-winged
Warbler, Bewick’s Wren, Vesper Sparrow). The Partners in Flight Conservation Plan
(Hunter et al, 1999) outlines goals for the management, conservation, and potential conversion of oak forest acreages to early successional habitats.
These habitat variables are gross landscape level determinations. More fine tuned assessments of the habitats of the region are defined by other agencies including the
Nature Conservancy, North Carolina Natural Heritage Program (Schafale and Weakley,
1990) and the Southern Appalachian Assessment of the Southern Appalachian Man and the Biosphere project (1996). As potential sites are selected for wind energy development, these finer scale definitions and delineations of habitat types may be more appropriate to environmental assessments and siting decisions.

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 46
The Southern Blue Ridge and its large base of natural resources have long been the focus of conservation efforts. Vast tracts of forest have led to public acquisition of large areas into national forests, parks, and scenic areas. The creation of the Blue Ridge
Parkway, Nantahala and Pisgah National Forests, Great Smoky Mountains National Park, and the Appalachian Trail have created widespread interest in and access to the natural wonders of the region. These areas of forest have been used for timber management, recreation, and scenic enjoyment. The stress of those disparate uses is currently driving the debate over the future of the region. The recently completed Southern Appalachian
Assessment has given conservationists, activists, and planners new and better information to address issues at the regional level (Southern Appalachian Man and the Biosphere,
1996) and is one of the first studies to look at the region as a whole.
Many private groups and not-for-profits are actively involved in the region including the Western North Carolina Alliance (Messick, 2000), Nature Conservancy, various land trusts, Appalachian Voices, the Sierra Club, and literally hundreds of small, community based organizations. A recent conservation expo held in Boone (November
20002) showcased some 30 organizations from that immediate area. Many governmental units are also involved in the region and have prepared separate plans that may include avian issues. Forest Service Management plans, the recently undertaken comprehensive strategic planning process for the Blue Ridge Parkway, and state and national park plans are available for review from a variety of sources (See Appendix III). Most of these plans contain avian components, but typically bird related issues are not the motivating factor in their preparation.

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 47
There are however, two major conservation initiatives in the region focused on bird conservation. These are the Partners in Flight Southern Blue Ridge Bird
Conservation Plan (Hunter et al, 1999) and the National Audubon Society Important
Bird Areas Program. A third organization, the Southern Appalachian Forest Coalition, has recently completed a comprehensive plan for the region (Irwin et al, 2002). These three major plans and programs will be addressed individually below.
A primary motivation for the creation of these various plans is a downward population trend for many of the neotropical migrants of the region (Robbins et al, 1989;
Hagan and Johnson, 1992; Rappole, 1995; Franzeb and Rosenberg, 1997; Piene, 1999).
Development, both residential and commercial leads to forest fragmentation, a commonly held cause of declining populations (Pulliam, 1988; Robbins et al, 1989; Lent and Capen,
1995; Robinson et al, 1995; Brittingham and Temple, 1996; Farnesworth and Simons,
1999; Ortega and Capen, 1999). Wind resource development may result in forest fragmentation (Kerlinger, 2001).
Partners in Flight (PIF) was established in 1990 to address avian conservation issues in a cooperative manner between governmental units headed by the United States
Fish and Wildlife Service, non-governmental organizations, and other interested universities and individuals. The goal of PIF is to keep species populations healthy in order to keep species from becoming listed as Endangered or Threatened Species.
Innovative partnerships are created for research, education, and funding to further that goal. Cooperative projects with scientists and governments in Latin American is also an

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 48 emphasis of the program with the knowledge that neotropical migrants spend parts of their lives in both temperate and tropical areas.
In 1999, a draft of a management plan was completed for the Southern Blue
Ridge region (Hunter, et al) and has been used extensively for this review. In general this plan sees the need for improving the health (stratification, tree species diversity, and disturbance regimen) on the largest forested tracts of oak and mixed forest in the region.
This plan also calls for the active conservation, management, and possibly restoration of the rarer habitat types in the region (spruce-fir, cove hardwood, hemlock cove, and early successional areas).
PIF also is working toward management plans for all physiographic provinces of the United States. The strength of these plans is that they are created with the input of the various partners, allowing each to “buy” into the finished product, making it more palatable and cost effective.
The National Audubon Society has recently begun the process of designating areas of the United States as Important Bird Areas. This program takes nominations from citizens and researchers for areas of importance to birds for breeding, foraging, migration, or wintering sites. These nominations are reviewed by each state’s technical review committee for inclusion into the Important Bird Areas Program. Each state office then takes responsibility for gathering data, examining ownership patterns, and helping conservation groups at work in each of those areas to work toward long-term protection of the IBA.

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 49
Currently in North Carolina there are some 77 IBA sites. Seventeen of these are located in the mountains. A map of these areas is available online at www.ncaudubon.org
. These delineations may change as more data are gathered each year. For instance, in 2002, surveys were conducted in the Wilson Creek Drainage and
Amphibolite Mountains IBA’s (Smalling, unpub. data) that may slightly change the mapping of these IBAs. Future research in other understudied sections of the mountains may reveal new IBA sites for inclusion.
In 2002, the Southern Appalachian Forest Coalition (SAFC) produced a region wide conservation plan (Irwin et al, 2002). Return the Great Forest is an aggressive plan to preserve some of the last remaining roadless and wild areas in the southern
Appalachian region, as well as highlight currently protected areas that can serve to link broader conservation areas, or that are under threats from outside the region (acid deposition, air quality, water quality, etc).
The North Carolina portion of the SAFC plan calls for the permanent protection, expansion, and consolidation of nine macro sites. These are the defined in Irwin (2002) and include detailed maps of each area. These specific site plans utilize existing public ownership of national forests, national parks, state parks, and privately held tracts to create larger conservation areas. Key sites adjacent to or included between larger tracts are also identified as high priority additions to these macro conservation areas.
Again, like the PIF plan, this conservation plan has as its strength the various partners who came together to produce a unified strategy for conservation in the region.

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 50
The North Carolina Chapters of the National Audubon Society, Sierra Club, Wilderness
Society, Western North Carolina Alliance, and at least a dozen other agencies and groups helped shape this plan. This plan is expected to be a driving force in the private conservation community for years to come. Combined with the PIF plan for bird conservation (which focuses to a greater degree on publicly held lands and their managers), and the IBA program, these programs serve as the direction for bird conservation in the region, and should be addressed as wind energy placements are considered in the mountains of western North Carolina.

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 51
Perhaps the single most important recommendation concerning avian impacts for wind development in western North Carolina is the inclusion of this topic in the decision making process. Avian impacts should be included with wind resources, infrastructure location, viewshed, or other factors to narrow the list of potential sites for wind development.
Once a handful of sites are selected for more intensive biological, technical, and political surveys, methodologies developed by the Avian Subcommittee of the National
Wind Coordinating Committee (Anderson et al, 1999) should be followed as closely as possible. These include reconnaissance surveys, avian use and risk studies throughout an annual cycle, and ideally BACI study format should be adopted (See above).
In keeping with this philosophy of using the national study outline, it would also be in the interests of the State of North Carolina’s Department of Energy, Appalachian
State University’s Technology Program, and other interested groups in North Carolina to become involved in the national debate on avian impacts. We have some of the highest quality wind resources in the country (Scanlin, pers. comm.) and some of the key figures in the national debate are close to home. Ken Pollock at NC State University is a key contributor to avian population impacts and modeling studies, and Sidney Gauthreaux at
Clemson University is one of the, if not the, leading authorities on radar ornithology in the world. Department of Energy funding for future studies of avian impacts may depend on proactive involvement at the national level.

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 52
A summary of the major research needs listed in the Proceedings of the National
Avian/Wind Power Planning Meeting IV (PNAWPPM-IV 2001) shows that many basic research topics are still unanswered. Issues such as bird use of differing tower types
(lattice vs. tubular), mortality at different turbine types (older/smaller vs. newer/larger), tower placement and spacing and its effect on avian mortality, and topographical considerations of bird usage and turbine placement all need further clarification.
Methodologies can be improved, especially nocturnal monitoring of bats and migrants, and carcass searches. Carcass removal chronologies still must be further refined, and a centralized reporting network of avian mortality events should to be developed.
For North Carolina, important considerations include species specific impacts.
Acceptable levels of mortality differ among species (e.g., those that are rare versus common). Habitat considerations for placement (e.g., avoidance of spruce/fir areas), after effects of habitat alterations from wind development (e.g., does conversion of forest to early successional habitats help early successional species of special concern at wind sites) and long term population monitoring of species of special concern all need to be addressed as part of a long-term monitoring strategy for wind resource areas.
These considerations are not simply academic exercises. Mitigation strategies, long-term monitoring, a willingness to change operational procedures in light of new information, and other planning and research efforts may help alleviate public concern over avian impacts. Most studies have shown that avian impacts are low if wind development placement is done with avian usage patterns and rates of foraging and migration are kept in mind. It would truly be unfortunate if avian impact issues were to

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 53 become a major obstacle to development given the benefits of green power and its impacts on air quality and other environmental factors.

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 54
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APPENDIX I
Avian Species Regularly Using the Southern Blue Ridge
(after AOU, 2002)
Species
Common Loon
Pied-billed Grebe
Horned Grebe
Double-crested Cormorant
American Bittern
Scientific Name
Gavia immer
Podilymbus podiceps
Podiceps auritus
Phalacrocorax carbo
Botaurus lentiginosus
Least Bittern
Great Blue Heron
Great Egret
Cattle Egret
Green Heron
Black-crowned Night Heron
White Ibis
Black Vulture
Turkey Vulture
Snow Goose
Canada Goose
Wood Duck
Gadwall
American Widgeon
American Black Duck
Mallard
Blue-winged Teal
Northern Shoveler
Northern Pintail
Green-winged Teal
Canvasback
Redhead
Ring-necked Duck
Greater Scaup
Lesser Scaup
Surf Scoter
Bufflehead
Hooded Merganser
Red-breasted Merganser
Bald Eagle
Northern Harrier
Sharp-shinned Hawk
Cooper's Hawk
Northern Goshawk
Red-shouldered Hawk
Broad-winged Hawk
Red-tailed Hawk
Golden Eagle
Ixobrychus exilis
Ardea herdias
Ardea alba
Bubulcus ibis
Butorides virescens
Nycticorax nycticorax
Eudocimus albus
Coragyps atratus
Cathartes aura
Chen caerulescens
Branta canadensis
Aix sponsa
Anas strepera
Anas americana
Anas rubripes
Anas platyrynchos
Anas discors
Anas clypeata
Anas acuta
Anas crecca
Aythya valisineria
Aythya americana
Aythya collaris
Aythya marila
Aythya affinis
Melanitta perspicillata
Bucephala albeola
Lophodytes cucullatus
Mergus serrator
Haliaeetus leucocephalus
Circus cyaneus
Accipiter striatus
Accipiter cooperii
Accipiter gentilis
Bute lineatus
Buteo platypterus
Buteo jamaicensis
Aquila chryseatos

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 70
American Kestrel
Merlin
Peregrine Falcon
Ruffed Grouse
Wild Turkey
Northern Bobwhite
King Rail
Sora
American Coot
Sandhill Crane
Semipalmated Plover
Killdeer
American Avocet
Greater Yellowlegs
Lesser Yellowlegs
Solitary Sandpiper
Spotted Sandpiper
Upland Sandpiper
Semipalmated Sandpiper
Least Sandpiper
Pectoral Sandpiper
Common Snipe
American Woodcock
Bonaparte's Gull
Ring-billed Gull
Herring Gull
Rock Dove
Mourning Dove
Black-billed Cuckoo
Yellow-billed Cuckoo
Barn Owl
Eastern Screech Owl
Great Horned Owl
Barred Owl
Long-eared Owl
Short-eared Owl
Northern Saw-whet Owl
Common Nighthawk
Whip-poor-will
Chimney Swift
Ruby-throated Hummingbird
Rufous Hummingbird
Belted Kingfisher
Red-headed Woodpecker
Red-bellied Woodpecker
Yellow-bellied Sapsucker
Downy Woodpecker
Hairy Woodpecker
Falco sparverius
Falco columarius
Falco peregrinus
Bonasa umbellus
Meleagris gallopavo
Colinus virginianus
Rallus elegans
Porzana carolina
Fulica americana
Grus canadensis
Charadrius semipalmatus
Charadrius vociferous
Recurvirostra americana
Tringa melanoleuca
Tringa flavipes
Tringa solitaria
Actitis macularia
Batramia longicauda
Calidris pusilla
Calidris minutilla
Calidris melanotos
Gallinago gallinago
Scolopax minor
Larus philadelphia
Larus delawarensis
Larus argentatus
Columba livia
Zenaida macroura
Coccyzus erythropthalmus
Coccyzus americanus
Tyto alba
Oyus asio
Bubo virginianus
Strix varia
Asio otus
Asio flammeus
Aegolius acadicus
Chordeiles minor
Caprimulgus vociferus
Chaetura pelagica
Archilocus colubris
Selasphorous rufus
Ceryle alcyon
Melanerpes erythrocephalus
Melanerpes carolinus
Sphyrapicus varius
Picoides pubescens
Picoides villosus

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 71
Northern Flicker
Pileated Woodpecker
Olive-sided Flycatcher
Eastern Wood Peewee
Yellow-bellied Flycatcher
Acadian Flycatcher
Alder Flycatcher
Willow Flycatcher
Least Flycatcher
Eastern Phoebe
Great Crested Flycatcher
Eastern Kingbird
Loggerhead Shrike
White-eyed Vireo
Colaptes auratus
Dryocopus pileatus
Contopus cooperi
Contopus virens
Empidonax flaviventris
Empidonax virescens
Empidonax alnorum
Empidonax traillii
Empidonax minimus
Sayornis phoebe
Myiarchus crinitus
Tyrannus tyrannus
Lanius ludovicianus
Vireo griseus
Yellow-throated Vireo
Blue-headed Vireo
Warbling Vireo
Philadelphia Vireo
Red-eyed Vireo
Blue Jay
American Crow
Common Raven
Vireo flavifrons
Vireo solitarius
Vireo gilvus
Vireo philadelphicus
Vireo olivaceus
Cyanocitta cristata
Corvus brachyrhynchos
Corvus corax
Horned Lark
Purple Martin
Eremophilia alpestris
Progne subis
Tree Swallow Tachycineta bicolor
Northern Rough-winged Swallow Stelgidopteryx serripennis
Bank Swallow
Cliff Swallow
Carolina Chickadee
Black-capped Chickadee
Riparia riparia
Petrochelidon pyrrhonata
Poecile carolinensis
Poecile atricapilla
Tufted Titmouse
Red-breasted Nuthatch
White-breasted Nuthatch
Brown-headed Nuthatch
Brown Creeper
Carolina Wren
Bewick's Wren
House Wren
Winter Wren
Sedge Wren
Marsh Wren
Golden-crowned Kinglet
Ruby-crowned Kinglet
Blue-gray Gnatcatcher
Eastern Bluebird
Veery
Gray-cheeked Thrush
Swainson's Thrush
Baeolophus bicolor
Sitta canadensis
Sitta carolinensis
Sitta pusilla
Certhia americana
Thyrothorus ludovicianus
Thryomanes bewickii
Troglodytes aedon
Troglodytes troglodytes
Cistothorus platensis
Cistothorus palustris
Regulus satrapa
Regulus calendula
Polioptila caerulea
Sialia sialis
Catharus fuscescens
Catharus minimus
Catharus ustulatus

Hermit Thrush
Wood Thrush
American Robin
Gray Catbird
Northern Mockingbird
Brown Thrasher
European Starling
American Pipit
Cedar Waxwing
Blue-winged Warbler
Golden-winged Warbler
Tennessee Warbler
Orange-crowned Warbler
Nashville Warbler
Catharus guttatus
Hylocichla mustelina
Turdus migratorius
Dumatella carolinensis
Mimus polyglottos
Toxostoma rufum
Sturnus vulgaris
Anthus rubescens
Bombycilla cedrorum
Vermivora pinus
Vermivora chrysoptera
Vermivora peregrina
Vermivora celata
Vermivora ruficapilla
Northern Parula
Yellow Warbler
Chestnut-sided Warbler
Magnolia Warbler
Parula americana
Dendroica petechia
Dendroica pensylvanica
Dendroica magnolia
Cape May Warbler Dendroica tigrina
Black-throated Blue Warbler Dendroica caerulescens
Yellow-rumped Warbler Dendroica coronata
Black-throated Green Warbler Dendroica virens
Blackburnian Warbler
Yellow-throated Warbler
Pine Warbler
Kirtland's Warbler
Prairie Warbler
Palm Warbler
Bay-breasted Warbler
Blackpoll Warbler
Dendroica fusca
Dendroica dominica
Dendroica pinus
Dendroica kirtlandii
Dendroica discolor
Dendroica palmarum
Dendroica castanea
Dendroica striata
Cerulean Warbler
Black and White Warbler
American Redstart
Worm-eating Warbler
Swainson's Warbler
Ovenbird
Northern Waterthrush
Louisianna Waterthrush
Kentucky Warbler
Conneticutt Warbler
Mourning Warbler
Common Yellowthroat
Hooded Warbler
Canada Warbler
Yellow-breasted Chat
Summer Tanager
Scarlet Tanager
Eastern Towhee
Dendroica cerulea
Mniotilta varia
Setophaga ruticilla
Helmitheros vermivora
Limnothlypis swainsonii
Seiurus aurocapillus
Seiurus noveboracensis
Seiurus motacilla
Oporornis formosus
Oporornis agilis
Oporornis philadelphia
Geothlypis trichas
Wilsonia citrina
Wilsonia canadensis
Icteria virens
Piranga rubra
Piranga olicacea
Pipilo erythrophthalmus
Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 72

Chipping Sparrow
Clay-colored Sparrow
Field Sparrow
Vesper Sparrow
Savannah Sparrow
Grasshopper Sparrow
Fox Sparrow
Song Sparrow
Lincoln's Sparrow
Swamp Sparrow
White-throated Sparrow
White-crowned Sparrow
Dark-eyed Junco
Snow Bunting
Cardinal
Rose-breasted Grosbeak
Blue Grosbeak
Indigo Bunting
Bobolink
Red-winged Blackbird
Eastern Meadowlark
Rusty Blackbird
Brewer's Blackbird
Common Grackle
Brown-headed Cowbird
Orchard Oriole
Baltimore Oriole
Purple Finch
House Finch
Red Crossbill
White-winged Crossbill
Common Redpoll
Pine Siskin
American Goldfinch
Evening Grosbeak
House Sparrow
Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 73
Spizella passerina
Spizella pallida
Spizella pusilla
Pooecetes gramineus
Passerculus sandwichensis
Ammodramus savannarum
Passerella iliaca
Melospiza melodia
Melospiza lincolnii
Melospiza georgiana
Zonotrichia albicollis
Zonotrichia leucophrys
Junco hyemalis
Plectophenax nivalis
Cardinalis cardinalis
Pheucticus ludovicianus
Passerina caerulea
Passerina cyanea
Dolichonyx oryzivorus
Agelaius phoeniceus
Sturnella magna
Euphagus carolinus
Euphagus cyanocephalus
Quiscalus quiscula
Molothrus ater
Icterus spurius
Icterus galbula
Carpodacus pupureus
Carpodacus mexicanus
Loxia curvirostra
Loxia leucoptera
Carduelis flammea
Carduelis pinus
Carduelis tristis
Coccothraustes vespertinus
Passer domesticus

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 74
APPENDIX II
North Carolina Mountains Bibliography
Brodeur, Serge, Robert Decarie, David M. Bird, and Mark Fuller. 1996. Complete migration cycle of Golden Eagles breeding in northern Quebec. Condor 98: 293-
299.
Chamberlain, W. David. 1975. Sandhill Cranes in western NC. Chat 39(1): 19.
Cook, Charles W. 2000. Two sight records of Kirtland’s Warbler from North Carolina.
Chat 64(1): 21-25.
DeVore, Jon E. 1973. Golden Eagle in the Unicoi Mountains. Chat 37(2): 50.
Duyck, Bill E. 1981. Range expansion of nesting Tree Swallows. Chat 45(4): 98-100.
Enloe, Mary. 1970a. Goshawk at Franklin, NC. Chat 34(3): 79.
-----. 1970b. LeConte’s Sparrow at Franklin, NC. Chat 34(2): 49-50.
-----. 1971. Traill’s Flycatcher near Franklin, NC. Chat 35(2): 55.
Grant, Gilbert S. 1970. Golden Eagle specimen from Buncombe County, NC. Chat
34(2): 48.
Groth, J. G. 1988. Resolution of cryptic species in Appalachian Red Crossbills. Condor
90: 745-760.
Hader, Robert J. 1975. Goshawks in Avery County, NC. Chat 39(1):18.
Haggerty, Tom. 1979. Spring migrant shorebirds in Watauga County, NC. Chat
43(2): 33.
-----. 1980. Alder Flycatcher colony in Watauga County, North Carolina. Chat 44(3):
83.
-----. 1982. Confirmation of breeding Red Crossbills in the mountains of North
Carolina with notes on nesting behavior. Chat 46(3): 83-86.
Hall, Joseph L. 1972. Double-crested Cormorant in western North Carolina. Chat 36(4):
106.
Hendren, Lin. 1978. Canada Geese wintering in western NC. Chat 42(2): 30-31.
Holland, Walter C., Jr. 1974. Possible summer resident nighthawks at Brevard, NC.
Chat 38(3): 72.

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 75
Holt, Jane P. 1973a. Brown-headed Cowbird increases in NC mountains. Chat 37(3):
84.
-----. 1973b. Mountain fall record of Wilson’s Warbler at Montreat, North Carolina.
Chat 37(1): 25.
-----. 1973c. Olive-sided Flycatcher at Montreat, North Carolina. Chat 37(1): 24-25.
-----. 1974. Bird populations in the hemlock sere on the Highlands Plateau, North
Carolina, 1946 to 1972. Wilson Bull. 86: 397-406.
Horn, John C. 1984. Short-term changes in bird communities after clearcutting in western North Carolina. Wilson Bull. 96: 684-689.
Irvin, Wayne. 1999. Fourth Northern Shrike record from North Carolina. Chat 63(3):
139-141.
Katz, R. T. 1997. Using landscape ecosystem classification to manage neortropical migratory birds in the mountains of western North Carolina. MS Thesis.
Clemson University, SC. 96 pp.
Kendeigh, S. Charles, and Ben J. Fawver. 1981. Breeding bird populations in the Great
Smokey Mountains, Tennessee and North Carolina. Wilson Bull 93: 218-242.
Lee, David S. 1985. Breeding season records of boreal birds in western North Carolina with additional information on species summering on Grandfather Mountain.
Chat 49(4): 85-94.
-----. 1986. Seasonal distribution of marine birds in North Carolina waters,
1975-1986. American Birds 40: 409-412.
Lee, David S., Don Audet, and Bryant Tarr. 1985. Summer bird fauna of North
Carolina’s Grandfather Mountain. Chat 49(1): 1-14.
Lee, David S., and B. Browning. 1998. In prep. Conservation concerns related to avian endemism in the southern Appalachians. 35 pp.
Lee, David S., and James F. Parnell. 1990. Endangered, threatened, and rare fauna of
North Carolina Part III: A re-evaluation of the birds. Occasional papers of the
NC Biological Survey. NC Museum of Natural History. Raleigh, NC.
LeGrand, Edmund. 1979. A report on an Alder Flycatcher colony at Roan Mountain with comments on the status of the species in the Southern Appalachians. Chat
43(2): 35.

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 76
LeGrand, Harry E., Jr. 1975. Distribution and abundance of the wood warblers in North
Carolina during the spring, nesting, and fall seasons. Chat 39: 45-54.
LeGrand, Harry E., Jr. 1976. Notes and comments on the Blue-winged and Goldenwinged Warblers in southwestern NC in summer. Chat 40(1): 15-16.
-----. 1979. Cerulean warbler colony in Graham County, NC. Chat 43(1): 20.
-----. 1983. Savannah Sparrows on territory in Alleghany County, North Carolina. Chat
47(3): 72-73.
LeGrand, Harry E., Jr., and Eloise F. Potter. 1980. Ashe County breeding bird foray -
1979. Chat 44(1): 5-13.
Lynch, J. Merrill. 1973. Cerulean Warbler found in NC in summer.. Chat37(3):
83.
-----. 1981. Status of the Mississippi Kite in North Carolina. Chat 45(2): 42-44.
Lynch, J. Merrill, and Harry E. LeGrand, Jr. 1989. Breeding season birds of Long Hope
Valley, Watauga and Ashe Counties, North Carolina. Chat 53(2): 29-35.
Marsh, Chris, Harry LeGrand, Jr., and William Brown, Jr. 1974. Summer bird records from Ashe and Alleghany Counties, NC. Chat 38(1): 1-3.
McConnell, Jim. 1982. A winter bird survey of Graham County, NC. Chat 46(1): 19-20.
McConnell, Jim, and Gwen McConnell. 1983. Breeding birds of the Unicoi Mountains.
Chat 47(2): 33-40.
McNair, Douglas B. 1985. The breeding status of the Blue-winged Warbler in South
Carolina. Chat 49(2): 47-48.
-----. 1988. Second record of American Avocet from the mountain region of North
Carolina. Chat 52(4): 79-80.
-----. 2000. Active nest of the Black-capped Chickadee from the Great Smoky
Mountains: first report for North Carolina. Chat 64(2): 62-63.
Meyer, Kenneth D., and Helmut C. Mueller. 1982. Recent evidence of Sharp-shinned
Hawks breeding in North Carolina. Chat 46(3): 78-80.
North Carolina Bird Records Committee. 2002. North Carolina Bird List. Chat 66(2):
37-42.

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 77
Post, W., D. B. McNair, and H. E. LeGrand, Jr. 1986. Status of the Lincoln’s Sparrow in
South Carolina. Chat 50(2): 56-59.
Potter, Eloise F. 1986. A brief history of the Carolina Bird Club. Chat 50(3): 60-95.
Potter, Eloise F. and Harry E. LeGrand, Jr. 1980. Bird finding on Roan Mountain,
Mitchell County, NC. Chat 44(2): 32-26.
Pratt, H. Douglas. 1970a. Barn Swallow observations in Great Smokey Mountains.
Chat 34:21-22.
-----. 1970b. Late summer record of Saw-whet Owl in the North Carolina mountains.
Chat 34(2): 49.
-----. 1970c. Red Crossbills and Pine Siskins in Great Smoky Mountains, summer 1969.
Chat 34(3): 81-82.
-----. 1971. Additional notes on the birds of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park in North Carolina. Chat 35(1): 1-4.
Pratt, H. Douglas. 1971. Winter Wren at low altitude during breeding season. Chat
35(2): 55.
Schultz, Michael P. 1980. Warblers in southwestern North Carolina, including Cerulean
Warblers in Clay County. Chat 44(1): 18-19.
Siebenheller, Norma and Bill Siebenheller. 1992. Pine Siskins build nest in
Transylvania County, NC. Chat 56(3): 57-58.
-----. 1999a. Bobolinks nest in Haywood County, NC. Chat 63(4): 179-180.
-----. 1999b. Sandhill Crane in Transylvania County, NC. Chat 63(4): 181.
Simpson, Marcus B., Jr. 1970a. An early record of the Saw-whet Owl from North
Carolina. Chat 34: 21.
-----. 1970b. Status of the Least Flycatcher on the Highlands Plateau. Chat 34(4): 103.
-----.1970c. An unusual nest site of the Slate-colored Junco. Chat 34: 25-26.
-----. 1971a. Summer records of the Saw-whet Owl at Mount Mitchell, North Carolina.
Chat 35(1): 30.
-----. 1971b. High altitude occurrences of the Bobwhite in western North Carolina. Chat
35(2): 54.

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 78
-----. 1971c. High altitude records of the Whip-poor-will in western North Carolina.
Chat 35(2): 54.
-----. 1971d. High altitude records of the American Woodcock in the Great Balsam
Mountains and Pisgah Ridge of North Carolina. Chat 35(3): 61-63.
-----. 1971e. High altitude occurrences of the Belted Kingfisher in Haywood County.
Chat 35(4): 111-112.
-----. 1972a. Nesting of the Yellow-bellied Sapsucker in Great Craggy and Southern
Great Balsam Mountains of North Carolina. Chat 36(4): 108-109.
-----. 1972b. Notes on the summer birds of the South Mountains. Chat 36(4): 99-101.
-----. 1972c. The Saw-whet Owl population of North Carolina’s Great Balsam
Mountains. Chat 36(2): 39-47.
-----. 1972d. Status of the Golden-crowned Kinglet on the Highlands Plateau. Chat
36(3): 92-93.
-----. 1972e. The Swallow-tailed Kite: A review of its occurrence in the Southern
Appalachians. Chat 36(3): 69-72.
-----. 1972f. Winter records of the Brown-headed Nuthatch in the Southern Appalachian
Mountains. Chat 36(3): 90-91.
-----. 1974a. Recent observations of Saw-whet Owls in the southern Great Balsam and
Black Mountains of NC. Chat 38(4): 94.
-----. 1974b. Red Crossbill observations in western NC. Chat 38(2): 43.
-----.1975a. The advent of the Song Sparrow as a breeding species in the Southern Blue
Ridge Province. Chat 39(4): 93-94.
-----. 1975b. Breeding season habitat and distribution of the Red-breasted Nuthatch in the southern Blue Ridge province. Chat 40(2): 23-24.
------. 1976a. Saw-whet Owl records from the southern Great Balsam mountains of NC.
Chat 40(1): 14.
-----. 1976b. Birds of the Plott Balsam Mountains of NC. Chat 40(3): 53-62.
-----.1976c. Breeding season habitats of the Golden-crowned Kinglet in the southern
Blue Ridge mountains. Chat 40(4): 75-76.
-----.1977a. High elevation nesting near Mount Pisgah, NC. Chat 41(3): 72-73.

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 79
-----.1977b. The Black-capped Chickadee in the southern Blue Ridge province: a review of its ecology and distribution. Chat 41(4): 79-86.
-----.1978a. Breeding season distribution and ecology of the Vesper Sparrow in the southern Blue Ridge province. Chat 42(1): 1-2.
-----. 1978b. Ecological factors contributing to the decline of Bewick’s Wren as a breeding species in the southern Blue Ridge province. Chat 42(2): 25-28.
-----. 1993. Pied-billed Grebe breeding records in the Southern Blue Ridge mountains.
Chat 57(1): 7-8.
Simpson, Marcus B., Jr., and P. G. Range. 1974. Evidence of the breeding of Saw-whet
Owls in western North Carolina. Wilson Bull. 86: 173-174.
Simpson, Marcus B., Jr., Marjorie Rogers, and Hollis J. Rogers. 1970. Breeding Cedar
Waxwings in Great Craggy and Black Mountains. Chat 34(4): 104-106.
Simpson, Marcus B., Jr. and Robert Ruiz. 1973. Observations of the Barn Owl in the southern Appalachian mountains. Chat 37(3): 83.
-----. 1974. Monk Parakeets breeding in Buncombe County, NC. Wilson Bull. 86: 171-
172.
Snavely, Ramona. 1978. Bank Swallows nesting in NC. Chat 42(4): 83-84.
Swindell, Maxie. 1974. Fledgling Red Crossbills at Newfound Gap. Chat 38(2): 42.
Tate, James, Jr., and Charles R. Smith. 1974. Late spring along the Southern Blue Ridge
Parkway. Chat 38(4): 83-87.
Test, Frederick H. 1984. Clay-colored Sparrows in the fall in the mountains of North
Carolina. Chat 48(2): 50.
Tove, Michael. 1977. Goshawk at Shining Rock Wilderness Area, NC. Chat 41(4):96.
-----. 1980. First evidence of nesting for the Black-capped Chickadee from North
Carolina. Chat 44(1): 1-4.
-----. 1982. Probable Brewster’s Warbler X Golden-winged Warbler mating in North
Carolina.
-----. 1987. Notes in the breeding of northern finches in North Carolina. Chat 51(3):
57-62.

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 80
Wilcove, David S. 1988. Changes in the avifauna of the Great Smoky Mountains:
1947-1983.

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 81
APPENDIX III
Internet Resources www.towerkills.com
lists by state the known towers in the state http://ils.unc.edu/~conlm/ncetspecies.htm
NC Birding Resource page with links to other organizations www.wildlife.state.nc.us
NC Wildlife Resources Commission http://ils.unc.edu/parkproject/nhp/program
NC Natural Heritage Program website www.faculty.ncwc.edu/mbrooks/pif
NC Partners in Flight website www.nationalwind.org
National Wind Coordinating Committee site with publications online of the avian study subcommittee. www.graylit.osti.gov
The web based information server covering DOE, DOD, and other government agency publications. Searchable and full text versions available on line. www.nrel.gov/wind/avianlit.html
on line avian/energy impacts database www.ncaudubon.org
maps and descriptions of Important Bird Areas Program www.birdsource.org
variety of sources including hawk migration data, CBC data http://ecos.fws.gov/recovery_plan/ recovery plans for all Federally Endangered and Threatened species http://virtual.clemson.edu/groups/birdrad/ website of the CUROL (Clemson University Radar Ornithology Laboratory) with tutorial and abstracts of major research projects www.srs.fs.fed.us
Southern Research Station of the USDA Forest Service. Searchable publications database

Wind energy/avian impacts in western NC 82 www.appalachian.org
website of the Southern Highlands Conservancy www.wnca.org
website of the Western North Carolina Alliance