A compilation of scientific abstracts dealing
with shoreline protection, with a focus on coral
reefs and mangroves
Compiled by Gabriel Grimsditch
Global Marine Programme
IUCN - The World Conservation Union
Rue Mauverney 28
1196 Gland
Switzerland
Tel: +41 22 999 0217
Fax: +41 22 999 0020
Email: gabriel.grimsditch@iucn.org
IUCN – The World Conservation Union brings together 82 States, 111 government agencies, and over 800
national and international non-governmental organizations. Its mission is to influence, encourage and assist
societies throughout the world to conserve the integrity and diversity of nature and to ensure that any use of
natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable. Through its six expert commissions IUCN draws on
some 10,000 scientists and other specialists from 181 countries. It has a secretariat presence in over 60 offices
around the world.
Table of Contents
Section
Introduction
Mangroves
Wave action across reefs
Tsunami effects
Cyclone effects
Hurricane effects
General risk
Other shoreline protection
Page
2
3
11
16
17
21
30
31
Introduction
These abstracts were collected at the University of Geneva Uni-Mail Library using the
following search engines and combinations of key words:
Search engines:
Blackwell Synergy
Ingenta Select
Kluwer Online
Science Direct
Springer Link
Key words:
shore/coast and protection/stabilization
mangrove/coral reef/coastal forest and wave/tsunami/cyclone/hurricane/tidal surge
Library address:
Uni Mail
Boulevard du Pont-d'Arve 40
1205 Geneva
Switzerland
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Mangroves
1. Allen, J.A., Ewel, K.C. and Jack, J. (2001) Patterns of natural and anthropogenic
disturbance of the mangroves on the Pacific Island of Kosrae. Wetlands Ecology and
Management, 9, 279-289.
Abstract: Mangroves in many parts of the world are subjected to frequent, large-scale disturbances. A possible
exception is Kosrae, Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), a small volcanic island in the west-central Pacific
Ocean. Relative sea level has been stable for most of the last 1000 years and the last tropical cyclone to affect the
island was in 1905. Many trees on Kosrae, especially individuals of the species Sonneratia alba, therefore appear
to die only after reaching advanced ages and exceptional sizes. The most widespread anthropogenic disturbance
is harvesting of trees for fuelwood and poles, which is done selectively and generally creates small, dispersed
gaps. Other forms of anthropogenic disturbance, such as modifications of coastal landforms, alterations of
freshwater inflows, road construction, and conversion to residential or agricultural uses are still relatively minor
but have led to some irreversible losses. The economy of Kosrae is based to a large degree on income derived
from a Compact of Free Association between the FSM and the United States, an agreement that has an uncertain
future. Many of the funding provisions of the Compact expire in 2001 and, if not renewed, may have dramatic
impacts on resource use. This in turn may lead to a much greater level of anthropogenic disturbance of what are
now some of the world’s most intact mangrove swamps.
2. Baldwin, A., Egnotovich, M., Ford, M. and Platt, W. (2001) Regeneration in fringe
mangrove forests damaged by Hurricane Andrew. Plant Ecology, 157, 149-162.
Abstract: Mangrove forests along many tropical coastlines are frequently and severely damaged by hurricanes.
The ability of mangrove forests to regenerate following hurricanes has been noted, but changes that occur in
vegetation following disturbance by hurricane winds and storm tides have not been studied. We measured
changes in plant community structure and environmental variables in two fringe mangrove forests in south
Florida, USA that experienced high wind velocities and storm tides associated with Hurricane Andrew (August
1992). Loss of the forest canopy stimulated regeneration via seedling growth and recruitment, as well as
resprouting of some trees that survived the hurricane. Initial regeneration differed among species in both forests:
Rhizophora mangle L. regenerated primarily via growth of seedlings present at the time of the hurricane (i.e.,
release of advance recruits), but many trees of Avicennia germinans (L.) Stearn and Laguncularia racemosa
Gaertn.f. resprouted profusely from dormant epicormic buds. In one forest, which was formerly dominated by
Laguncularia, high densities of Rhizophora seedlings survived the hurricane and grew to form dense stands of
saplings and small trees of Rhizophora. In the other forest, there were lower densities of surviving Rhizophora
seedlings (possibly due to higher storm tide), and extensive bare areas that were colonized by Avicennia,
Laguncularia, and herbaceous species. This forest, predominantly Rhizophora at the time of the hurricane, now
contains stands of saplings and small trees of all three species, interspersed with patches dominated by
herbaceous plants. These findings indicate that moderately damaged fringe forests may regenerate primarily via
release of Rhizophora advance recruits, leading to single-species stands. In severely damaged forests, seedling
recruitment may be more important and lead to mixed-species stands. Regeneration of mangrove forests
following hurricanes can involve different pathways produced by complex interactions between resprouting
capability, seedling survival, post-hurricane seedling recruitment, and colonization by herbaceous vegetation.
These differences in relative importance of regeneration pathways, which may result in post-hurricane forests
different from their pre-hurricane structure, suggest that models for regeneration of mangrove forests will be
more complex than “direct regeneration” models proposed for other tropical forests where regeneration after
hurricanes is dominated by resprouting.
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3. Bandyopadhyay, S. (1997) Natural environmental hazards and their management: a case
study of Sagar Island, India. Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography, 18, 20-45.
Abstract: The reclamation of Sagar Island from the Sundarban mangrove wetlands of the western Ganga
Brahmaputra delta was initiated in 1811. At present the island is almost wholly settled. The major natural
environmental hazards (NEH) that affect the island are tropical cyclones, coastal erosion, tidal ingression and
dunal encroachment. Human adjustments to these problems include acceptance, technological control,
relocation, regulation and emergency measures. Seven different agencies manage the existing NEH-prevention
projects of the island, often with little co-ordination. Important schemes managed by these agencies include
coastal and interior embankments, mangrove plantations, storm refuges, resettlement projects and vegetation
wind-breaks. Their efficiency ranges from excellent to very poor. Since a large outlay is inconceivable, the
island’s hazard prevention projects should mobilise existing resources in a more rational and co-ordinated
manner. The long-term solution to the problem, however, lies in an accelerated socio-economic development of
the region.
4. Bennet, E.L. and Reynold, C.J. (1993) The value of a mangrove area in Sarawak.
Biodiversity and Conservation, 2, 359-375.
Abstract: Many arguments have been presented to justify the conservation of tropical forests. In the case of
mangrove forests, their preservation can be argued using economic and employment grounds alone. A case study
of the Sarawak Mangroves Forest Reserve, Malaysia is presented. Here, the mangroves support marine fisheries
worth US$21.1 million p.a. and up to 3000 jobs, timber products worth US$123,217 p.a., and a tourist industry
worth US$3.7 million p.a. If the mangroves were to be damaged, all of the fisheries and timber and many of the
tourism benefits would be lost. In addition, highly expensive civil engineering works would be incurred to
prevent coastal erosion, flooding and other damage. The area is also one of the only remaining refuges for
mangrove flora and fauna in Sarawak. If the area were to be converted to aquaculture ponds or oil palm
plantations, levels of revenue would be greatly reduced, and the multiple other benefits of mangroves would be
lost. Coastal land pressure is not a limiting factor in the State. Considering their economic, employment, coastal
protection and species conservation values, mangroves should be conserved and their importance taken into
account at all levels in development planning.
5. Field, C.D. (1999) Mangrove rehabilitation: choice and necessity. Hydrobiologia, 413, 4752.
Abstract: The concept of mangrove ecosystem rehabilitation is considered. Four main reasons for rehabilitating
mangroves are identified: conservation, landscaping, sustainable production and coastal protection. Practical
aspects of mangrove rehabilitation, such as the causes of site degradation, site selection, source of seedlings and
planting, monitoring and maintenance are then briefly mentioned. Future developments that may impact on
mangrove ecosystem restoration such as the importance of biodiversity, biotechnology, ecological modelling,
mapping, human ecology and data bases, are then briefly reviewed. Finally, the matter of choice and necessity is
addressed.
6. Fosberg, F.R. and Chapman, V.J. (1971) Mangroves vs. tidal waves. Biological
Conservation 4, 38-39.
Abstract: On hearing of the contention which has been voiced in some conservationist circles that last year's
tidal-wave disaster in East Pakistan would, at the worst, not have cost nearly so many tens of thousand of human
lives and so much devastation if Man had not removed very widely the local mangrove vegetation, we asked two
of our Consulting Editors to comment on this apparent ecodisaster and are now privileged to publish their views.
Dr Fosberg has had possibly uniquely wide and protracted experience of maritime situations practically
throughout the tropics, and Professor Chapman has recently completed a book in manuscript on the mangroves
of the world.
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7. Imamura, F. and Van To, D. (1997) Flood and typhoon disasters in Vietnam. Natural
Hazards 15, 71-87.
Abstract. Disasters in Viet Nam are discussed by compiling recent data on the geophysical and social
environments, the frequency of disasters, and the values of human and financial losses in 1953– 1991.
Examinations of yearly frequency and damages caused by typhoons indicate a relatively increasing value of
losses in spite of a constant or decreasing frequency in the decade of the 1980s, meaning inadequate prevention
programs. The two successive typhoons in 1985 are described as the most catastrophic disaster for 100 years, in
which high waves combined with high tides destroyed the dike system and flooded a large area in the central part
of Viet Nam, which suggests some serious deficiencies in prevention efforts, especially in coastal areas.
Disasters on the coast have been significant because of the rapid growth of the population in the low lands and
the destruction of coastal environments, such as coastal erosion caused by a deforestation of mangroves and a
short supply of sand. As an example, coastal erosion at Ha Nam Nimh province in the northern part of Viet Nam
at an average receding speed of around 15 m/year is described.
8. Imbert, D., Rousteau, A. and Scherrer, P. (2000) Ecology of mangrove growth and
recovery in the Lesser Antilles: state of knowledge and basis for restoration projects.
Restoration Ecology, 8, 230-236.
Abstract: Whereas the increasing knowledge on tropical coastal wetland highlights the ecological and
economical importance of such ecosystems, anthropogenic activities within the coastal zone have caused
substantial, irreversible losses of mangrove areas in the Lesser Antilles during the last decades. Such a paradox
gives strength to compensatory policy efforts toward mangrove restoration. We review the available knowledge
on the ecology of mangrove growth and recovery in the Lesser Antilles as a contribution to possible restoration
projects in such islands. Distribution of species follows a general pattern of seaward/landward zonation
according to their respective tolerance to flooding and to pore-water salinity. An experimental study of seedling
growth following simulated oil spill has documented the tolerance of Rhizophora mangle and Avicennia
germinans seedlings to oil concentration in soils and the effects of natural biotic and abiotic factors on seedlings
growth and survival. Monitoring mangrove recovery following hurricane Hugo has given information on growth
patterns, from seedling to sapling stages, according to species and site conditions. Forest recovery was mostly
due to pre-established seedlings. For the large Rhizophora propagules, buoyancy appears to be a quite inefficient
way of dispersal far inland from the sea shore or riversides. Causes of recovery failure are discussed. From these
results we attempt to answer the questions when, where, how to plant mangroves, and what species to use.
9. Jennings, J.N. and Coventry, R.J. (2003) Structure and texture of a gravelly barrier island in
the Fitzroy estuary, Western Australia, and the role of mangroves in the shore dynamics.
Marine Geology 15, 145-167.
Abstract: In the stratification of the most coarse-textured barrier island of a system of sand and gravel barrier
spits and islands on Point Torment peninsula, King Sound, W.A., foreslope beds due to swash-backwash on the
beach face are unimportant. The main units are steeply dipping backslope beds and topslope beds of gentle,
chiefly landward inclination. Their bimodal sediments are poorly sorted for wave-built features. A very coarse
mode usually at −1.5 to −2 i; belongs to a population of well-rounded but platy, impure limestone, of local but
unlocated source, whereas the fine mode, almost invariably 1.00 to 1.25 i;, represents a population of quartz sand
fed from low and sub-tidal estuarine shoals. The two populations are thought to derive from the surface creep
and saltation cloud components of "traction carpets". Swash of intermediate energy waves forms the topslope
beds through percolation. Washover by waves of translation generated by occasional hurricanes erodes the top of
the feature and deposits the backslope beds on the rear face in standing water at abnormally high levels through
storm set-up. In both, unidirectional currents produce sediments with certain resemblances to fluvial "traction
clog" deposits. Dated by underlying mangrove wood of 1200 B.P. in front and of 500 B.P. in the rear, this barrier
probably retreated through mangrove swamp in the manner of some presently active members of the barrier
system. The seaward mangrove swamps neither protect the embankments behind nor suffer seriously from the
waves rolling the latter landward.
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10. Kovac, J.M., Wang, J. and Blanco-Correa, M. (2001) Mapping Disturbances in a
Mangrove Forest Using Multi-Date Landsat TM Imagery. Environmental Management, 27,
763-776.
Abstract: To evaluate the accounts of local fishermen, Landsat TM images (1986, 1993, 1999) were examined
to assess potential losses in the mangrove forests of the Teacapán–Agua Brava lagoon system, Mexico. A binary
change mask derived from image differencing of a band 4/3 ratio was employed to calculate any changes within
this forested wetland. The results indicate that by 1986 approximately 18% (or 86 km 2 ) of the mangrove area
under study was either dead or in poor condition. The majority of this damage had occurred in the eastern section
of the Agua Brava basin, which coincides, with the reports of the elderly fishermen. Examination of aerial
photographs from 1970 revealed no adverse impacts in this area and would suggest, as postulated by the
fishermen and other scientists, that modifications in environmental conditions following the opening of a canal,
Cuautlá canal, in 1972 may have initiated the large-scale mortality. Although these areas of impact are still
developing, the results from the satellite data indicate that the majority of the more recent changes are occurring
elsewhere in the system. Obvious in the 1999 satellite data, but not so in the 1993, are large areas of mangrove
degradation in the northern section of the Teacapán region. In the Agua Brava basin, the more recent
transformations are appearing on the western side of the basin. Since long-term records of environmental
conditions are absent, it is difficult to determine why these latest changes are occurring or even if the earlier
losses were the result of the canal. Potential agents of change that have recently been observed include a
hurricane, a second canal, and the uncontrolled expansion of the Cuautlá canal since 1994.
11. Krauss, K.W. and Allen, J.A. (2003) Influences of salinity and shade on seedling
photosynthesis and growth of two mangrove species, Rhizophora mangle and Bruguiera
sexangula, introduced to Hawaii. Aquatic Botany, 77, 311-324.
Abstract: Rhizophora mangle was first introduced to Hawaii in 1902 to promote shoreline stabilization.
Intertidal competition with native and introduced salt marsh species was low, and beyond the early 1920s,
mangrove forests expanded rapidly. An additional mangrove species, Bruguiera sexangula, was introduced in
1922 and currently co-occurs with R. mangle in only a few stands on the north shore and windward sides of
Oahu. Where the two species overlap, R. mangle, having colonized intertidal zones first, forms nearly
monospecific forest stands. To determine why R. mangle remains the dominant mangrove, we initiated a
greenhouse study to compare seedling growth and photosynthetic light response of both species growing at two
light levels and contrasting salinity regimes (2, 10, 32 PSU). The asymptotic nature of B. sexangula’s
assimilation response is indicative of stomatal regulation, whereas only light level appears to regulate
photosynthesis in R. mangle. Shifts in pat-terns of biomass allocation and physiological response indicate two
contrasting strategies relative to sunlight and salinity. B. sexangula’s strategy is characterized by slow growth
with little variation under favorable conditions and morphological plasticity under stressful conditions, which
allows for adjustments in carbon gain efficiency (morphological strategy). On the other hand, R. mangle’s
strategy involves faster growth under a wide range of environmental conditions with physiological enhancement
of carbon assimilation (physiological strategy). Low salinity combined with reduced light, or simply low
sunlight alone, appears to favor R. mangle and B. sexangula equally. High salinity places greater, but not
overwhelming, stress on B. sexangula seedlings, but tends to favor R. mangle at higher light levels.
12. Marshall, N. (1994) Mangrove conservation in relation to overall environmental
considerations. Hydrobiologia, 285, 303-309.
Abstract: The role of mangroves, as nursery and feeding areas, in the enrichment of coastal waters, in the
stabilization of the shoreline, and in trapping silt and wastes from upland runoff, is repeatedly being threatened
by suggestions for reclamation, whether for aquaculture, agriculture, or development projects. Proposals for such
alternatives should only be judged after taking into account the environmental subsidies involved, and possible
losses in energy transformation steps. Assurance is needed that renewable resources and other environmental
capital will not be sacrificed.
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13. Massel, S.R., Furukawa, K. and Brinkman, R.M. (1999) Surface wave propagation in
mangrove forests. Fluid Dynamics Research, 24, 219-249.
Abstract: Mangroves are a special form of vegetation as they exist at the boundary of the terrestrial and marine
environment. They have a special role in supporting fisheries and in stabilizing tropical coastal zones.
Biochemical and trophodynamic processes in the mangroves are strongly linked to water movement, due to tides
and waves. In this paper we present the theoretical attempt to predict the attenuation of wind-induced random
surface waves in the mangrove forest. The energy dissipation in the frequency domain is determined by treating
the mangrove forest as a random media with certain characteristics determined using the geometry of mangrove
trunks and their locations. Initial nonlinear governing equations are linearized using the concept of
minimalization in the stochastic sense and interactions between mangrove trunks and roots have been introduced
through the modification of the drag coefficients. The resulting rate of wave energy attenuation depends strongly
on the density of the mangrove forest, diameter of mangrove roots and trunks, and on the spectral characteristics
of the incident waves. Examples of numerical calculations as well as preliminary results from observation of
wave attenuation through mangrove forests at Townsville (Australia) and Iriomote Island (Japan) are given.
14. Mazda, Y. Magi, M. Kogo, M. and Hong, P.N. (1997) Mangroves as a coastal protection
from waves in the Tong Kong delta, Vietnam. Mangroves and Salt Marshes, 1, 127-135.
Abstract: The wave reduction (wave period, 5-8 sec.) was investigated in a mangrove reforestation area
(Kandelia candel) close to aquaculture ponds in the Tong King delta, Vietnam. On one site where only young
mangrove tress grew, the wave reduction due to the drag force on the trees was hardly effective. On the other site
where mangrove trees were sufficiently tall, the rate of wave reduction per 100 m was as large as 20%. Due to
the high density of vegetation distributed throughout the whole water depth, the effect of wave reduction was
large even when the water depth increased. These results demonstrate the usefulness of mangrove reforestation
for coastal protection.
15. Mazda, Y., Magi, M., Nanao, H., Kogo, M., Miyagi, T., Kanazawa, N. and Kobashi, D.
(2002) Coastal erosion due to long-term human impact on mangrove forests. Wetlands
Ecology and Management 10, 1-9.
Abstract: A coast in southern Vietnam, which is located in a wide and flat alluvial fan and neighbors tidal rivers
fringed by wide mangrove swamps, has been eroded continuously by approximately 50 m/year since the early
20th century. Based on field observations and numerical experiments, it is inferred that this large scale erosion is
caused by the transition of mangrove vegetation resulting from the long-term impact of humans since the late
19th century. This eroded coast is not in direct contact with mangrove swamps, but is strongly affected by the
existence of mangrove forests through the intermediation of neighboring tidal rivers. Thus, with a view to coastal
protection, it is argued that the mangrove vegetation in adjacent areas should be managed more sensitively.
16. Murray, M.R., Zisman, S.A., Furley, P.A., Munro, D.M., Gibson, J., Ratter, J.,
Bridgewater, S., Minty, C.D. and Place, C.J. (2003) The mangroves of Belize: Part 1.
distribution, composition and classification. Forest Ecology and Management, 174, 265-279.
Abstract: Between the late 1980s and early 1990s, significant sections of the Belizean coast came under
escalating pressure from development. The resulting habitat loss highlighted the need for a comprehensive
assessment of the extent, characteristics and use of the country’s remaining mangrove. This paper reports on the
resulting study, and confirms the presence of three true mangroves—Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia germinans
and Laguncularia racemosa, plus one mangrove associate—Conocarpus erectus. Twenty different subcommunities are distinguished on the basis of physiographic setting, vegetation structure and species
composition. Of these, Rhizophora scrub is the most widespread, accounting for over 60% of the country’s
mangrove habitats. True forest sub-communities account for only 10%, the remainder comprises thickets or
hypersaline supra-tidal savannas. GIS analysis of 1990 remote sensing data reveals that Belize’s mangroves
covers 78,511 ha, equivalent to 3.4% of the country’s land area and approximately 2% of the mangrove
remaining in the Americas. Through the examination of early aerial photos, historical records and ground
conditions, it is estimated that about 98% of Belize’s original mangrove cover (80,016 ha) remained at this time.
However, more recent mapping for the Belize City area, using 1992 aerial photos, reveals that a further 519 ha
has been cleared, a 0.7% reduction in the national total in just two years. The main geographical factors
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controlling the distribution of mangroves in Belize are the presence of the barrier reef, the coastline’s shallow
gradient and the narrow tidal range. Mangrove distribution is further influenced by local subsidence,
geomorphology, drainage, hinterland soils and past hurricane tracks. How much mangrove cover Belize may
support in the future is thought to largely depend on two factors—hurricane activity and human influence.
17. Oo, N.W. (2002) Present state and problems of mangrove management in Myanmar.
Trees 16, 218– 223.
Abstract: The aim of this research is to analyze the situation of mangroves in Myanmar, including their
formation and their economic and ecological importance. Economic importance includes fisheries, fuel-wood,
char-coal production, construction materials and medicine, while ecological importance includes shoreline
stabilization, protection from wind and storms, coastal ecosystem stability and biodiversity protection.
Myanmar’s coastal areas were in good condition until 30 years ago. However, population increase and political
instability have caused environmental and economic damage and threaten recovery. Awareness of the
importance of the biodiversity of the coastal ecosystem and its endangered situation has led to the
implementation of measures to ensure sustainable development and conservation.
18. Othman, M.A. (1994) Value of mangroves in coastal protection. Hydrobiologia, 285, 277282.
Abstract: Nearly 30% of the coastline of Malaysia is undergoing erosion. Many of these areas are coastal
mudflats, fringed by mangroves. Behind the mangroves there are usually agricultural areas that are protected by
bunds from tidal inundation. These bunds are constructed by the Department of Irrigation and Drainage and it is
the policy of the department to maintain a strip of mangroves between the bunds and the sea. Mangroves are
known to reduce wave energy as waves travel through them. Thus, mangroves are used to protect the bunds from
eroding. However, mangroves themselves are susceptible to erosion. Finding the best method in using this
natural system of coastal protection is therefore important to the Department of Irrigation and Drainage. This
paper looks at the various methods of using the systems developed to date.
19. Putz, F.E. and Chan, H.T. (1986) Tree growth, dynamics, and productivity in a mature
mangrove forest in Malaysia. Forest Ecology and Management, 17, 211-230.
Abstract: Growth of selected Rhizophora apiculata (Rhizophoraceae) trees was monitored from 1920 through
1981 in a 0.16 ha plot of protected forest in the Matang Mangroves. Starting in 1950, the sample was increased
to include monitoring the growth of all the trees more than 10 cm dbh (diameter at 1.3 m or above prop roots).
All seedlings were censused by species and removed in 1920 and recensused in 1926, 1927, and 1981. Total
above-ground dry weight (biomass) of the forest was estimated using stand tables and a regression equation of
biomass on dbh calculated for destructively sampled R. apiculata trees from elsewhere in the Matang
Mangroves. Net primary productivity (1950–1981) was calculated from estimated biomass increments and
published litter-fall rates. Rhizophora apiculata has maintained its dominance of the plot since 1920 but
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (Rhizophoraceae) and several other more shade-tolerant species have steadily increased
in abundance. Between the 1920's and 1981, R. apiculata declined in relative abundance in the seedling layer
while B. parviflora and B. cylindrica increased. Mean mortality rate (1950–1981) for trees more than 10 cm dbh
was 3.0% per year with a range of 1.3–5.4% per year. When trees fell over and hit other trees, the damaged trees
usually died within 10 years. A major cause of mortality appeared to be sapwood-eating termites. Net primary
productivity averaged 17.7 t/ha/year over the 1950–1981 observation period. Biomass ranged from 270 to 460
t/ha with a mean of 409 t/ha. It is suggested that Rhizophora spp. trees greater than 50 cm dbh and mangrove
forests with total above-ground biomass exceeding 300 t/ha would develop in other areas outside of the region
affected by hurricanes if the forest was protected from human disturbance.
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20. Sathirathai, S. and Barbier, E.B. (2001) Valuing mangrove conservation in Southern
Thailand. Contemporary Economic Policy, 19, 109-122.
Abstract: Mangroves are ecologically important coastal wetland systems that are under severe threat globally. In
Thailand, the main cause of mangrove conversion is shrimp farming, which is a major source of export income
for the country. However, local communities benefit from many direct and indirect uses of mangrove ecosystems
and may have a strong incentive to protect these areas, which puts them into direct confrontation with shrimp
farm operators and, by proxy, government authorities. The article examines whether or not the full conversion of
mangroves into commercial shrimp farms is worthwhile once the key environmental impacts are taken into
account. The estimated economic value of mangrove forests to a local community is in the range of $27,264$35,921 per hectare. This estimate includes the value to local communities of direct use of wood and other
resources collected from the mangroves as well as additional external benefits in terms of off-shore fishery
linkages and coastline protection from shrimp farms. The results indicate that, although shrimp farming creates
enormous private benefits, it is not so economically viable once the externalities generated by mangrove
destruction and water pollution are included. There is also an incentive for local communities to protect
mangroves, which in turn implies that the rights of local people to guard and protect this resource should be
formally recognized and enforced by law.
21. Saenger, P. and Siddiqi, N.A. (1993) Land from the sea: the mangrove afforestation
program of Bangladesh. Ocean and Coastal Management, 20, 23-39.
Abstract: The coastal areas of Bangladesh have a high cyclone frequency. The protection from cyclone damage
afforded by the natural mangrove forests of the Sundarbans, led the Forest Department in 1966 to initiate a
mangrove afforestation programme. These initial plantings proved highly successful in protecting and stabilizing
coastal areas, and led to a large-scale mangrove afforestation initiative. To date, approximately 120 000 ha of
mangroves have been planted. Nursery and planting techniques have been developed for the major species, while
additional species are still being investigated. As a result of the extensive monospecific plantations, however,
outbreaks of two major insect pest species have been observed. In addition, a number of other problems were
also encountered but in terms of coastal protection and stabilization, wood production and land reclamation,
large-scale mangrove afforestation appears to be both technically possible and socio-economically beneficial.
22. Walters, B.B. (2004) Local Management of Mangrove Forests in the Philippines:
Successful Conservation or Efficient Resource Exploitation? Human Ecology, 32, 177-195.
Abstract: Recent environmental “narratives” suggest that local people are effective stewards of forest resources.
Local restoration and management of mangrove forests, in particular, are now widely advocated as a solution to
achieve both economic and environmental conservation goals. This paper presents findings from a study of 2
coastal sites in the Philippines that are renowned and often showcased as success stories in community-based,
mangrove reforestation and management. These cases are especially intriguing because local tree planting and
management emerged in both areas long before governments and nongovernment organizations began to
promote such activities. These management systems are a successful economic innovation in that planted
mangroves protect homes and fish pond dykes from wave and wind damage, and the production of high-value
construction wood is dramatically enhanced through intensive plantation management. Mangrove plantations are
an efficient alternative to harvesting from unplanted, natural mangroves and their spread may reduce harvesting
pressures on existing forests. However, mangrove plantations are structurally and compositionaly very different
from unplanted forests, a finding of particular concern given that such plantations are increasingly encroaching
into and replacing natural forests. Furthermore, planted forests are not typically viewed by planters in terms of
their environmental conservation values and are frequently cut and cleared to make space for alternative uses,
especially fish farming and residential settlement. The suggestion that these local mangrove management
systems are successful for conservation thus needs to be qualified.
23. Wolanski, E., Spagnol, S. and Lim, E.B. (1997) The importance of mangrove flocs in
sheltering seagrass in turbid coastal waters. Mangroves and Salt Marshes 1, 187-191.
Abstract: The seagrass beds in the mangrove-fringed shallow coastal waters of Hinchinbrook Channel,
Australia, survive in shallow coastal waters. They are sheltered from excessive sedimentation and turbidity by
the plankton and vegetative detritus generating a marine snow that accelerates the settling of fine mud out of
suspension.
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24. Yoshihiro, M. , Wolanski, E., King, B., Sase, A., Ohtsuka, D. and Magi, M. (1997) Drag
force due to vegetation in mangrove swamps. Mangroves and Salt Marshes, 1, 193-199.
Abstract: Field studies of tidal flows in largely pristine mangrove swamps suggest that the momentum equation
simplifies to a balance between the water surface slope and the drag force. The controlling parameter is the
vegetation length scale LE, which is a function of the projected area of mangrove vegetation and the volume of
the vegetation. The value of LE varies greatly with mangrove species and water depth. It is found that the drag
coefficient is related to the Reynolds number Re defined using LE. The drag coefficient decreases with
increasing values of Re from a maximum value of 10 at low value of Re (‹10 4), and converges towards 0.4 for
Re › 5_104.
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Wave action across coral reefs
25. Brander, R.W., Kench, P.S. and Hart, D. (2004) Spatial and temporal variations in wave
characteristics across a reef platform, Warraber Island, Torres Strait, Australia. Marine
Geology 207, 169–184.
Abstract: A field experiment was conducted at Warraber Island, Torres Strait, Australia to investigate spatial
and temporal variations in wave characteristics and energy across a mesotidal coral reef platform. Measurements
of water depth were obtained using five pressure sensors deployed across a 2.7-km section of reef flat from July
3– 5, 2001. The reef surface was uneven and consisted of an outer reef flat, a central reef flat depression, an
inner reef ramp, a palaeo-reef surface and the shoreline. Water levels decreased landward across the platform
with tide ranges at the shoreline being almost 50% lower than at the outer reef flat. Rising and falling tides were
characterised by a bimodal energy distribution with both short period (0 –3 s) and wind (3 –8 s) waves present.
Higher water levels were dominated by wind waves. The highest waves occurred at high tides associated with
nocturnal tidal cycles with Hs decreasing from 0.5 to 0.2 m from the outer reef flat to the shoreline. Wave energy
at swell (8 –20 s) and infragravity (>20 s) frequencies was negligible across the reef platform although there was
evidence of wave groups at higher water levels. Reef geometry and changes in water level determine the
magnitude of wave energy on the reef platform. Up to 85– 95% of incident wave energy is attenuated by the
central reef flat depression at high and low tide, respectively, and strong linear relationships exist between Hs
and h at all locations. Both wave height and wave type are strongly depth dependent. Critical reef rim depths
required to produce Hs of a given size vary spatially across the reef rim due to variations in reef topography. A
distinct depth related threshold exists at which short-period and wind wave dominance reverses. Over a 14-day
spring-neap tidal cycle, the time of occurrence of wave action diminishes across the reef platform to the
shoreline. Larger waves (Hs = 0.2 m) occur for only 9% of time at the outer reef flat and for less than 0.5% over
the remaining reef platform. This implies that on mesotidal reef platforms, sediment entrainment and transport
are severely constrained under normal wave energy conditions and significant change is likely restricted to
extreme events.
26. Frihy, O.E., El Ganaini, M.A., El Sayed, W.R. and Iskander, M.M. (2004) The role of
fringing coral reef in beach protection of Hurghada, Gulf of Suez, Red Sea of Egypt.
Ecological Engineering, 22, 17–25.
Abstract: The coral-reef system fronting most of the coastline of the Red Sea provides natural protection to the
aquatic system. Its pronounced morphologic features protect coastal recreation facilities located behind the reef.
To provide a basis for evaluating the role of the fringing coral reef in protecting marinas and sandy beaches
against waves and currents, a two dimensional (2D) numerical model “SIMulating COastal PROcess”
(SIMCOPRO) was applied with its three main modules including wave, current and sediment. The selected
study area is located at Sahl Hasheesh coast south of Hurghada on the west coast of the Red Sea at a site
proposed for the construction of a marina. The model offers insight in how the reef system modifies the wave
and current fields. The application of the model in the presence of a marina reveals insignificant erosion on the
downdrift side of the marina breakwaters (south of the southern breakwater). The erosion is expected to be 1 m
after the first year, 2 m after the next 5 years and no further change for a period of 10 years. This is because the
rocky reefal beachface will be exposed and erosion of sand will be diminished. The minor local erosion is
controlled by the protective response of coral reef, the very limited coarse sand on the beachface (...0.5 m thick),
the weak current induced by waves (0.13 m/s) and other topographic protective elements in the region. The
submerged/emerged geometric nature of the reefal system, both reef flat and reef crest, allow wave dissipation
and thus behaves as a submerged breakwater to protect marinas or artificial beaches in the shelter zone of this
reef. An important lesson to be learned from this study is that improper construction practices of building
marinas can seriously hurt the environment. The dredging of artificial reef lagoons is one improper practice that
would create unexpected beach erosion.
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27. Gourlay, M.R. (1994) Wave transformation on a coral reef. Coastal Engineering, 23, 1742.
Abstract: Wave transformation of regular waves was measured in a laboratory model of a fringing reef with a
steep face and an outer reef-top slope gradually decreasing in the landward direction. Data was obtained for
various wave conditions and water levels. A nonlinearity parameter, Fco = g1.25Ho0.5T2.5/hc1.75, based upon
one proposed by Swart and Loubser (1979), is proposed as a suitable parameter for classifying wave
transformation regimes on this reef. In particular, when Fco > 150, waves plunge on the reef edge and the
amount of wave energy reaching a shore or structure is small ≤16%. When Fin co ≥100, waves spill on the reeftop but the greater part of their energy is transmitted over the reef-top. The maximum values of the wave height
to water depth ratio on the reef-top were found to be consistent with Nelson's analyses for laboratory and field
data which indicate that the maximum stable wave height to depth ratio H/d on a horizontal bottom never
exceeds 0.55 for shallow water waves (Fc > 500). The experimental data confirms that the maximum value of
H/d decreases when Fc decreases but that it also increases when the bottom slope increases.
28. Gourlay, M.R. (1996) Wave set-up on coral reefs. 1. Set-up and wave-generated flow on
an idealised two dimensional horizontal reef. Coastal Engineering, 27, 161- 193
Abstract: Wave set-up may be significant in determining water levels on coral reefs particularly in microtidal
environments and hence is an important factor for the design of reef-top structures and for the stability of reeftop islands. Laboratory experiments have been made on a two dimensional model of an idealised horizontal reef
under two different conditions corresponding to a fringing reef (or closed lagoon) situation and a platform reef
(or open lagoon) situation. Both wave set-up on the reef-top and the wave-generated flow across the reef were
measured and related to wave and tide level conditions. All other factors being the same, wave set-up is greatest
at low tide levels whereas wave-generated flow is greater at higher tide levels. The magnitude of the set-up on a
platform reef with a wave-generated flow is less than on a fringing reef without any net flow by an amount equal
to the velocity head of the flow across the reef. Dimensionless parameters are found to be functions of relative
submergence parameters. For values of ›1 waves break on the reef-top and radiation stress theory can be used to
calculate set-up. For < 0.7 waves break on the reef-face and set-up is determined by broad-crested weir control at
the reef-edge. (The symbols are defined as follows: g is gravitational acceleration; h, is still water depth over
horizontal reef-top; H, is offreef wave height (equivalent deep water value); CJ is discharge per unit length of
reef edge; T is wave period and yr is maximum wave set-up on reef-top.)
29. Gourlay, M.R. (1996) Wave set-up on coral reefs. 2. Set-up on reefs with various profiles.
Coastal Engineering, 28, 17-55.
Abstract: All available laboratory data for wave set-up on two dimensional reef profiles of various shapes have
been compared with data from an idealised horizontal reef with a steep reef-face (Gourlay, 1996). The data is
generally well represented by a relationship between the relative set-up parameter and the submergence
parameter, and the relative set-up on reef profiles of natural form is found to be less than that observed on the
idealised horizontal reef. The important influences of reef-rim slope and variable water depths on the reef-top
have been investigated and some methods for allowing for them are suggested. Comparison of data for irregular
waves with that for regular waves has led to the development of a simple method for estimating the effects of
wave groups upon the magnitude of the steady state mean wave set-up. The results of the analyses are applied to
the determination of wave set-up and its effects at three specific coral reef sites.
30. Hardy, T.A., Mason, L.B. and McConochie, J.D. (2000) A wave model for the Great
Barrier Reef. Ocean Engineering, 28, 45-70.
Abstract: A new wind wave generation model, WAMGBR, is presented that has been adapted from WAM
especially for use in the complex geometry of the Great Barrier Reef. A technique (reef parameterization) has
been presented that incorporates sub-grid scale dissipation caused by coral reefs. Three other improvements to
WAM have been proposed. An explicit/implicit finite difference scheme has been implemented that allows for
more efficient modelling (longer time steps) while maintaining diffusive characteristics that are at least as good
as those of WAM. An offset in discrete angles creates more uniform diffusive characteristics. And, a transformed
spherical coordinate system allows for more efficient grid sizes and smaller grid dependent refraction.
Comparisons between modelling techniques and between model and measured data show that WAMGBR
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produces very good results in the difficult challenge of modelling both non-cyclonic and tropical cyclone waves
in the geographically complex environment of the Great Barrier Reef.
31. Kabdali, M S and Türker, U. (2002) The wave breaking phenomena as a tool for
environmental friendly shore protection. Water Science And Technology: a Journal Of The
International Association On Water Pollution Research, 46, 153-160.
Abstract: An experimental study was carried out to evaluate the rate of energy dissipation during wave breaking
and the dependence of dissipation on the breaker type. The splash mechanism that occurs just after the breaking
is also examined based on knowledge of external and macroscopic properties of breakers only. During the
experiments, it is observed that most of the energy is dissipated while the water jet formed during wave breaking
hits the water surface. It has been found that the percentage of wave energy dissipated in plunging type waves is
larger than in spilling type waves.
32. Lugo-Fernández, A., Roberts, H.H. and Suhayda, J.N. (1998) Wave transformations
across a Caribbean fringing-barrier Coral Reef. Continental Shelf Research, 18, 1099-1124.
Abstract: Wave measurements during three experiments at Tague Reef, St. Croix (U.S.V.I.) in April 1987
showed a net energy decrease across the reef profile of 65-71% between the forereef and crest, wave propagation
to the backreef increased energy reduction to 78-88%. Tidally induced water depth changes (range of 0.3 m)
increased wave energy dissipation by 15% between forereef and crest and 20% between forereef and backreef.
Significant wave heights throughout the experiment were low (‹0.5 m) and exhibited a tidal modulation in the
backreef or lagoon. Wave transmission over the reef averaged 0.46 and modulated by the tide (0.32 at low tide
vs 0.62 at high tide). The spectral time-delay model applied to analyzed wave transformations across the reef
produced attenuation coefficients that averaged 0.62 between 0.05 and 0.1 cps (20-10 s) and afterwards oscillate
between 0.22 and 0.35. For waves between the forereef and backreef, the attenuation coefficients from the timedelay model decay exponentially between 0.05 and 0.1 cps, afterwards they oscillate between 0.13 and 0.2. The
steady wave-energy model with bottom friction, essentially form drag, and wave breaking dissipation yield wave
heights modulated by the tides and errors of ‹19% in the crest and ›20% at the backreef. The model revealed that
while frictional and wave-breaking dissipation are equally important, frictional dissipation is greater.
33. Lugo-Fernández, A., Roberts, H.H. and Wiseman, Jr., W.J. (1998) Tide Effects on Wave
Attenuation and Wave Set-up on a Caribbean Coral Reef. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf
Science. 47, 385-393.
Abstract: The effects of tides on wave attenuation and wave set-up were investigated at Great Pond Bay, a
Caribbean reef located in St Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. Measurements of wave pressure fluctuations were made
at three stations across the reef profile. Total wave set-up was measured between the forereef and the reef crest
or backreef lagoon. Wave spectra indicate significant filtering of energy at the peak frequencies as waves
traveled across the reef. The energy dissipation calculations imply an average energy reduction of 62% between
the forereef and reef crest. Mean energy reduction between the forereef and lagoon was 90%. Energy dissipation
between the forereef and reef crest increased 15% between high and low tide and 6% between forereef and
lagoon. Tidal reduction of water depth at the reef crest intensified wave breaking and this condition increased
energy dissipation. Measurements of wave set-up ranged from 0· 8 to 1· 5 cm. Calculations of wave set-up using
Tait’s 1972 model showed good agreement with observations.
34. Massel, S.R. and Gourlay, M.B. (2000) On the modelling of wave breaking and set-up on
coral reefs. Coastal Engineering 39, 1-27.
Abstract: An extended refraction– diffraction equation [Massel, S.R., 1993. Extended refraction– diffraction
equation for surface waves. Coastal Eng. 19, 97– 126] has been applied to predict wave transformation and
breaking as well as wave-induced set-up on two- dimensional reef profiles of various shapes. A free empirical
coefficient þ in a formula for the average rate of energy dissipation in the modified periodic bore model was
found to be a function of the dimensionless parameter, proposed by [Gourlay, M.R. Wave transformation on a
coral reef. Coastal Eng. 23, 17– 42.] The applicability of the developed model has been demonstrated for reefs of
various shapes subjected to various incident wave conditions. Assuming proposed relationships of the coefficient
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þ and F , the model provides results on wave height attenuation and set-up elevation which compare well with
experimental data.
35. Nakaza, F. and Hino, M. (1991) Bore-like surf beat in a reef zone caused by wave groups
of incident short period waves. Fluid Dynamics Research, 7, 89-100.
Abstract: Resonant oscillation of sea surface elevation in coral reef zones is asserted to be excited by the change
of radiation stress and breaking point due to the wave groups of incident short period waves. Numerical and
laboratory experiments confirmed the generation of long period oscillation and its nonlinear deformation into the
"bore-like or tsunami-like surf beat" with a steep forward face. A resonance diagram is prepared for a design
criterion.
36. Nelson, R.C. (1996) Hydraulic roughness of coral reef platforms. Applied Ocean
Research, 18, 265-274.
Abstract: This paper describes the derivation of the hydraulic roughness of a large, fixed bed, coral reef
platform from field measurements. These measurements were made in near ideal conditions, where oscillatory
waves propagated in water of constant depth, such that the only active wave transformation process present was
that of wave bed friction damping. The derived roughness value enables relative roughness and friction factor
values to be determined on this, or any other similar reef, for any combination of wave and water depth
conditions (T, H, h). The paper discusses the influence a low magnitude current may have had on the results, and
finds it to be negligible. Some comparisons with movable beds are also made.
37. Roberts, H.H., Wilson, P.A. and Lugo-Fernández, A. (1992) Biologic and geologic
responses to physical processes: examples from modern reef systems of the CaribbeanAtlantic region. Continental Shelf Research, 12, 809-834.
Abstract: Coral reefs and associated depositional environments of the Caribbean-Atlantic region have
characteristics that reflect control by physical processes, both oceanic and atmospheric. Wave direction and
wave power help determine sites for productive reef development and shape reef morphology as well as
community structure. Spur and groove orientations reflect changes in direction of waves as they refract across a
reef-dominated shelf. Abrupt topography of reef-dominated shelf margins interacts with tidally modulated
flows to create an energetic and productive deep reef environment which is buffered from the modifying effects
of forceful wave action. Shallow wave-reef interactions involve dissipative effects of wave breaking, turbulence,
and friction, resulting in measured wave energy transformations ranging from 72 to 97% depending on reef
configuration and water depth. Dissipative processes produce strong reef-normal surge currents that transport
sediment lagoonward, drive backreef lagoon circulation, and influence fluid flow and diagenesis within the reef.
The intensity of these processes is modulated at the tidal frequency. Other long period waves (infragravity) are
important agents of mass transport of water and fine sediment. Low speed, long duration currents forced by long
waves are potentially important for transporting larvae as well as fine sediment out of a given reef-lagoon
system. Ocean-scale currents impinging on steep island and continental margin topography may cause reeflimiting upwelling and nutrient loading. The Caribbean Current upwells on the Nicaragua shelf and carbonate
platforms of the Nicaraguan Rise. High trophic resources favor algal rather than coral communities and large
(20–30 m relief) Halimeda biotherms occupy niches normally reserved for coral reefs. Thermodynamic air-sea
interactions (heat, moisture and momentum flux) regulate the physical properties of reef lagoon and bank top
waters. In extra-tropical reef settings (e.g. Bermuda, Florida, Bahamas and Arabian Gulf) cold air outbreaks
cause precipitous drops in bank water temperatures and significant increases in bank water salinity and
suspended sediment load. Water temperatures are routinely forced below the limit for survival of reef corals and
many species of calcareous green algae. Associated increases in the density of shallow waters produce a
disequilibrium with surface waters of the adjacent ocean favoring shelf transport to deep water sites of reef
development and beyond.
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38. Skotner, C and Apelt, C.J. (1999) Application of a Boussinesq model for the computation
of breaking waves Part 2: Wave-induced setdown and setup on a submerged coral reef. Ocean
Engineering 26, 927-947.
Abstract: In continuation of a recent companion paper (Skotner, C., Apelt, C.J., Application of a Boussinesq
model for the computation of breaking waves. Part 1: Development and verifcation. Ocean Eng., in press)
describing the development of a set of Boussinesq equations that can be used to study the transformation of
waves before, during and after wave breaking provided the bed slope is relatively gentle, the present paper
presents new data and tests the ability of the developed model to compute wave-induced setdown and setup of
regular waves propagating onto a submerged coral reef consisting of relatively steeper slopes. This is done by
comparison with new laboratory measurements conducted in a closed wave flume. The results show that the
model computes accurately the setdown and setup of regular waves of small incident wave height but there is a
tendency to underestimate the wave setup as the incident wave height increases.
39. Tunnicliffe, V. (1982) The effects of wave induced flow on a reef coral. Journal of
Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 64, 1-10.
Abstract: Wave surge has a major influence on coral reef organisms, both in terms of survival of individuals and
the structure of the community. The Caribbean stony coral Acropora cervicornis Lamarck is particularly
susceptible to wave damage because of its tall thin form. Underwater measurements of mechanical strain were
made on this coral to determine the levels of stress induced by the inertial and drag forces of moving water. A
healthy coral experiencing momentary water speeds > 0.8 m · s−1 registers stress < 50% of its breaking strength;
however, basal erosion by boring sponges is instrumental in inducing widespread damage in storm conditions.
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Tsunami effects
40. Nott, J. (1997) Extremely high-energy wave deposits inside the Great Barrier Reef,
Australia: determining the cause-tsunami or tropical cyclone. Marine Geology, 141, 193-207.
Abstract: A hydrodynamic approach is used to determine whether tsunami- or cyclone-generated waves were
responsible for the deposition of fields of well-imbricated rock boulders (up to 290 tonnes) along the coast of
Cairns inside the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Calculations of the overturning moments show that only tsunami
are capable of moving such large boulders in this environment. It is hypothesised that large tsunami (> 11 m)
have been able to penetrate the Great Barrier Reef through wide (5-10 km) 50-70 m deep passages between
individual reefs. Three such passages each approximately 35 km apart and oriented in the same direction exist in
the Cairns region. It is possible that these passages have funnelled and amplified palaeotsunamis. The
preferential location of eroded coral boulders up to 3 m in length on reef flats alongside these passages and their
absence on other reefs throughout the region provide further evidence that extremely high-energy waves have
been able to penetrate the Great Barrier Reef into the inner channel adjacent to the mainland. Carbon-14 ages of
the coral boulders on these reef flats matches closely the ages of coral fragments pinned below the very large
rock boulders along the coast. These ages suggest that the Cairns region has experienced large tsunami twice
over the last millennium.
41. Tsujil, J. Matsutomi, H., Imamura, F., Takeo, M, Kawata, Y., Matsuyama, M., Takahashi,
T., Sunarjo and Harjadi, P. (1995) Damage to coastal villages due to the 1992 Flores Island
earthquake tsunami. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 144, 481-524.
Abstract: A field survey of the 1992 Flores Island earthquake tsunami was conducted during December 29,
1992 to January 5, 1993 along the north coast of the eastern part of Flores Island. We visited over 40 villages,
measured tsunami heights, and interviewed the inhabitants. It was clarified that the first wave attacked the coast
within five minutes at most of the surveyed villages. The crust was uplifted west of the Cape of Batumanuk, and
subsided east of it. In the residential area of Wuring, which is located on a sand spit with ground height of 2
meters, most wooden houses built on stilts collapsed and 87 people were killed even though the tsunami height
reached only 3.2 meters. In the two villages on Babi Island, the tsunami swept away all wooden houses and
killed 263 of 1,093 inhabitants. Tsunami height at Riang-Kroko village on the northeastern end of Flores Island
reached 26.2 meters and 137 of the 406 inhabitants were killed by the tsunami. Evidence of landslides was
detected at a few points on the coast of Hading Bay, and the huge tsunami was probably formed by earthquakeinduced landslides. The relationship between tsunami height and mortality was checked for seven villages. The
efficiencies of trees arranged in front of coastal villages, and coral reefs in dissipating the tsunami energy are
discussed.
42. van den Bergh, G.D., Boer, W., de Haas, H., van Weering T.C.E. and van Wijhe, R.
(2003) Shallow marine tsunami deposits in Teluk Banten (NW Java, Indonesia), generated by
the 1883 Krakatau eruption. Marine Geology, 197, 13-34.
Abstract: Teluk Banten (TB)is a tropical shallow marine embayment with coral reef islands, close to the
Krakatau volcanic complex. The 1883 Krakatau eruption generated a tsunami, which had a devastating effect on
the neighboring coastal areas. The effects of the 1883 Krakatau eruption and the associated tsunami on the
bottom sediments in TB are assessed using textural, compositional and 210 Pb geochronological data. An
important diagnostic criterion consists of the occurrence of tephra conform descriptions of the 1883 eruption
tephra. The tsunamite consists of a sandy layer with abundant reworked shell and other carbonate fragments.
Coarse components in the tsunamite consist of locally derived material eroded from the seabed. Land-derived
components are incorporated in the tsunamite only in close proximity to the coast. The tsunamite is thickest in
localized areas of the central part of the bay. Along the northern open sea-facing slope of TB, the tsunamite is
relatively thin (6 7 cm thick)but well-preserved ,as little post-depositional modifications have occurred. In the
eastern bay area, recent erosion since the redirection of the Ciujung River in the 1920s has removed the Krakatau
tsunamite. Along the west coast of TB, the only signature of the 1883 Krakatau eruption consists of tephra, and
evidence for a high-energy event is lacking. Presumably, the western area was sheltered from the tsunami wave
coming from the northwest. At the shallower stations with low accumulation rates, the tephra has been
thoroughly mixed by bioturbation.
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Cyclone effects
43. Cheal, A.J. Coleman, G., Delean, S., Miller, I., Osborne, K. and Weatman, H. (2002)
Responses of coral and fish assemblages to a severe but short-lived tropical cyclone on the
Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Coral Reefs, 21, 131-142.
Abstract: Changes in reef assemblages of corals and fishes following a tropical cyclone were assessed using
data sets from (1) manta tow surveys of entire reef perimeters and (2) intensive surveys of specific sites, across
11 reefs lying close to the cyclone track. Only one of the reefs experienced an obvious and immediate decline in
mean coral cover (from 24 to 8%) due to the cyclone. The abundance and species richness of adult damsel fish
assemblages on intensive survey sites at this reef were not affected in the short term (6 weeks), despite the
removal of 48%of living hard coral. Assemblages of adult fishes showed a similar lack of response at three other
reefs where no significant habitat changes had occurred. Eleven to twelve months later, the total abundance of
damsel fishes had decreased substantially at eight of the sampled reefs, while the abundance of larger mobile
fishes remained stable. We infer that the effects on coral assemblages reflect the short duration and orientation of
the cyclone, the history of exposure to wave energy (influencing life-form structure and therefore degree of
fragility), and the degree of consolidation of the reef matrix. The lack of short-term effects of the cyclone on
adult fishes shows that these fishes can endure periods of intense underwater turbulence. The lack of change in
damsel fish assemblages weeks after loss of coral cover implies that this resource was not limiting adult fish
densities. The reasons for widespread decreases in damsel fish numbers 11-12 months after the cyclone are
unknown.
44. Done, T.J. (1992) Effects of tropical cyclone waves on ecological and geomorphological
structures on the Great Barrier Reef. Continental Shelf Research 12, 859-872.
Abstract: Damage to coral reefs caused by Tropical Cyclone Ivor (March 1990) on 46 sites over 150 km of the
Great Barrier Reef was patchily distributed within 50 km of the path, while at distances >50 km from the eye, it
was uniformly low. These distances suggest that local wind-generated waves, not ocean swells, may be the major
cause of destruction. Wind component incident on each site, UN, was therefore hindcast from tropical cyclone
circulation models. The sum of hourly UN explained about 82% of the variance in an index of total damage and
90% of the destruction of a veneer of dense coral growth up to 1.5 m in thickness. This correlation is consistent
with an "attrition" model, in which cyclone waves exfoliate reefs, chunk by chunk, over the period of storm
waves.
45. Heinsohn, G.E. and Spain, A.V. (1974) Effects of a tropical cyclone on littoral and sublittoral biotic communities and on a population of Dugongs (Dugong dugon). Biological
Conservation, 6, 143-152.
Abstract: The extensive damage to littoral and sub-littoral biotic communities caused by cyclone ‘Althea’,
which crossed the tropical coast of Queensland on 24 December, 1971, are described. The effects of high wind
speeds (mean 129·7 km/h), turbulent seas, storm surges, and heavy rainfall on mangrove, sea grass, algal, and
coral reef communities are discussed. Mangroves withstood the immediate effects of the cyclone and protected
coastal areas. However, long-term effects on mangroves are apparent. Severe wave action, shifting sand, and low
salinities caused extensive damage to sea grass, algal, and coral reef communities. The effects of the cyclone on
a Dugong population are described. The catches of Dugongs in shark nets set off Townsville increased from an
average of 12·7 per year before the cyclone to 41 in 1972 (the year following the cyclone). This increase is
attributed to increased movements in search of food, following extensive damage to sea grass beds. Associated
with increased movements, there occurred a change in diet whereby large amounts of brown algae were eaten in
addition to sea grasses. Sex and size (age) distributions of captured Dugongs are given and their possible
significance discussed.
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46. Hohenegger, J. and Yordanova, E. (2001) Depth-transport functions and erosion
deposition diagrams as indicators of slope inclination and time-averaged traction forces:
applications in tropical reef environments. Sedimentology, 48, 1025-1046.
Abstract: The trigonometric relationship between slope inclination, the horizontally acting time-averaged
traction force and the vertical depth of transport allows the estimation of one factor, when both others are known.
Depth transport functions can be deduced by comparing the depth distributions of living organisms and their
skeletal remains, and this paper simplifies this comparison using foraminifera in which a single test represents an
individual. Differences in distribution parameters between living individuals and empty tests allow depth
transport functions to be determined; these functions differ between species at a single transect according to the
varying buoyancies of the tests. Within a single species, differences in depth transport functions between
locations are based on either slope inclination or traction intensities. After establishing a mean depth transport
function by averaging species- characteristic functions, the time-averaged traction force acting on the studied
transect can be calculated. Transport intensities are also estimated using an erosion deposition diagram that
combines the relative frequency distributions of living individuals and empty tests. The proportion of `eroded',
`parautochthonous' and `allochthonous' tests mirrors the influence of both slope inclination and traction force for
the deposition of empty tests. To test the model, six species of symbiont-bearing benthic foraminifers were
investigated at two transects in front of a NW Pacific coral reef. One transect is distinguished by a strong slope
flattening below the steep reef slope (30 m), whereas further steepening characterizes the equivalent part in the
other transect. These differences are mirrored in the depth transport functions as well as in the erosion deposition
diagrams of all species. The time-averaged traction forces differ in intensities between transects, because of the
position of the reef front with respect to the predominant wind direction. However, the form of the functions is
identical and distinguished by an increase from the surface to 35 m depth, followed by a decrease down to 105
m. This can be explained by successive onshore and offshore forces acting on the shallow slope, such as the
tropical cyclones that cross the region every summer.
47. Lassig, B.R. (1983) The effects of a cyclonic storm on coral reef fish assemblages.
Environmental Biology of Fishes. 9, 55-63.
Abstract: Visual censusing techniques were used to monitor the fish assemblages on eight shallow water coral
patch reefs at Lizard Island (northern Great Barrier Reef) over a 27 month period. Larval settlement was
distinctly seasonal with peaks occurring in December or January. Cyclones are most prevalent at this time of
year. Three cyclones passed close to Lizard Island during the study period. Fish assemblages were censused
before and immediately after one cyclone that struck at the time of peak larval settlement. The cyclone had little
effect on adults but caused high juvenile mortality and re-distribution of sub-adult individuals. Because
settlement strongly influences the diversity and density of adults, cyclones have marked effects on the fish
assemblages as a whole. The high frequency of tropical storms in many coral reef areas and the depths to which
their effects penetrate suggest that physical disturbances may be an important determinant of coral reef fish
assemblage structure.
48. Massel, S.R., Done, T.J. (1993) Effects of cyclone waves on massive coral assemblages
on the Great Barrier Reef: meteorology, hydrodynamics and demography. Coral Reefs, 12,
153-166.
Abstract: Cyclone waves directly affect the density, structure and local distribution of coral assemblages by
acting as agents of mortality and colony transport. Using the meteorological record, hydrodynamic formulations
and risk analysis, we predict some demographic consequences of cyclones for massive corals growing in
different regions of the Great Barrier Reef. Analysis of shear, compression and tension forces generated by
waves indicate that corals firmly attached to solid substratum, even if only over a small proportion of their base,
can resist all waves, regardless of colony size or shape, cyclone intensity or region. Waves are thus directly
important as controls on colony-size frequency distributions only for weakly attached or unattached colonies. At
3 m depth, these colonies have a higher probability of escaping dislodgement in their first 10 years of life, the
further north or south they are from 21°S, which is the latitude where severe cyclones are most frequent. At
21°S, corals at depths as great as 12m are exposed to the greatest likelihood of dislodgement. Possible
implications of predicted increased storminess associated with global warming are briefly discussed.
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49. Nott, J. and Hayne, M. (2001) High frequency of `super-cyclones' along the Great Barrier
Reef over the past 5,000 years. Nature, 413, 508-511.
Abstract: Understanding long-term variability in the occurrence of tropical cyclones that are of extreme
intensity is important for determining their role in ecological disturbances, for predicting present and future
community vulnerability and economic loss and for assessing whether changes in the variability of such cyclones
are induced by climate change. Our ability to accurately make these assessments has been limited by the short
(less than 100 years) instrumented record of cyclone intensity. Here we determine the intensity of prehistoric
tropical cyclones over the past 5,000 years from ridges of detrital coral and shell deposited above highest tide
and terraces that have been eroded into coarse-grained alluvial fan deposits. These features occur along 1,500 km
of the Great Barrier Reef and also the Gulf of Carpentaria, Australia. We infer that the deposits were formed by
storms with recurrence intervals of two to three centuries, and we show that the cyclones responsible must have
been of extreme intensity (central pressures less than 920 hPa). Our estimate of the frequency of such `supercyclones' is an order of magnitude higher than that previously estimated (which was once every several
millennia), and is sufficiently high to suggest that the character of rainforests and coral reef communities were
probably shaped by these events.
50. Puotinen, M.L. (2004) Tropical cyclones in the Great Barrier Reef, Australia, 1910–1999:
a first step towards characterising the disturbance regime. Australian Geographical Studies,
42, 378-392.
Abstract: The proximity of a reef to a tropical cyclone path is the simplest means of estimating the potential for
disturbance (that is, physical damage from waves) at that reef. Calculated for cyclones that tracked across a
sample of reefs spanning much of the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) from 1910 to 1999, such proximities provide a
preliminary history of cyclone disturbance in that region for which spatial and temporal trends can be examined.
As the long-term dynamics of cyclone disturbance affect the structure and function of coral reef communities,
the disturbance regime can be used to consider whether the current state of coral communities (as measured in
1999) represents that which was present over the entire time series, and whether the frequency of cyclone
disturbance across the GBR is high (limited recovery time between events) or intermediate (variable recovery
time between events) in nature. This analysis reveals that for more than half of the GBR, the latest major
disturbance occurred less recently than normal for the time series (current communities had more time for
recovery than usual) and that these disturbances are generally intermediate in frequency. However, because
many factors other than distance affect the potential for disturbance, these results represent a first step towards
characterising the nature of cyclone disturbance across the GBR.
51. Riddle, M.J. (1988) Cyclone and bioturbation effects on sediments from coral reef
lagoons. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 27, 687-695.
Abstract: Despite the severity of tropical cyclone ‘Winifred’, which crossed the Great Barrier Reef on 1
February 1986, there were little long-term effects on lagoon surface sediments from reefs in its path. Short-term
effects were apparent only at one particularly exposed area. These were: an increase in proportion of the coarse
fraction, the establishment of sand ripples, and the destruction of the mounds produced by callianassid shrimps
(normally the dominant topographic feature). Within six weeks this area was indistinguishable from a typical
reef lagoon. This is probably the result of sediment reworking by callianassid shrimp, involving selective burial
of the coarse fragments and transport to the surface of finer particles. Sediment turnover rates by callianassids
are commensurate with change to the sediment within the relatively short period observed. The sediment fauna
responded quickly to the changes in sediment type. Immediately after the cyclone the disturbed area supported a
fauna typical of the coarse sediments on the shallow reef flat, as the sediment reverted to a more normal type so
the fauna changed back to that typical of a reef lagoon.
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52. Rogers, C.S., Gilnack, M. and Fitz III, H.C. (1983) Monitoring of coral reefs with linear
transects: A study of storm damage. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology,
66, 285-300.
Abstract: Monitoring of coral reefs in the U.S. Virgin Islands through repeated sampling of linear transects
revealed that Hurricane David (August 1979) caused significant changes in the amounts of live and dead hard
coral cover on these reefs, i.e., cover by scleractinians and the hydrozoan Millepora. Mean percent cover of the
most abundant coral species, spatial indices (a measure of bottom topographical complexity), the number of
species within transects, the diversity index (H'), and the evenness (J'), did not, however, change significantly as
a result of this storm. Mortality in corals did not appear to be species specific. Monitoring of established
transects proved to be an effective way of quantifying storm damage. With the increasing interest in management
of coral reefs, this technique could also be useful for assessing other types of reef destruction.
53. Sandstrom, M.W. (1988) Aliphatic hydrocarbons in surface sediments from the North
Queensland coast and Great Barrier Reef: Effects of tropical cyclone Winifred. Organic
Geochemistry, 12, 445-454.
Abstract: Aliphatic hydrocarbons were determined in inner shelf and reef lagoon surface sediments off the
North Queensland coast near Innisfail in February 1986, immediately after tropical cyclone Winifred passed
through the region causing severe rainfall, runoff, and disturbance of bottom sediments. Lagoon sediments from
Feather, Gilbey, and Potter reefs 25–50 km offshore were characterized by a suite of C15–C25 n-alkanes and
alkenes derived predominantly from algal sources; terrestrial hydrocarbons were not present. In contrast, inner
shelf sediments contained relatively large amounts of terrestrial derived C 25–C33 n-alkanes which decreased in
concentration with distance from the coast. Inner shelf sediments collected after the cyclone also contained a
suite of petroleum-derived hydrocarbons. The concentrations of terrestrial-derived hydrocarbons increased in
samples collected from the inner shelf after the cyclone. However, the distribution of terrestrial hydrocarbons
was largely confined to the inner shelf after the cyclone, and only occurred in trace concentrations in midshelf
sediments. These results indicate that cyclone-related outwelling of suspended sediments (and presumably
nutrients) from rivers was confined to the inner shelf and did not reach the reef zone. The post- cyclone
phytoplankton bloom was probably caused by resuspension of bottom sediments and release of porewater
nutrients rather than advection of river plumes to the offshore reefs.
54. Woodroffe, C.D. and Grime, D. (1999) Storm impact and evolution of a mangrovefringed chenier plain, Shoal Bay, Darwin, Australia. Marine Geology, 159, 303-321.
Abstract: Storms are considered to have significant impacts on the development of chenier plains, particularly
through the devastation of mangrove vegetation, but also in terms of winnowing sand and shell from mudflats
and forming chenier ridges. Shoal Bay, in the Beagle Gulf, northern Australia, contains a small chenier plain,
which was struck by a severe tropical cyclone, Cyclone Tracy, on Christmas Day 1974 as it devastated the city
of Darwin. The morphology, vegetation and stratigraphy of the plain are described. The plain is underlain by
lower intertidal sand with shell hash. A radiocarbon age of 6130 years BP, indicates mangrove colonisation of
this flat at the time that sea level stabilised around its present level after the postglacial transgression.
Subsequently, progradation of mudflats has occurred, especially around 2300 years ago, and shells of this age are
found both in growth position from within the mudflats, and incorporated into the shelly chenier ridges. A
further phase of build-out, and subsequent erosion is reflected by stumps and in situ bivalves being excavated
presently on the foreshore, radiocarbon dating about 900–1100 years BP. Within this context of evolution,
Cyclone Tracy can be seen to have had severe consequences upon the patterning of mangroves, with extensive
windthrow of Ceriops, and defoliation of Rhizophora at the western end of the plain. Recovery of the mangrove
vegetation has been gradual, and is still incomplete. However, the storm had little influence on the pattern of
landform development. Indeed, the aerial photographic sequence indicates a trend by which sand shoals are
gradually reworked landwards, in places moving through mangrove vegetation. The study suggests that rather
than pronounced regional episodes of alternative mudflat buildout and erosion, both processes occur
simultaneously at different points along this foreshore.
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Hurricane effects
55. Andres, N.G. and Rodenhouse, N.L. (1993) Resilience of corals to hurricanes: a
simulation model. Coral Reefs, 12, 167-175.
Abstract: This study tested how the frequency and intensity of hurricanes, and the size and growth rate of coral
colonies influence the resilience of coral populations to disturbance by severe storms. A simulation modelling
approach was used to examine the resilience of four coral species with differing life history characteristics:
Agaricia agaricites, A. lamarcki, Helioseris cucullata, and Porites astreoides. Resilience, defined as the rate of
area (coral cover) gain, was greater for three of the species when storms were less frequent or more intense.
Resilience for all species increased with colony growth rates and with increasing proportion of small and
medium-sized colonies. We conclude that (1) coral populations composed of intermediate-size, fast-growing
colonies the most resilient following one or more storm disturbances, and (2) that resilience of anthropogenically
stressed corals depends, in part, on population size structure. .
56. Aronson, R.B. (1992) The effects of geography and hurricane disturbance on a tropical
predator-prey interaction. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 162, 15-33.
Abstract: Temperate-tropical predation comparisons require estimates of the variability of predation intensity
within those climatic zones. Latitudinal comparisons are possible only if predation is consistent within localized
areas. This study investigated two aspects of predation intensity experienced by the Caribbean ophiuroid
Ophiothrix oerstedi Lütken within and among back reef sites in Jamaica, St. Croix, Barbados, and Belize.
Predation potential, the propensity of predators to consume prey, was measured experimentally as the mortality
of tethered ophiuroids. Predation pressure, the natural frequency of predator-prey encounters, was measured as
the frequency of sublethal damage: the proportion of ophiuroids regenerating one or more arms. Daytime and
nighttime predation potentials were clustered by site, not by season, year, or temporal relationship to hurricane
events. Daytime predation potential was positively correlated with the abundance of predatory fishes (wrasses).
Although the abundance of nocturnal predators did not vary significantly among sites, among-site differences in
species composition partially explained the observed differences in nighttime predation potential. There were
neither significant among-site differences, nor within-site temporal patterns, in the frequency of sublethal arm
damage in O. oerstedi populations. Strong hurricanes did not increase arm damage frequencies at Jamaica or St.
Croix, implying that few injuries are caused by storms. The consistency of predation potential on O. oerstedi
within sites suggest that latitudinal comparisons will be possible with ophiuroids.
57. Blanchon, P. and Jones, B. (1997) Hurricane control on shelf-edge reef architecture
around Grand Cayman. Sedimentology, 44, 479.
No Abstract. .
58. Blanchon, P. and Perry, C.T. (2004) Taphonomic differentiation of Acropora palmata
facies in cores from Campeche Bank Reefs, Gulf of Mexico. Sedimentology, 51, 53-76.
Abstract: A common assumption in the geological analysis of modern reefs is that coral community zonation
seen on the surface should also be found in cores from the reef interior. Such assumptions not only underestimate
the impact of tropical storms on reef facies development, but have been difficult to test because of restrictions
imposed by narrow-diameter cores and poor recovery. That assumption is tested here using large-diameter cores
recovered from a range of common zones across three Campeche Bank reefs. It is found that cores from the reeffront, crest, flat and rubble-cay zones are similar in texture and coral composition, making it impossible to
recognize coral assemblages that reflect the surface zonation. Taphonomic signatures imparted by variations in
encrustation, bioerosion and cementation, however, produce distinct facies and delineate a clear depth zonation.
Cores from the reef-front zone (2–10 m depth) are characterized by sections of Acropora palmata cobble gravel
interspersed with sections of in-place (but truncated) A. palmata stumps. Upper surfaces of truncated colonies
are intensely bioeroded by traces of Entobia isp. and Gastrochaenolites isp. and encrusted by mm-thick crustose
corallines before colony regeneration and, therefore, indicate punctuated growth resulting from a hurricaneinduced cycle of destruction and regeneration. Cores from the reef crest/flat (0–2 m depth) are also characterized
by sections of hurricane-derived A. palmata cobble-gravels as well as in-place A. palmata colonies. In contrast to
the reef front, however, these cobble gravels are encrusted by cm-thick crusts of intergrown coralline algae, low-
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relief Homotrema and vermetids, bored by traces of Entobia isp. And Trypanites isp. and coated by a dense,
peloidal, micrite cement. Cores from the inter- to supratidal rubble-cay zone (+0–5 m) are only composed of A.
palmata cobble gravels and, although clasts show evidence of subtidal encrustation and bioerosion, these always
represent processes that occurred before deposition on the cay. Instead, these gravels are distinguished on the
basis of their limited bioerosion and marine cements, which exhibit fabrics formed in the intertidal zone. These
results confirm that hurricanes have a major influence on facies development in Campeche Bank reefs. Instead of
reflecting the surface coral zonation, each facies records a distinctive, depth-related set of taphonomic processes,
which reflect colonization, alteration and stabilization following the production of new substrates by hurricanes.
59. Bries, J.M., Debrot, A.O. and Meyer, D.L. (2004) Damage to the leeward reefs of Curacao
and Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles from a rare storm event: Hurricane Lenny, November
1999. Coral Reefs, 23, 297-307.
Abstract: Fringing reefs along the southwestern shores of the Caribbean islands of Curacao and Bonaire (12 N),
located outside the most frequent hurricane tracks, are rarely affected by heavy wave-action and major storms,
yet have experienced disturbances such as coral bleaching, coral diseases, and mass mortalities. The last major
hurricane to hit these islands occurred over 100 yr ago. In November 1999,Hurricane Lenny took an unusual
west-to-east track, bisecting the Caribbean Basin and passing approximately 200 miles north of Curacao and
Bonaire. The leeward shores of both islands were pounded for 24 h by heavy waves (3 m) generated while the
storm was centered far to the west. Reef damage surveys at 33 sites conducted between November 1999 to April
2000,following the storm, documented occurrences of toppling, fragmentation, tissue damage, bleaching, and
smothering due to the storm. Reefs were severely damaged along westward-facing shores but less impacted
where the reef front was tangential to the wave direction or was protected by offshore islands. At the most
severely damaged sites, massive coral colonies 2 m high (older than 100 yr) were toppled or overturned, smaller
corals were broken loose and tumbled across the shallow reef platform and either deposited on the shore or
dropped onto the deeper forereef slope. Branching and plating growth forms suffered more damage than massive
species and large colonies experienced greater damage than small colonies. Toppled massive corals have a high
potential of preserving the event signature even if they survive and continue to grow. Reorientation of large,
long-lived coralla may provide a unique indicator of disturbance in a reef system rarely affected by hurricanes.
At some locations, wave scouring removed loose sediment to reveal a cemented framework of Acropora
cervicornis rubble on the shallow platform above 10-m depth. This rubble was generated in situ, not by storm
processes, but rather by an earlier mass mortality of thickets of staghorn coral that covered extensive areas of the
shallow platform prior to the incidence of white band disease in the early 1980s.
60. Bythell, J.C., Bythell, M. and Gladfelter, E.H. (1993) Initial results of a long-term coral
reef monitoring program: Impact of Hurricane Hugo at Buck Island Reef National Monument,
St. Croix U.S. Virgin Islands. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 172,
171-183.
Abstract: Fixed position linear transects were established in early 1989 at Buck Island Reef National
Monument, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. On September 17–18 of that year Hurricane Hugo, the most severe
cyclone to impact the area in over 60 years, passed directly over the island bringing hurricane-force winds for
over 12 h and maximum estimated wind speeds of 70 m · s −1 (160 mph). Despite the severity of the storm,
damage to coral reefs was extremely localised and concentrated mainly on reefs open to its southeasterly
direction of approach. The southeast reef front at Buck Island was razed to substrate level between the surface
and 7 m depth and the reef crest behind it was smothered in a 1 m deep berm of broken coral rubble. At a site on
the north backreef, however, only a slight loss of coral cover was detected which was more than compensated for
during 1990–1991. At a south reef site which was in 8–10 m depth, just outside the region of severe damage,
coral cover was reduced by 40–46% on three out of four transects. Shifts in community structure were detected
by multi-dimensional scaling of Bray-Curtis similarity measures and by k-dominance curves, but not by the
Shannon diversity statistic (H′). Coral cover had returned to approximate pre- hurricane levels by June 1991, but
community composition remained distinct. One of the four transects at this south site was apparently not
significantly damaged during the hurricane. Such spatial variability may affect recovery rates, since pockets of
relatively undisturbed benthos may provide seed populations for recruitment into adjacent, more severely
damaged areas. Hurricane Hugo did not appear to cause an immediate increase in species diversity by
differential mortality of the dominant species in the community. This result is consistent with previous studies of
the impact of less severe storms on St. Croix, but contrary to several reports of hurricane impact in other areas.
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61. Bythell, J.C., Gladfelter, E.H. and Bythell, M. (1993) Chronic and catastrophic natural
mortality of three common Caribbean reef corals. Coral Reefs, 12, 143-152.
Abstract: Compared to catastrophic impacts from storms, disease epidemics and bleaching events, little is
known about the effects of more routine chronic mortality in reef corals. To monitor this ongoing mortality,
monthly visual assessments of the cause of tissue damage were related to mortality rates (changes in planar
surface area) of tagged colonies of three common reef corals: Montastrea annularis, Porites astreoides and
Diploria strigosa at Buck Island Reef National Monument, St. Croix, US Virgin Islands. During the study
Hurricane Hugo, the most powerful cyclone to affect the area in at least 60 y, made a direct impact on the site.
Effects of the hurricane were extremely localized, with certain exposed sites being almost completely razed
while others showed no detectable changes in community structure. Mortality caused both by the hurricane and
by other factors during the 26 month study varied between species and also between site locations around the
island. Differences in susceptibility were not dependent solely on gross morphology, because two robust,
massive species showed opposite responses to hurricane damage and chronic mortality. Diploria strigosa was
virtually unaffected by chronic factors, but was heavily damaged at exposed sites during the hurricane. In
contrast, mortality from predation and tissue necrosis was high in Montastrea annularis, but it largely escaped
damage from the hurricane because it was absent from the most severely scoured locations. Porites astreoides,
with populations dominated by much smaller colonies, was affected by both chronic and hurricane related
mortality. Differences in susceptibility to the various types of natural disturbance among species, coupled with
high spatial and temporal variability in the effects of such disturbances, may be critical to the maintenance of
species diversity on the reef.
62. Cahoon, D.R., Hensel, P., Rybczyk, J., Mkee, K.L., Proffitt, E. and Perez, B.C. (2003)
Mass tree mortality leads to mangrove peat collapse at Bay Islands, Honduras after Hurricane
Mitch. Journal of Ecology, 91, 1093-1105.
Abstract: 1 We measured sediment elevation and accretion dynamics in mangrove forests on the islands of
Guanaja and Roatan, Honduras, impacted by Hurricane Mitch in 1998 to determine if collapse of underlying peat
was occurring as a result of mass tree mortality. Little is known about the balance between production and
decomposition of soil organic matter in the maintenance of sediment elevation of mangrove forests with biogenic soils.
2 Sediment elevation change measured with the rod surface elevation table from 18 months to 33 months after
the storm differed significantly among low, medium and high wind impact sites. Mangrove forests suffering
minimal to partial mortality gained elevation at a rate (5 mm year 1) greater than vertical accretion (2 mm year1)
measured from artificial soil marker horizons, suggesting that root production contributed to sediment
elevation. Basin forests that suffered mass tree mortality experienced peat collapse of about 11 mm year1 as a
result of decomposition of dead root material and sediment compaction. Low soil shear strength and lack of root
growth accompanied elevation decreases.
3 Model simulations using the Relative Elevation Model indicate that peat collapse in the high impact basin
mangrove forest would be 37 mm year1 for the 2 years immediately after the storm, as root material
decomposed. In the absence of renewed root growth, the model predicts that peat collapse will continue for at
least 8 more years at a rate (7 mm year1) similar to that measured (11 mm year1).
4 Mass tree mortality caused rapid elevation loss. Few trees survived and recovery of the high impact forest will
thus depend primarily on seedling recruitment. Because seedling establishment is controlled in large part by
sediment elevation in relation to tide height, continued peat collapse could further impair recovery rates.
63. Clifton, D. (1991) Caribbean Hurricanes. GeoJournal, 23, 337-345.
Abstract: Hurricane Gilbert made its landfall on the Yucatan peninsula on September 14, 1988, destroying
valuable resort property in Cancun, Isla Mujeres, and Cozumel. Salt flats (salinas) in northern Quintana Roo and
Yucatan were flooded by the storm surge and coastal marine ecosystem were devastated. Inland, the hurricane
caused damages to houses, power lines, and farming land, but increased opportunities for garden hunting on
destroyed fields. Twenty percent of tropical rain forest suffered losses of canopy and in the deciduous forests of
north-central Yucatan noxiuous insects populations increased. Although damaging in its ultimate effects,
hurricane Gilbert tested the resilience of Maya Indians and their readiness for post-disaster accommodation.
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64. Dollar, S.J. and Tribble, G.W. (1993) Recurrent storm disturbance and recovery: a longterm study of coral communities in Hawaii. Coral Reefs, 12, 223-233.
Abstract: Damage caused by catastrophic storm waves and subsequent recovery was investigated with a series
of 15 line transects on a reef off the west coast of Hawaii over a 20-year period (1973–1993). At the initiation of
the study, four zones existed across the reef, each defined by a different dominant coral species. An intermediate
intensity storm in 1974 caused a decrease in coral cover from 52% to 46% of bottom cover, while breakage and
transport of fragments extended the depth of peak coral cover. In 1980, a Kona storm, which generated the
largest storm surf on record, destroyed the coral zonation pattern almost entirely. Living coral was reduced from
46% to 10% of bottom cover, with greatest damage in the zones with highest cover. Twelve years later (1992),
living coral cover increased to 15% of total bottom cover. Lack of significant correlation between increase of
coral cover and initial cover indicated that recovery was from larval settlement, rather than regeneration of viable
fragments. Extrapolation of recovery from 1980 to 1992 indicates that the pre-storm (1973) conditions would be
reached in 40 years (exponential growth) to 70 years (linear growth). In 1993, following a hurricane and
unusually large northwest swell, coral cover was once again reduced to 11%; recovery was set back to a level
similar to that in 1980 following the Kona storm. In 1992 and 1993 no evidence of CaCO 3 accretion was
observed on the reef bench. Rubble fragments created by storm stress were deposited on the reef slope with little
subsequent lithification. While hurricane force waves may occur very infrequently in Hawaii, this source of
stress appears to effectively limit Holocene reef growth in all areas except sheltered embayments. The pattern of
damage and recovery of this coral ecosystem conforms to the intermediate disturbance hypothesis, in which
storms of intermediate intensity produce either an increase or decrease in diversity and cover, depending on the
timing of severe storms. On a global scale, timescales of damage and recovery cycles vary substantially
depending on the frequency of severe disturbances, and the adaptive capabilities of dominant species.
65. Edmunds, P.J. (2002) Long-term dynamics of coral reefs in St. John, US Virgin Islands.
Coral Reefs, 21, 357-367.
Abstract: In this study, long-term (1987-998) dynamics are described on a local scale (<20 km) for coral reefs in
St. John, US Virgin Islands, which are located in a marine protected area (MPA). The study consists of two sites
(Yawzi and Tektite) which were selected in 1987 based on relatively high coral cover (=32%), and six sites that
were randomly selected in 1992.Over 12 years, mean coral cover at Yawzi (9 m depth) changed significantly,
declining from 45 to 20%cover between 1987 and 1998 (a 56% reduction). Less than 1 km away at Tektite (14 m
depth), coral cover also changed significantly, but here it increased 34% (from 32 to 43% cover). Over the same
period, macroalgal cover showed a significant upward trend at both sites, increasing from 2 to 26% at Yawzi,
and from 6 to 13% at Tektite. The random sites (7 m depth) differed from the initial sites in both community
structure and dynamics. Mean coral cover at the random sites (8%) was less than one third of that at Yawzi and
Tektite, and varied significantly among sites and years in an idiosyncratic pattern. The percentage cover of
macroalgae and the pooled coverage of crustose coralline algae, algal turf, and bare space showed a strong site
·time interaction, illustrating that the sites differed in dynamics, but that the differences varied among times.
Thus, as has been reported else-where in the Caribbean, serious reef degradation has occurred on at least one reef
in St. John, but the patterns of change vary markedly on a kilometer-wide scale. In comparison with other longterm studies of Caribbean coral reefs, the degradation of a coral reef in an MPA around St. John is noteworthy
since there are few local anthropogenic disturbances that can be held responsible for the decline. The strong
possibility that large-scale events such as hurricanes and global warming have played a pivotal role in the decline
of at least one reef in St. John emphasizes the need to embrace landscape-and regional-scale phenomena in order
to understand and manage local coral reef dynamics. The occurrence of small patches of relatively healthy reef
(i.e., at Tektite) appears trivial in comparison to region-wide reef decline, but such anomalies should be studied
further because of their potential roles as refugia for corals and reef-associated taxa.
66. Glynn, P.W., Lirman, D., Baker, A.C. and Leyte Morales, G.E. (1998) First documented
hurricane strikes on eastern Pacific coral reefs reveal only slight damage. Coral Reefs, 17,
368.
No Abstract.
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67. Graus, R.R., Macintyre, I.G. and Herchenroder, B.E. (1984) Computer simulation of the
reef zonation at Discovery Bay, Jamaica: Hurricane disruption and long-term physical
oceanographic controls. Coral Reefs, 3, 59-68.
Abstract: A computer model (COREEF) designed to simulate the growth of Caribbean coral reefs has been
tested for its ability to reconstruct the storm-induced and the established zonation patterns on the West Reef at
Discovery Bay, Jamaica. Hindcast waves for nine positions of Hurricane Allen were routed across the reef, and
the disruptions to the coralgal and sediment zones were calculated for each position. The predicted maximum
and intermediate stage damages closely matched the actual destruction produced by this and other smaller
storms. Despite their severity, hurricanes probably have minimal long-term effect on the established zonation of
this reef, because their return period is generally less than the recovery period of the reef. Additional simulation
experiments indicate that a composite of the wave conditions at Discovery Bay maintain the established reef
zonation and that winter storm conditions produce the maximum bottom velocities that the coralgal framework
can withstand without disruption.
68. Grigg, R.W. (1995) Coral reefs in an urban embayment in Hawaii: a complex case history
controlled by natural and anthropogenic stress. Coral Reefs, 14, 253-266.
Abstract: The effects of natural and anthropogenic stress need to be separated before coral reef ecosystems can
be effectively managed. In this paper, a 25 year case history of coral reefs in an urban embayment (Mamala Bay)
off Honolulu, Hawaii is described and differences between natural and man-induced stress are distinguished.
Mamala Bay is a 30 km long shallow coastal bay bordering the southern (leeward) shore of Oahu and the city of
Honolulu in the Hawaiian Islands. During the last 25 years, this area has been hit by two magnitude 5 hurricane
events (winds >240 km/h) generating waves in excess of 7.5 m. Also during this period, two large sewer outfalls
have discharged up to 90 million gallons per day (mgd) or (360x106 L/day) of point source pollution into the
bay. Initially the discharge was raw sewage, but since 1977 it has received advanced primary treatment. Nonpoint source run-off from the Honolulu watershed also enters the bay on a daily basis. The results of the study
show that discharge of raw sewage had a serious but highly localized impact on shallow (10m) reef corals in the
bay prior to 1977. After 1977, when treatment was upgraded to the advanced primary level and outfalls were
extended to deep water (>65 m), impacts to reef corals were no longer significant. No measurable effects of
either point or non-point source pollution on coral calcification, growth, species composition, diversity or
community structure related to pollution can now be detected. Conversely the effects of hurricane waves in 1982
and 1992 together caused major physical destruction to the reefs. In 1982, average coral cover of well-developed
offshore reefs dropped from 60–75% to 5–15%. Only massive species in high relief areas survived. Today,
recovery is occurring, and notwithstanding major future disturbance events, long-term biological processes
should eventually return the coral ecosystems to a more mature successional stage. This case history illustrates
the complex nature of the cumulative effects of natural and anthropogenic stress on coral reefs and the need for a
long-term data base before the status of a coral reef can be properly interpreted.
69. Harmelin-Vivien, M. and Laboute, P. (1986) Catastrophic impact of hurricanes on atoll
outer reef slopes in the Tuamotu (French Polynesia). Coral Reefs, 5, 55-62.
Abstract: Underwater effects on coral reefs of the six hurricanes which ravaged French Polynesia between
December 82 and April 83 were observed by SCUBA diving around high islands and atolls during September
and October 1983. Special attention was paid to Tikehau atoll reef formations (Tuamotu archipelago) where
quantitative studies on scleractinians, cryptofauna and fishes were conducted in 1982 immediatly prior to the
hurricanes. On outer reef slopes coral destruction, varying from 50 to 100%, was a function of depth. Upper
slope coral communities composed of small colonies well adapted to high energy level environments, suffered
less than deeper formations. However, there is a narrow erosional trough in this zone at a depth of 6 m that was
probably the result of storm-wave action (plunge point). Coral destruction was spectacular at depths greater than
12 m: 60 to 80% between 12 m and 30 m and 100% beyond 35 m, whereas earlier living coral coverage ranged
from 60 to 75% in these zones. The outer slope was transformed into a scree zone covered with coarse sand and
dead coral rubble. Dives on different sites around steep outer slopes (>45°) of the atolls and more gentle slopes
(<25°) of some parts of the high islands permitted the formulation of an explanatory hypothesis: direct coral
destruction by hurricane-induced waves occurred between the surface and 18–20 m; on low-angle slopes broken
colonies were thrown up on reef flats and beaches; on steep slopes avalanches destroyed much of the living
corals and left scree slopes of rubble and sand.
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70. Highsmith, R.C., Riggs, A.C. and D’Antonio, C.M. (1980) Survival of hurricanegenerated coral fragments and a disturbance model of reef calcification/growth rates.
Oecologia, 45, 322-329.
Abstract: Hurricane Gerta, with winds reaching 150 km/h, crossed the Belize barrier reef on September 18,
1978. Breakage and scouring of corals occurred in all zones of the reef to a depth of approximately 25 m.
Survivorship of storm-generated coral fragments and detached colonies is strongly size dependent, conforming
to the power function Y=4.44X0.66 where Y is the percent of fragments and X is the fragment size. Forty-six
percent of detached Acropora palmata branches, which are larger ( =37.6 cm long) than fragments of other
species ( =16.7 cm long), survived. Overall, 39% of fragments and detached colonies survived. This high
survivorship, which probably increased the total number of colonies present, and redistribution of corals may
explain the rapid recovery of reefs from all but the severest hurricanes. Storms appear to prevent coral reefs from
reaching a mature state characterized by low calcification and growth rates. Therefore, we suggest that long-term
reef calcification and growth rates are highest on reefs periodically disturbed by storms of intermediate intensity.
71. Hillis, Z.M. and Bythell, J.C. (1998) “Keep up or give up”: hurricanes promote
coral survival by interrupting burial from sediment accumulation. Coral Reefs, 17, 262.
No abstract.
72. Kirby-Smith, W.W. and Ustach, J. (1986) Resistance to hurricane disturbance of an
epifaunal community on the continental shelf off North Carolina. Estuarine, Coastal and
Shelf Science, 23, 433-442.
Abstract: Hurricane Diana was stalled over the continental shelf of central North Carolina on 11–13 September
1984 in the vicinity of a previously studied epifaunal community (30 m depth). Two research cruises following
the hurricane used still camera and TV transects to obtain data which allowed an evaluation of storm-related
effects on taxa of algae, sponges, corals, echinoderms and fish. Analysis of 35-mm slides suggested no effects
attributable to the hurricane except observations of damaged coral heads and dead mussels. Analysis of
television transects indicated no storm related changes from the previous study in frequency of occurrence of
large epibenthic taxa. Hurricane damage was much less than anticipated and it is hypothesized that these coral
reef-type communities are adapted to or structured by strong bottom currents generated by the frequent passage
of gales and that the passage of hurricanes causes little additional stress.
73. Kjerfve, B. and Dinnel, S.P. (1983) Hindcast hurricane characteristics on the Belize
barrier reef. Coral Reefs, 1, 203-207.
Abstract: Hurricane Greta was the most intense of the 1978 Atlantic hurricanes, with a minimum central
pressure of 947 hPa (mb) just prior to passage across the Belize barrier reef in the western Caribbean. At Carrie
Bow Cay, along the Belize barrier reef, 12 km south of the point where the storm crossed the barrier, coral reef
damage was moderate and island damage rather extensive. Felled palm trees indicated that the most destructive
storm force came from the SW, from across the barrier reef lagoon. Hindcasting of hurricane winds at Carrie
Bow indicated that the palms probably fell in response to the most intense storm winds from the SW. Hindcast,
significant waves at Carrie Bow reached a maximum height of 10.0 m with a period of 12.7 s. The largest waves
that reached Carrie Bow from across the lagoon were hindcast to have a significant wave height of 2.8 m,
significant period of 7.0 s and were responsible for construction of a storm berm at Carrie Bow, facing the
lagoon.
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74. Letourneur, Y., Harmelin-Vivien, M. and Galzin, R. (1993). Impact of Hurricane Firinga
on fish community structure on fringing reefs of Reunion Island, S.W. Indian Ocean.
Environmental Biology of Fishes, 37, 109-120.
Abstract: The reef flats of Saint-Pierre and Saint-Leu (Reunion Island, Indian Ocean) suffered badly from
hurricane Firinga on 29 January 1989. The high degree of silting due to increased run-off killed the coral
colonies. Fish communities were surveyed at four periods following the hurricane (March and September 1989,
March and September 1990). An increase in both species richness (31 to 47 spp. per census) and abundance (169
to 265 individuals per census) of fishes was observed with time, along with changes in their trophic structure.
This positive succession may be linked to the disappearance of the silt layer from reef flats since September
1989. Nevertheless, there were differences in fluctuations and trophic structure of the fish community between
back-, inner- and outer-reef flats. Finally, differences in recovery between the two reefs are related to the overall
environmental degradation of the Island, chiefly by human perturbation, prior to the hurricane.
75. Mah, A.J. and Stearn, C.W. (1986) The effect of Hurricane Allen on the Bellairs fringing
reef, Barbados. Coral Reefs, 4, 169-176.
Abstract: On August 4, 1980 Hurricane Allen damaged the northern fringing reef located just offshore from the
Bellairs Research Institute of McGill University on the west coast of Barbados. During the summer and one
winter month of 1981 a resurvey of the reef was done and the results were compared with a similar survey made
in 1974. On a reefal scale the changes in the proportion of substrates before and after Hurricane Allen were
statistically significant for all substrates and species with the exception of Millepora spp. Among the corals,
Porites porites has been most affected by the catastrophe: its coverage was reduced by 96%. The other corals
(Siderastrea sidera, Porites astreoides, Montastrea annularis, and Agaricia agaricites) were reduced by 75 to
25%. Onshore transport is suggested by the high abundance of Acropora cervicornis (20%) and Madracis
mirabilis (30%) in the rubble on the fringing reef (the former only grows seaward of the reef). Offshore transport
is suggested by the relatively poor representation of Porites porites (32%) in the rubble. Shannon-Weaver
diversity indices of the corals dropped from 1.61 to 1.26. The changes in diversity are best explained by the
intermediate disturbance hypothesis.
76. Moran, D.P and Reaka-Kudla, L. (1991) Effects of disturbance: disruption and
enhancement of coral reef cryptofaunal populations by hurricanes. Coral Reefs, 9, 215-224.
Abstract: Samples of solitary cryptofauna were collected from reef habitats before and after Hurricanes David
and Frederic struck St. Croix, U.S.V.I. The intertidal beachrock zone suffered severe and sustained damage from
waves, sand scouring and moving debris. Most bioeroded cavities in the substrate and several previously
abundant cryptic taxa were completely obliterated from this environment for more than 6 months; numbers
remained low or the pre-hurricane body size distribution had not been regained by the end of the 2 year study in
a number of taxa. In 3 habitats at 2–3 m depths (fringing reef, patch reef, back of the bank barrier reef), some
taxa underwent temporary decreases or dislocations, particularly on the fringing reef. Overall, however, this
cryptofauna exhibited strong succession, with burrowers and then nestlers increasing above pre-hurricane
densities. Many populations of nestlers were still increasing at the end of the 2 year study. Thus, the hurricanes
enhanced densities of benthic invertebrates per piece of rubble (probably by providing fresh unburrowed
substrate) in these moderately shallow subtidal habitats. On a deeper fore reef (12 m), we detected very few
changes in cryptofaunal populations. The enhancement of invertebrate populations in reef habitats with
intermediate levels of hurricane disturbance parallels recent findings that some species of corals have evolved
colonizing life history tactics which allow them to prosper in moderately disturbed environments. Because the
cryptofauna represent an important route of trophic flow (via predatory fishes) through the reef ecosystem, these
relatively long term (2 y) changes in abundance of invertebrates have important implications for the structure
and function of coral reef communities.
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77. Ostrander, G.K., Armstrong, K.M., Knobbe, E.T., Gerace, D. and Scully, E.P. (2000)
Rapid transition in the structure of a coral reef community: The effects of coral bleaching and
physical disturbance. PNAS, 97.
Abstract: Coral reef communities are in a state of change throughout their geographical range. Factors
contributing to this change include bleaching (the loss of algal symbionts), storm damage, disease, and
increasing abundance of macroalgae. An additional factor for Caribbean reefs is the after effects of the epizootic
that reduced the abundance of the herbivorous sea urchin, Diadema antillarum. Although coral reef communities
have undergone phase shifts, there are few studies that document the details of such transitions. We report the
results of a 40-month study that documents changes in a Caribbean reef community affected by bleaching,
hurricane damage, and an increasing abundance of macroalgae. The study site was in a relatively pristine area of
the reef surrounding the island of San Salvador in the Bahamas. Ten transects were sampled every 3–9 months
from November 1994 to February 1998. During this period, the corals experienced a massive bleaching event
resulting in a significant decline in coral abundance. Algae, especially macroalgae, increased in abundance until
they effectively dominated the substrate. The direct impact of Hurricane Lili in October 1996 did not alter the
developing community structure and may have facilitated increasing algal abundance. The results of this study
document the rapid transition of this reef community from one in which corals and algae were co-dominant to a
community dominated by macroalgae. The relatively brief time period required for this transition illustrates the
dynamic nature of reef communities.
78. Rogers, C.S. (1993) Hurricanes and coral reefs: The intermediate disturbance hypothesis
revisited. Coral Reefs, 12, 127-137.
Abstract: A review of research on the effects of hurricanes on coral reefs suggests that the intermediate
disturbance hypothesis may be applicable to shallow reef zones dominated by branching or foliaceous coral
species that are especially susceptible to mechanical damage from storms. Diversity (H') increases because of an
increase in evenness following destruction or removal of the species that was monopolizing the space. The
intermediate disturbance hypothesis as presented by Connell focuses on changes in number of species, but
should be expanded to include diversity (H') and evenness. It should also be modified to incorporate changes in
living cover and the time elapsed since disturbances of varying intensities. This hypothesis predicts that when
cover is high, diversity will be low. However, research on coral reefs does not consistently demonstrate an
inverse correlation of coral diversity, and coral cover. An increase in cover and decrease in diversity with depth
would also be expected because deeper reef zones generally experience less disturbance. However, higher
diversity (both H' and species richness) is often associated with deeper zones. The effects of hurricanes on coral
reefs will depend on the temporal and spatial scales under consideration, the life history characteristics and
morphology of the dominant species, the depth of the reef zone, the ecological history of the site, and the
influence of any additional natural or human stresses.
79. Salazar-Vallejo, S.I. (2002) Hurricanes and tropical coastal biodiversity [Huracanes y
biodiversidad costera tropical]. Revista De Biologia Tropical, 50, 415-428.
Abstract: Tropical coastal biodiversity has been modulated by tropical storms during a long time and it is
currently facing a heavy human impact. The purpose of this review is to compile the available information to
improve our understanding of hurricane impacts and to promote the establishment of coastal landscape
monitoring, because that is the best way to assess these impacts. Although generalizations on hurricane effects
are elusive, some historical dynamics and temporal relationships are included and some details are presented on
the impacts by resuspension and movement of sediments, storm waves, and breaking off of coral reef organisms.
Some effects on marine turtles and coastal forests are also briefly pointed out.
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80. Scoffin, T.P. (1993) The geological effects of hurricanes on coral reefs and the
interpretation of storm deposits. Coral Reefs, 12, 203-221.
Abstract: Hurricanes occur in belts 7° to 25° north and south of the equator. Reefs growing in these belts suffer
periodic damage from hurricane-generated waves and storm surge. Corals down to 20m depth may be broken
and removed, branching colonies being much more susceptible to breakage than upright massive forms. Sand
cays may be washed away and former storm ridges may migrate to leeward across reef flats to link with islands.
Reef crest and reef front coral debris accumulate as talus at the foot of the fore-reef slope, on submarine terraces
and grooves, on the intertidal reef flat as storm ridges of shingle or boulders and isolated blocks of reef
framework, as accreting beach ridges of leeward migrating shingle, as lobes and wedges of debris in back-reef
lagoons, as drapes of carbonate sand and mud in deep off-reef locations in the fore-reef and lagoonal areas. In
addition to the coarse debris deposited, other features may aid the recognition of former hurricane events,
including the assemblage of reef biota, its species composition and the structure of the skeletons; graded internal
sediments in framework cavities; characteristic sequences of encrusting organisms; characteristic shapes of reef
flat microatoll corals; and submarine cement crusts over truncated reef surfaces. The abundance of reef flat storm
deposits whose ages cluster around 3000–4000 y BP in certain parts of the world most likely relate to a slight fall
in relative sea level rather than an increase in storminess during that period. A higher frequency of storms need
not result in more reef flat storm deposits. The violence of the storm relative to normal fair-weather conditions
influences the extent of damage; the length of time since the previous major storm influences the amount of coral
debris created; the length of time after the hurricane, and before a subsequent storm influences the degree of
stabilization of reef-top storm deposits and hence their chances of preservation.
81. Williams, A.H. (2003) The effects of Hurricane Allen on Back Reef populations of
Discovery Bay, Jamaica. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 75, 233-243.
Abstract: Sixteen months after Hurricane Allen, an assessment of the condition (living vs. dead and encrusted)
and volume of staghorn coral, Acropora cervicomis Lamarck, patches within the East Back Reef of Discovery
Bay, Jamaica was made. Data generated by this assessment were compared with similar data collected in 1975–
1976 prior to the storm. Densities of two urchins, Diadema antillarum Philippi and Echinometra viridis A.
Agassiz, and the threespot damselfish, Eupomacentrus planifrons Cuvier, within the coral patches were also
measured. Although staghorn coral patches were significantly smaller (− 65%) in mean volume in 1981
compared to 1975–1976, 22% of the patches were unchanged since 1976 or had increased in volume and only
9% were reduced to piles of rubble. Diadema and threespot densities were significantly higher than in 1976.
Mortality of damselfish and larger Diadema appeared to have been reduced. Coral patches with both damselfish
and Diadema present exhibited a high proportion of living coral tissue, while those patches dominated by either
damselfish or Diadema were overgrazed with < 5% of the substrata covered by living coral. Similarly, the fore
reef exhibited high urchin and low damselfish densities, possibly contributing to its low proportion of living
coral.
82. Woodley, J.D. (1992) The incidence of hurricanes on the north coast of Jamaica since
1870: are the classic reef descriptions atypical? Hydrobiologia, 247, 133-138.
Abstract: When the coral reefs of north Jamaica were described and studied in the 1950''s, 60''s and 70''s, their
shallow zones were dominated by dense thickets of Acropora palmata and A. cervicornis. Those stands were
demolished by hurricanes in 1980 and 1988, but these seemed to be unusual events. Published records of storm
tracks indicate that, in the last 120 years, about 35 hurricanes have passed within 364 km (200 nautical miles) of
Discovery Bay, Jamaica. In the absence of information on their intensity, an approximate measure of their
impact is the reciprocal of their closest distance. Recent experience suggests that passage within about 65 km,
whether to the north or the south, generates waves capable of destroying Acropora stands. There have been 13
years, out of the last 120, in which hurricanes have passed that close to Jamaica, with a median interval of 6.5
years. Large colonies of A. palmata (over 1 m high) might take about 12 years to develop. The total number of
years in which the reefs have been free of major disturbance for longer than 12 years is only 33, and 24 of them
(1956–80) were in the unusually long interval of 36 years, from 1944 to 1980. The luxuriant Acropora stands of
the classic descriptions may therefore be atypical; one extreme of a variable condition.
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General Risk
83. Amadore1, L., Bolhofer, W.C. Cruz, R.V., Feir, R.B., Freysinger, C.A., Guill, S., Jala,
S.C., Iglesias, A. Jose1, A., Leatherman, S., Lenhart, S., Mukherjee, S., Smith, J.B. and
Wisniewski, J. (1996) Climate change vulnerability and adaptation in Asia and the Pacific:
Workshop summary. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 92, 1-12.
Abstract: The Regional Workshop on Climate Change Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment in Asia and the
Pacific met to present and discuss assessments of vulnerability and adaptation to climate change in agriculture,
forests, coastal resources, and water resources. Discussions were held in breakout and plenary sessions about the
state of the science for vulnerability and adaptation assessment, conclusions that can be drawn about the
vulnerability of the region to climate change, and where future research efforts should be directed. The workshop
concluded that sea level rise is of greatest concern to island and coastal nations in the region, climate change will
have a significant effect on agriculture, water resources are sensitive to changes in average climate conditions
and to tropical monsoons and cyclones, and forests could be significantly affected by climate change. The
workshop recommended that efforts to improve general circulation models continue and that countries in the
region cooperate on the analyses of vulnerability and addressing adaptation measures. The workshop also
concluded that results of vulnerability and adaptation assessments should be presented to policy makers and the
public and that assessments continue to be undertaken to improve our understanding of the issue.
84. Grossman, E.E. and Gibbs, A.E. (2001) Islands at Risk: Coastal Hazard Assessment and
Mapping in The Hawaiian Islands. Environmental Geosciences, 8, 21.
Abstract: Seven natural phenomena have been identified as posing significant threats to coastal areas of the
Hawaiian Islands. These "hazards" include: coastal erosion, sea-level rise, major storms, volcanic and seismic
activity, tsunami inundation, coastal stream flooding, and extreme seasonal high wave events. In addition to
these phenomena, coastal slope and local geologic setting are important factors for accurately determining the
hazard potential for specific areas. To quantify the effects of individual hazards, their past magnitudes and
occurrence have been evaluated from historical records and a semiquantitative ranking scheme applied. The
intensity of each hazard has been ranked low, moderately low, moderately high, or high using definitions based
on their historical occurrence and magnitude. Comparison and statistical ranking and weighting of all hazard
rankings for a given segment of coast, combined with geologic character and morphologic slope, are used to
define the Overall Hazard Assessment which provides a guideline for management decisions regarding coastal
land use and planning.
85. Sato, H., Murakami, H., Kozuki, Y. and Yamamoto, N. (2003) Study on a simplified
method of tsunami risk assessment. Natural Hazards 29, 325-340.
Abstract: For the testing of the effect on the tsunami prevention facilities, a simplified method for tsunami risk
assessment was suggested without wave run-up analysis. This method is proposed using calculated offshore
tsunami waveform and field reconnaissance such as the seawall height, time necessary for residents’ evacuation
and tsunami warning insurance. Then, two normalized values are evaluated; one is the ratio of calculated
maximum tsunami height to seawall height, the other is the ratio of time between tsunami over-topping and
evacuation completion to total time required for evacuation. These two values are used to qualitatively estimate
the safety of residents and the effect of tsunami prevention facilities, eliminating the necessity to compute
complicated tsunami run-up onshore.
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Other shoreline protection (dunes, salt marshes, etc)
86. Bartoldus, C.C. (1994) EPW: A procedure for the functional assessment of planned
wetlands. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 77, 533-541.
Abstract: The practice of compensating wetland losses through wetland construction, restoration, or
enhancement has become more commonplace; however, an appropriate method for assessing replacement of
wetland function has been lacking. The Evaluation for Planned Wetlands (EPW) was developed to meet this
need. It is a rapid assessment procedure which documents and highlights differences between a wetland
assessment area and planned wetland based on their capacity to provide six functions: shoreline bank erosion
control, sediment stabilization, water quality, wildlife, fish (tidal, non-tidal stream/river, and non-tidal
pond/lake), and uniqueness/heritage. The differences between wetlands are expressed in terms of individual
elements. Functional Capacity Indices, and Functional Capacity Units. The results provide information on
individual design elements and measures of functional capacity which are a necessity under current regulatory
programs that require tangible goals and a method for calculating planned wetland size. EPW includes functional
assessment models, a procedure for using these models during the planning/mitigation process, and guidelines
for functional design.
87. Boorman, L.A. (1999) Salt marshes – present functioning and future change. Mangroves
and Salt Marshes, 3, 227–241.
Abstract: Salt marshes are no longer viewed as intertidal wastelands of little value to anyone. They are now
widely recognised as playing a major role in coastal defence, in wildlife conservation on the coast and as a key
source of organic material and nutrients vitally important for a wide range of marine communities. This
appreciation of the importance of salt marshes has been brought even more sharply into focus because of the
threats posed by predicted rise in sea level as a result of global climatic change. Three decades ago the
possibilities of exchanges of organic matter between salt marshes and the sea were already being recognised in
certain areas but it is only in the past five years or so that this process has been studied in a wide range of
different areas. Detailed studies have been made into the way that salt marsh fluxes change with the development
of increasingly mature and, therefore, increasingly complex salt marsh communities. As well as being sources
and sinks of mineral nutrients and organic matter, salt marshes can also function as a sink for pollutants that
would otherwise be damaging to the environment. Salt marshes also act as a sink for sediment within coastal
ecosystems. Through their various functions they can be seen to be acting as dynamic living filters for various
ecologically important materials. With increasing threats to the survival of salt marshes as a result of man’s
activities in the coastal zone being augmented by the threats from predicted sea level rise, a new approach to salt
marsh conservation has come to the fore and that is the actual creation of new salt marshes. For this process to be
fully effective we have to make full use of our increased understanding of salt marsh structure and function.
Following a review of the current state of the art in the field of salt marsh research, an assessment is made of
specific future research needs. Despite the greatly increased effort which has been directed to salt marsh research
over the past few years we still have to recognise that resources are limited and, therefore, critical evaluations of
the various options regarding the direction of our future efforts need to be made.
88. Carter, R.W.G. (1991) Near-future sea level impacts on coastal dune landscapes.
Landscape Ecology, 6, 29-39.
Abstract: Very little attention has been paid to the impact of global warming, especially sea level rise, on
coastal dunescapes, despite the fact that these provide natural protection along many of the world's shorelines.
This paper reviews likely responses given the IPCC climate change predictions to 2030AD, which include sea
level rise in the order of 0.09 to 0.29m. It is envisaged that coastal dunes will react in a variety of ways
dependent both on regional and local factors. Rising water levels will increase susceptibility to erosion, but the
fate of released sediment, particularly the onshore/offshore partitioning, must depend on morphodynamic
antecedence, and the propensity for periodic domain shifts. The release of material at the shoreline may allow
construction of coastal dunes, to the point of progradation in some zones. The response of dune vegetation to a
warmer, wetter climate is uncertain. Most of the main temperate dune species are C3 plants which given
favourable conditions would respond positively to CO2 enhancement. However local factors may offset such
potential gains.
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89. Cowell, P., (1999) Modeling shoreface and barrier response to subsidence events. In
Gelfenbaum, G. and Kaminsky, G.M., (editors), Southwest Washington Coastal Erosion
Workshop Report 1999, USGS Open-File Report 00-439, pp. 36-41.
No abstract.
90. Hardaway Jr., C.S., Varnell, L.M., Milligan, D.A., Priest, Thomas, G.R. and Brindley,
R.C.H. (2002). An integrated habitat enhancement approach to shoreline stabilization for a
Chesapeake Bay island community. Wetlands Ecology and Management 10, 289–302.
Abstract: Shore protection and habitat enhancement along a residential island were the main goals of this
shoreline study. The physical and geological factors necessary to design shoreline stabilization structures capable
of confidently supporting suitable and stable habitat enhancement/ restoration substrate are emphasized since this
area of study generally may be unfamiliar to wetland resource managers. Erosion along the targeted shoreline is
influenced by a unidirectional wave field from the south-southwest. Results of our analyses show that a headland
control system comprised of headland breakwaters could be used successfully to stabilize the existing shoreline
and provide resource managers flexibility in habitat restoration decisions. Headland breakwaters are designed to
diffract wave energy so that shore planform equilibrium is attained and can be sized and positioned to maximize
the length of stabilized shoreline. Maximization of the new shoreline length provides increased subaerial,
intertidal, and subaqueous environments for flexible habitat restoration alternatives. The final restoration design
developed through this study will create approximately 69,000 m of new habitat including stable beach, dune,
tidal marsh, scrub shrub, and submersed aquatic vegetation. An additional 2,000 m of rock substrate habitat is
provided directly by the headland control structures.
91. Kaminsky, G.M., Jol, H.M., Cowell, P.J., Ruggiero, P., and Gelfenbaum, G. (1999)
Measuring and modeling coastal progradation catastrophic shoreline retreat, and shoreface
translation along the coast of Washington State, USA. (Poster) and Abstract, The Non-Steady
State of the Inner Shelf and Shoreline: Coastal Change on the Time Scale of Decades to
Millennia in the late Quaternary, Abstracts with Programs, Inaugural Meeting of IGCP
Project #437 "Coastal Environmental Change During Sea Level Highstands", p. 107.
No abstract.
92. Koike, K. (1996) The countermeasures against coastal hazards in Japan. GeoJournal, 38,
301-312.
Abstract: The total length of Japanese coastline is about 34,500 km. Most of the coastal lowlands are now so
intensively used that a large proportion of the Japanese coast has been artificially modified. Therefore, coastal
countermeasures against several kinds of natural and man-induced hazards are the serious problems for Japanese.
When we go down to the beaches, there are many kinds of armor blocks, breakwaters and dykes for the shore
protection. Among the Japanese coastline, 15,900 km needs some protection of which 9,400 km was protected
with some kinds of artificial structures in 1992. It is probable that no nation has used armor blocks so extensively
as Japan.
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93. Leatherman, S.P. (1996) Shoreline stabilization approaches in response to sea level rise:
U.S. experience and implications for Pacific Island and Asian nations. Water, Air, & Soil
Pollution, 92, 149-157.
Abstract: Coastal erosion is a worldwide problem; it is estimated that over 70% of the world's beaches are
currently experiencing erosion (Bird, 1985), and this number may approach 90% in the United States. Almost
every conceivable form of shore protection has been attempted in the United States, including construction of
seawalls, groins, and jetties as well as beach nourishment. The principal approach to protecting coastal property
and maintaining recreational beaches in the United States today is beach nourishment. Engineering structures
such as groins and seawalls have often been shown to have detrimental effects on adjacent beaches. Also, their
construction and maintenance costs are quite high. Therefore, coastal communities have come to rely on a soft
engineering solution — beach nourishment —because it is environmentally sound, aesthetically pleasing, and, so
far, economically feasible. However, global warming and accelerated sea level rise will cause more rapid rates of
beach loss and could make even this alternative too costly for many resort areas along the U.S. shoreline. The
cost to nourish all the major recreational oceanic beaches in the United States was estimated based on various
sea level rise scenarios. The beach nourishment approach involves placing enough sand on the beach to maintain
stable (nonretreating) conditions in response to rising sea level. The quantity of sand required to hold the line is
evaluated under various sea level rise scenarios from the baseline scenario to the 1-m estimate of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Beach nourishment is not a practical alternative for most Pacific
island nations because sand is a scarce resource. In fact, beaches are often mined for sand for construction,
contributing to beach erosion. For mainland countries, beach fill projects are more practical. Singapore was one
of the first countries to use this technology in combination with building offshore breakwaters to form artificial
headlands. As Western style sunbathing and the overall popularity of beaches for recreation continue to grow,
beach nourishment can be expected to become a more common way to deal with sea level rise induced coastal
erosion for highly developed beach resort areas.
94. Lin, J-C. (1996) Coastal modification due to human influence in South-Western Taiwan.
Quaternary Science Reviews, 15, 895-900.
Abstract - The coastal zone of southwest Taiwan is characterised by muddy tidal flats, offshore bars, spits,
lagoons and coastal sand dunes. These geomorphic features form an essential part of the natural defences against
sea-level change and coastal erosion. Between 1955 and 1995 the area bounded by the Pei-Kang and Tseng-Wen
rivers underwent considerable land use and topographic changes. Two examples were studied using time-series
aerial photographs, remote sensing images and geomorphological field mapping. The result of this investigation
demonstrates the influence of human activities and the importance of the natural coastal landscape in acting as a
first-line of coastal defence and protection in Taiwan. Attention is drawn to: (1) inappropriately designed or
misplaced coastal engineering structures which may destroy or reduce the effectiveness of neighbouring natural
and engineered structures leading to storm damage, flooding and encroachment by the sea; (2) the need for a coordinated coastal management program to regulate on-shore activities, in particular the removal of ground water
within the coastal zone. This research demonstrates that there is significant land subsidence and inland
penetration of sea water into the ground water system in the coastal zone. Human activities also lead to
considerable financial expenditure on the prevention of coastal erosion in Taiwan.
95. Maddrell, R.J. (1996) Managed coastal retreat, reducing flood risks and protection costs,
Dungeness Nuclear Power Station, UK. Coastal Engineering, 28, 1-15.
Abstract: The two reactors of Dungeness Nuclear Power Station (the Station) were built in the late 1950’s on
the southern, eroding coast of Dungeness, which is the largest coastal shingle feature in Europe. The site was
chosen because of its proximity to deep fast flowing water, but local erosion was up to 1.5 m annually. The
Station has been protected from erosion throughout its life by beach feeding. The shingle for beach feeding has
been taken from the accreting downdrift eastern shore annually during winter months for the last 30 years. The
suitability of this method of coast and the flood protection it offered, has been regularly reviewed and has always
been found to be considerably less expensive than the more formal options such as rock revetments and concrete
seawalls. However, the amount of shingle required to maintain the beach has been increasing rapidly as the main
feed point became more and more out of regime. Consequently, a new policy was adopted that allowed the coast
locally to retreat, producing considerably cost savings, allowing the level of flood protection offered to the
Power Station to be increased and reducing the impacts of shingle extraction. This change in policy was
developed from a number of studies and has been in operation for 3 years. Not only has there been a
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considerable reduction in the amount of shingle required, but the beach stability has improved in the critical
areas.
96. Nordstrom, K.F. (1988) Dune grading along the Oregon coast, USA: a changing
environmental policy. Applied Geography, 8, 101-116.
Abstract: In 1984, an amendment to coastal regulations in the state of Oregon permitted grading of coastal
dunes to provide views of breaking waves from beachfront homes. Passage of the amendment represents a
change in the trend toward increased restrictions on human activities in environmentally sensitive coastal areas.
This study is an assessment of the effects of the new policy on the value of dunes for shore protection and
implications of the policy for future shoreline management. Potential effects include increased wave attack of
dunes in more seaward locations, higher erosion rates on sediments emplaced by earth-moving equipment,
increased deflation of unvegetated sediments, and greater human effort to maintain the modified dunes in a
condition that is out of equilibrium with natural processes. The Oregon initiative underscores the need to reevaluate and alter environmental controls according to public needs. It represents a shift of policy from strict
compliance with standards of environmental compatibility to a more lenient approach that seeks to accommodate
the land use rights of individual property owners.
97. Nordstrom, K.F. and Gares, P.A. (1990) Changes in the volume of coastal dunes in New
Jersey, USA. Ocean and Shoreline Management, 14, 1-10.
Abstract: Changes in dune volume are calculated from survey profiles in representative communities in New
Jersey to provide perspective on the value of dunes for sediment storage. The volumes of the dunes range from
negligible to 311 m3/m of shoreline. Changes over a six-year period vary from losses of up to 116 m3/m of the
dune to a growth of up to 44 m3/m. Despite large volume losses, the dunes in the undeveloped control area
contain sufficient sediment to provide protection against storms with greater than a 100-year recurrence interval.
Levels of protection are considerably lower at many developed sites. Dune sediments at the developed sites
comprise between 9.4% and 27.7% of the total volume in the beach/dune profile above mean sea level. The size
of the dunes and their volume changes may appear small, but the sediment provides a substantial amount of
shore protection, and modest dune-building efforts have a pronounced effect on levels of protection.
98. Nordstrom, K.F., Jackson, N.L., Bruno, M.S. and de Butts, H.A. (2002) Municipal
initiatives for managing dunes in coastal residential areas: a case study of Avalon, New
Jersey, USA. Geomorphology 47, 137–152.
Abstract: The characteristics of foredunes created in a municipal management program on a developed barrier
island are evaluated to identify how landforms used as protection structures can be natural in appearance and
function yet compatible with human values. Shoreline management zones include a naturally evolving,
undeveloped segment; a noneroding, developed segment; eroding and noneroding segments of an ‘‘improved
beach’’ where dunes have been built by artificial nourishment; and a privately built, artificially nourished dune
on the shoreline of an inlet. A disastrous storm in 1962 resulted in an aggressive program for building dunes
using sand fences, vegetation plantings, purchase of undeveloped lots, and sediment backpassing to maintain
beach widths and dune elevations. The present nourished and shaped foredune in the improved beach is higher,
wider, and closer to the berm crest than the natural dune. Restricted inputs of aeolian sand keep the surface flat
and poorly vegetated. A stable section of this engineered shore has a wider beach, and sand fences have created a
higher foredune with greater topographic diversity. The cross shore zonation of vegetation here is more typical
of natural dunes, but the environmental gradient is much narrower. The privately built dune is low, narrow, and
located where it could not be created naturally. Foreshore and aeolian sediments in the undeveloped segment and
the improved beach are similar in mean grain size (0.16 –0.21 mm) and sorting (0.31 –0.39/), but sediment on
the surface of the nourished dune is coarser (28.1% gravel) with a more poorly sorted sand fraction (1.30/)
representing lag elements on the deflation surface. Willingness to enhance beaches and dunes for protection has
reduced insurance premiums and allowed the municipality to qualify for funds from the Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA) to replace lost sediment, thus placing an economic value on dunes. Success of the
management program is attributed to: (i) timing property-purchase and dune-building programs to periods
immediately after storms (causing residents to accept high dunes that restrict access or views); (ii) instituting a
vigorous education program (reminding residents of hazards during nonstorm periods); (iii) maintaining control
over local sediment supplies (to keep pace with erosion and create new shoreline environments); (iv) investing
private and municipal economic resources in landforms (qualifying them for external funds for replacement);
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and (v) maintaining, augmenting, or simply tolerating biodiversity and natural processes (retaining a natural
heritage).
99. Peterson, C.D., Doyle, D.L., and Barnett, E.T., (2000) Coastal flooding and beach retreat
from coseismic subsidence in the central Cascadia Margin, USA. Environmental &
Engineering Geoscience, 3, 255-269.
No abstract.
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