6. Functions
6.1 Form vs. function
A constituent = form + function
 Each constituent has a specific form (or grammatical category): NP, VP, PP,
AP, or AdvP, etc.
 Likewise, Each constituent has a special function: Subject (Su), Direct Object
(Od), Indirect Object (Oi), ect.
6.2 Grammatical functions in S
Sentences mostly consist of 2 major constituents:
S → NP VP
a) [NPThe tramp] [VPread diary.]
b) [NP He] [VPlaughed.]
c) [NP He] [VPturned a page.]
d) [NP He] [VPleaned towards the German girl.]
e) [NP He] [VPsaid few words to her.]
S
NP
VP
The tramp
He
He
read diary
laughed
turned the page
Su
P
1- Subject (Su): the function related to the constituent introducing the sentence.
2- Predicate (P): whatever mentioned about the subject.
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 How do we know about a subject of a sentence?

NPs functioning as Su invert with the first auxiliary in question formation
(Subject-Auxiliary Inversion):
a) The tramp was laughing
b) Was the tramp laughing?

Subjects of finite clause agree with the first auxiliary or with the main
verb if there is no auxiliary.
a) The tramp was laughing
b) The tramps were laughing
c) The tramp never enjoys himself.
d) The tramps never enjoy_ himself.

Subject NPs can be replaced by a pronoun in the subjective form and not
the objective one:
a) The tramp was laughing
b) He was laughing
c) * Him was laughing
There is also third peripheral function in the sentence:
3- Sentence adjuncts (Sas): fall outside the two major constituents NP and VP.
Sas are of two types:
1. adverbs that specify speaker's attitude toward the rest of the sentence (e.g.
unfortunately, certainly, in my view, in fact)
Unfortunately, the match was canceled because of bad weather.
The match was canceled because of bad weather, unfortunately.
2. items which serve to connect sentences in a text (e.g. moreover, however,
nevertheless, yet)
John had planned to swim across the Channel last year. However, when
the time came he did not have the courage.
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6.3 Grammatical functions in VP: complements
Functions in the VP are Predicative Complement (Pc), Direct Object (Od), Indirect
Object (Oi), Adverbial Complement (Ac) with intransitive verbs, adverbial
complement (Ac) with transitive verbs, and a complex grammatical function with a
combination of Predicative Complement (Pc) + Adverbial Complement (Ac)
The verb type determines the function of the complement in VP:
Intransitive verbs
VP → [V]
John [snores]
Mary [is slimming]
Su [V]
Copula
VP → [V AP ]
NP
PP
She [seems happy]
She [is a happy student]
in a filthy mood]
Su [V Pc]
Monotransitive
VP → [V NP ]
CP
Ditransitive
VP → [V NP NP ]
NP PP
Suzan [loves Bill]
Mary [says that Suzan loves Bill]
She [gave John the money]
She [gave the money to John]
Su [V Od]
Su [V Oi Od ]
Od Oi
Intransitive + Adverbial
Complement
VP → [V PP ]
AdvP
NP
Transitive + Adverbial
Complement
VP → [V NP PP ]
AdvP
He [put the money in the box]
She [is in London ]
upstairs ]
Su [ V Od Ac]
Su [ V Ac]
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Complex transitive
VP → [V NP
AP
NP
]
She called him foolish
a fool
Su [ V Od Pc+Ac]
Predicative Complement (Pc)
 Predicative Complement Pc is ascribing some property to the subject.
 This function is realized by NPs, APs or PPs.
 The verb that selects such a complement belong to the class of copulas (be, look,
seem, etc.).
 The constituent that has a grammatical function of Pc is obligatory after the verb:
a) Jane seemed [NPa good student.]
Pc
a) John looked [APfoolish] in that tracksuit.
Pc
a) She is [NPan actress.]
Pc
a) Bill was [PPin a filthy mood.]
Pc
b) * Jane seemed
b) * John looked
b) * She is
b) * Bill was
The Pc agrees with the subject NP:
a) She is an actress.
b) They are actresses.
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Direct Object (Od)
 Od is a the grammatical function related to the complement of monotransitive,
ditransitive, and transitive verbs.
 Od is realized by NP, and S
 Od is obligatorily selected by the verb:
a) The tramp was unfolding [NPthe magazine] [PPfor the second time]
b) * The tramp was unfolding
a) She had given [NPno chocolate] [PPto the tramp]
b) * She had given [NP________] [PPto the tramp]
a) John put [NP the money] [PPin a box]
b) * John put [NP ________ ] [PPin a box]
a) John believes [S' that the prisoner is innocent]
b) * John believes [S'____________________]
a) John believes [S the prisoner to be innocent]
b) * John believes [S___________________]
a) John decided [S to study English]
b) * John decided [S______________]
Indirect Object (Oi)
 Oi is a grammatical function related to the complement of ditransitive verbs.
 Oi is realized either as NP preceding the Od complement or as PP following Od.
a) She had given [NPthe tramp] no chocolate.
b) She had given no chocolate [PPto the tramp.]
c) * She had given no chocolate [the tramp.]
a) She poured [NPthe tramp] a drink.
b) She poured a drink [PPfor the tramp.]
c) She poured a drink [the tramp.]
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Adverbial Complement (Ac) with intransitive verbs
 Ac is grammatical function related to the complement of intransitive verbs.
 Ac is realized by PP, Adv or NP.
 Constituents with Ac function give information concerning the place, manner,
time, duration, etc:
a)
b)
c)
d)
The newspaper remained [PPwith Mr. Ellis]
He is [PPin London]
The women remained [AdvPupstairs]
This parcel weighs [NPtwo kilos]
 Constituents with Ac function is obligatory:
a)
b)
c)
d)
* The newspaper remained [PP__________]
* He is [PP_________]
* The women remained [AdvP__________]
* This parcel weighs [NP_________]
Adverbial complement (Ac) with transitive verbs
 Ac is grammatical function related to the complement of transitive verbs.
 Ac is realized by PP, or Adv that follows the direct object.
 Constituents with Ac function express, manner, etc:
a) John put [NPthe money] [PPin the box.]
b) He worded [NPthe letter] [AdvPvery carefully.]
c) The children always reminded [NPme] [PPof their grandfather.]
A complex grammatical function with a combination of Predicative
Complement (Pc) + Adverbial Complement (Ac)
 Pc+Ac is a function related to the complement of complex transitive verbs.
 Pc+Ac is realized by NP, AP, or PP that follows the direct object.
a) The government set [NPthe prisoners] [APfree.]
b) She called [NPher baby] [NPGeorge.]
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 The constituent following the direct object has both Pc and Ac functions as it
predicate something of the direct object, so it is Pc, and it also narrows down the
meaning of the verb, so it is Ac:
set
[NPthe prisoners]
Od
[APfree.]
Adverbial
Predicative
6.4 Grammatical functions in VP: Adjuncts
Adverbial adjuncts (A)
Adjuncts may adjoin VPs having an adverbial function:
S
William walked slowly down the road.
NP
William
VP
V
AdvP
PP
walked slowly down the road
Predicative-Adverbial adjuncts (P+A)
VP-adjuncts may have a Predicative function:
They have painted the house red
[S[NPThey] [VPhave painted [NPthe house] [APred]]]
paint
[NPthe house]
[APred]
Od
Adverbial (A)
Predicative (P)
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The adjunct red has a dual function: P+A.
P because it predicates something of the NP/Od: ‘that the house is red’
A because it says something about the activity of ‘painting’
Adjuncts may resemble complements in form but not in function:
set
[NPthe prisoners]
[APfree.]
Od
Adverbial (Ac)
Predicative (Pc)
More examples:
She married [APyoung]
A+P
He left the house [APangry with his wife]
A+P
[APUnaware of the danger] he walked into the room
A+P
Reading for this lecture:
Wekker&Haegeman (1985: 63-99)
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