Translating Socio-Cultural Elements in Mihai Niculescu’s Fantastic Tales
Prep. univ. Ana-Maria Georgiana PESTISANU
Universitatea ”Constantin Brâncuşi”, Târgu-Jiu
Broadly speaking, there are two elements that should be taken into account when translating
a text: linguistic and non-linguistic factors. A translation involves linguistic, social, cultural,
ideological factors. My intention in the present paper was to analyse the extent to which the sociocultural elements in Niculescu’s fantastic tales and have been rendered into English.
Central Issues in Translation
Literary translations, philosophical translations and religious texts translations represent a
superior form of translation. Literary texts have the highest degree of difficulty, as they contain
cultural and spiritual values, they are the richest texts of a language. Literature involves the idea of
mentality, history and socioeconomical conditions and displays a larger cultural and intellectual
perspective that cannot be found in other translation types. A translator’s task does not consist just
in performing linguistic operations, it involves sociocultural responsibilities.A translator is a
mediator between the representatives of two cultures and two societies.
Translation is a dynamic process and is performed within certain boundaries .Dynamism in
translation is determined by the dynamism of language and culture, according to the linguistic,
social and cultural changes of the Source Language and of the Target Language. A translation is
better understood in accordance with the social, linguistic conditions under which the translation is
done. A translation is never finite; it should be resumed with the passing of time. Each epoch has
created its own translations; a translation that is perfect at a certain moment may prove
unsatisfactory later on.
Dynamism is also determined by the translator; each version is unique, contributing to the
prestige of the original text.
However, when conveying the message into the Target Language loss is inevitable. Any translation
presupposes loss and gain. Usually, the greatest losses appear in translation when the original text
describes a situation with elements that are specific to an institution, to a certain milieu, with
cultural elements that are specific to a certain geographical region, community and culture. In the
above-mentioned case, the substitution or the transfer are approximate. When translating, one
realises that he or she does not have the necessary knowledge about the author’s life experience,
which is absolutely necessary; the translator’s knowledge about the author’s universe of discourse is
rather theoretical.
All kinds of losses are recovered with the help of compensation. By compensation, the
translator proves his presence in translation. Each version represents a re-formulation of the
original, a re-interpretation of it. In this way, the literary work gains in terms of prestige. In
translation, one cannot preserve all the language and style nuances, as each language possesses
aesthetic values that cannot be transposed exactly.
Another important issue in translation is equivalence. Equivalence depends on linguistic and
cultural factors. The translation process depends on these factors. Eugene Nida distinguishes two
types of equivalence: formal and dynamic. Formal equivalence ‘focuses attention on the message
itself, in both form and content’, whereas dynamic equivalence is based upon ‘the principle of
equivalent effect’. (Nida qtd. In Leonardi). According to Nida, the disadvantages of formal
equivalence would be the fact that ‘it distorts the grammatical and stylistic patterns of the receptor
language, and hence distorts the message, so as to cause the receptor to misunderstand or to labour
unduly hard’ (Nida qtd. In Leonardi).
Dynamic equivalence is defined as a translation principle according to which a translator
seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the TL wording will trigger the
same impact on the target language audience as the original wording did upon the Source Language
audience. Thus, Nida is in favour of dynamic equivalence, as a more effective translation procedure.
Nida states that ‘dynamic equivalence is far more than mere correct communication of information
(Nida qtd. in Leonardi).
The notion of equivalence has been analysed, evaluated and discussed from different points
of view and has been approached from many perspectives, being one of the most problematic and
controversial areas in the field of translation theory.
Socio-cultural elements in Mihai Niculescu’s Cobbler of Hydra
Mihai Niculescu is a writer of the Romanian diaspora, his books being published exclusively
abroad (in Paris, Rome, Munich). The Cobbler of Hydra was published in Revista scriitorilor
romani (Munich- 1963), and it belongs to a book not published yet (Iesire la mare- Vacante) about
his travels in France, Italy and Greece. He left Romania after World War II, after he had made his
debut in criticism and poetry published in Universul literar, of which he had become editor. One of
the multitude of reasons that has made me choose this particular writer- besides the literary value of
the tale and the presence of socio-cultural elements that suit the purpose of the present paper- has
also been the fact that Niculescu is almost unknown to the Romanian readers; as a consequence, his
work has not been approached in translations, the only version being the one belonging to Eric
Tappe. We may say that it is Eric Tappe that has made this writer known to the common Romanian
readers, by the bilingual anthology entitled Fantastic Tales of which he is also editor, anthology in
which he has included The Cobbler of Hydra together with two tales written by the well-known and
widely- translated Mircea Eliade (Douasprezece mii de capete de vita- Twelve Thousand Head of
Cattle and Un om mare- A Great Man). The presence of the two writers in the same anthology
edited by an authority in Romanian Studies and a well-known translator is more than significant,
certifying for Niculescu’s value.
In the preface to this edition, Tappe states that the story has been chosen ‘for its interest and
literary value’, and that ‘its interest is by no means exhausted with one reading’, as ‘the full
subtlety’ of this particular tale’may not become apparent till it has been re-read several times’.
Niculescu’s tale also constitutes a challenge for the prose translator and an interesting research
territory for a stylistic analysis, because of the extraordinary imagery of its poetic prose passages.
However, it is socio-cultural elements that the present paper deals with, thus I shall focus on this
aspect.
A first recurring symbol throughout our tale would be the Moon. Its presence is extremely
suggestive, especially if we take into account the fact that The Cobbler of Hydra is a fantastic tale:
‘Desfac perdelele si luna plina se revarsa in odaie, inecand podeaua intr-un lac de oglinda.’
‘I draw the curtains and the full moon pours into the room, drowning the
room in a lake of glass.’(Tappe’s translation).
‘I draw the curtains and the full moon sheds its light into the room, drowning
the room in a glassy lake.(my version).
‘Cand redeschid ochii, stancile tremura in loc nemiscat, in bataia lunii care
pune o pata sticloasa pe smaltul negru al ulciorului din fereastra’
‘When I reopen my eyes, the rocks are trembling without moving from their place, in the light of
the moon which is putting a glassy patch on the black enamel of the jug in the window.’ (Tappe).
‘Discul lunii pare stins, cerul de hartie, stancile cenusii…’
‘The disc of the moon looks dim, the sky papery, the rocks ashen’.
‘Noaptea ies in bataia lunii, joaca si vrajesc.Daca te uiti la luna, Ielele coboara pe raze si-ti iau
mintile.’
‘At night they come out into the moonlight, dance and cast spells.If you look at the moon, the
Fairies come down the rays and steal your wits away.’(Tappe’s translation)
‘At night they come out into the moonlight, dance and enchant/cast the evil eye’(my version).
It should be mentioned that in Romanian traditional beliefs, the moon is presented as a deity
of fertility; it is a meteorologic divinity, its light influences charm and love spells-especially the full
moon. In The Cobbler of Hydra, the moon as recurrent symbol might signify death (being closely
connected to the forecasts of the Cobbler’s death).This aspect of the Moon’s symbolism is less
encountered in Romanian mythology, being present only in Eliade’s Domnisoara Christina and it
may be traced back to Australian beliefs, according to which the dead comes out of the grave the
same as the moon comes out of darkness.
The Church would be another element that is endowed with a special symbolism.
‘Acolo, peste cativa pasi, licareste un miez galben in fundul aerului negru, ingrosat.Ma apropii
tiptil, tinandu-mi rasuflarea. E o biserica deschisa. Respir adanc, in prag, mireasma piparata, de
tamaie.’
‘After a few steps a yellow core flickers in the background of the thick black air. I come closer by
stealth, holding my breath. It is an open church. On the threshold, I take a deep breath of the
pungent odour of incense.’(Tappe’s translation)
‘In the doorway, I take a deep breath of the intensely- scented incense/spicy flavour/fragrance of
incense’.(my variant).
The light of hope that could be perceived through darkness is a place of salvation, where one is
sheltered from the evil, where one allays his fears and regains his confidence and spiritual peace.
Moreover, the church is invitingly open.
The doorway might represent the border between the two worlds. The irrational world appears to
the character’s mind and to the readers as well as being extremely vivid and real, because it is
perceived by our senses: we can feel the scent of incense (of which the character takes a deep
breath, perhaps in order to convince himself that he is sheltered by all evil, incense functioning as
an antidote.)
A significant difficulty would be encountered when translating the name of the Romanian
mythological characters: Ielele- translated by Eric Tappe as The Fairies.
‘‘Acolo e locasul Ielelor’, ne povestea David, mie si lui Petrus.Noaptea ies in bataia lunii, joaca si
vrajesc. Daca te uiti in luna, Ielele coboara pe raze si-ti iau mintile…Zambesc. Acum mi-e tot una.
N-au ce-mi lua. Maine ma duc iar, sus, si n-am sa mai plec…’’
‘’That’s where the Fairies live ; David used to tell us, me and Petrush. At night they come out into
the moonlight, dance and cast spells. If you look at the moon, the Fairies come down the rays and
steal your wits away. I smile It’s all the same to me now. They’ve nothing to steal from me.
Tomorrow I shall go back up there and never go away again.’(Tappe’s translation).
‘At night they come out into the moonlight, dance and enchant/cast the evil eye’(my translation).
If the Church (the place where man meets divinity), the Moon, light, darkness, The Other
World are universal symbols (thus, they do not put up resistance in translation), we cannot say the
same about The Fairies (Ielele), deities that are specific to Romanian mythology, even if they have
correspondents in mythologies of other peoples. That is why, the translator has properly rendered
the noun by using the universal The Fairies. However, in my opinion, this socio-cultural element
should have been explained in the notes at the end of the volume, so that the English reader might
have access to a more thorough understanding when interpreting the text. That is why, I am going to
come up with this information.
Iele are fantastic feminine characters in the Romanian mythology, dressed in white, who
usually arouse misfortunes. Their specific dance is hora, the Romanian ring dance.Actually,
choreography is their most significant attribute. Their dance seems to be similar to that of the
Bacchantes. They live in the air, in forests or on the rocks. They are believed to appear especially at
night in the moonlight, eddying around in their ring dance, in desert, lonely places. The place where
they have danced remains burnt, scorched, and grass does not grow on the trodden ground any
more. Later on, when grass springs again, it has a dark-greenish colour and cattle will not graze it.
They may appear as immaterial ghosts, with an illusory appearance of young women. They take
revenge when they are offended or seen while dancing . The encounter with these deities is
extremely dangerous for human beings. Their vindicative nature has been given to them by god or
by the Devil, being identical with the Erynies in Greek mythology and having the same attributes as
the Nymphs, the Dryads or the Sirens. That is why, their translation by The Fairies, by employing a
general term- is adequate. The origin of the myth is unknown. Actually, Iele is not a name, but the
popular variant of the Romanian feminine personal pronoun Ele- They. Their real, mysterious and
inaccessible name is replaced by attributive symbols. Their names cannot be accidentally uttered, as
they may become dangerous invocations. The people who have stepped into the place trodden by
the Fairies’ dance are caught in a demential circle dance that leads them to insanity.
This superstition is present in mythologies of many cultures; we encounter such deities in Germanic
mythology as well, having a Danish origin: the Elves, that live in the forests and dance, their
favourite tree is the alder and they also have a king, Erlkonig.
The hazy air might stand for the ethereal, translucid attires of these divinities, the rocks and the
moonlight- the perfect setting for their appearance, and- as we shall see in the following fragmentthe Romanian traditional circle dance- certify their presence.
‘Prin aerul argintiu, stancile tremura usor ca niste flacari albe, unduiesc tot mai aproape una de alta
pana se ajung si se inlantuie intr-o hora care se misca incet, rotund, apoi din ce in ce mai iute,
ametitor.’
‘Through the silvery air the rocks are quivering slightly like white flames, and waver closer to one
another till they join and form a chain in a round dance which moves slowly, then even swifter and
more dizzily.’(Tappe’s translation)
‘Through the silvery air, rocks are quivering slightly like white flames, and wave/ripple/undulate
ever closer to one another till they join and form a chain in a ring dance which moves slowly, then
whirls around/eddies round/swirls ever swifter and more dizzily.’(my version).
Besides the linguistic translation difficulties, resulting from the ambiguities caused by the
metaphorical language , charged with imagery (it renders the fantastic setting), another touchstone
for the literary texts translator would be given by the socio-cultural element hora, which should be
explained in the notes at the end of the volume: the Romanian ring dance.
Another translation difficulty concerning the socio-cultural aspect that I would like to point out
would be found in the following sentence:
‘Apa din ibric e calda, salcie.’
‘The water in the ibric is warm and salty.’(Tappe).
‘The water in the ibric is warm and brackish.’ (my version).
The word ibric has been borrowed from Turkish into the Romanian language. According to the
Dictionary of Romanian language, the word has two related meanings:
I.long-handled pot for making coffee or tea
II.metal or earthen decorated vase in the shape of a jug in which water is kept.
The first meaning is far more frequently used-at least nowadays- and it is mentioned by the
translator in his explanatory note at the end of the volume (long-handled pot for making Turkish
coffee), as he preserves the Turkish word in the English version (it also suits the exotic landscape of
the Greek island!).
However, if we take into account the context and the epoch when the story was written (it was
published in 1963), the second meaning might also be valid.
Conclusions
In The Cobbler of Hydra, Mihai Niculescu’s style is characterised by a balance between
narrative and descriptive prose, corresponding to the opposition real world versus irrational world.
In the narrative passages, we notice a simple, elegant style, accessible to any category of readers,
whereas metaphorical language dominates the descriptive passages.
The uncommon experience that the main character of the story encounters had to take place
in a proper fantastic setting: that is why, the writer chose the exotic landscape of Hydra, an island of
Greece.
As it happens in any fantastic tale, symbols are present in The Cobbler of Hydra: the Moon,
the Church, the Other World. However, they are universal symbols and we do not encounter
difficulties when translating them. Specific cultural elements are present too: the Romanian
mythological characters Ielele (The Fairies), the Romanian traditional dance hora, for which we do
not have any English equivalent. We also encounter some insignificant aspects of material culture
that do not have so much relevance in translation, contributing to the local colour:ibric- that has
been preserved in the Target language and explained at the end of the volume and sherbet.
As a final remark, it should be mentioned that no matter the losses due to various reasons, a
translation always represents a gain : the gain in terms of the prestige of the literary work. Each
version represents a reformulation of the original, of the emotional values of the word.
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