A Streetcar Named Desire
Tennessee Williams
THE PLAY
THE PLOT
Imagine a delicate white moth flitting about a heap of garbage in a cinder lot. That's
approximately the feeling created by the sight of Blanche DuBois arriving in Elysian Fields to
visit her sister Stella and brother-in-law Stanley Kowalski. Blanche not only looks out of place,
she acts that way, too. Refinement and good breeding show in all she says and does, at least
until her mask is stripped away bit by bit.
Blanche teaches high school English in Laurel, Mississippi. She needs a place to stay while
recovering from a nervous breakdown. Stella agrees to accommodate Blanche, at least for a
while, but she cautions Blanche that the apartment is tiny and that Stanley isn't the sort of man
Blanche may be used to. He's rough and undignified. But Stella adores him despite his crude
manner.
Soon after arriving, Blanche reveals that Belle Reve, the old family plantation in Laurel, has
been lost to creditors. Blanche blames her sister for leaving home years ago while she was
forced to stay on and watch all the residents of Belle Reve die off one by one.
The loss of Belle Reve troubles Stanley. He distrusts Blanche and accuses her of having sold
the plantation to buy furs and jewels. When Blanche denies wrongdoing, Stanley ransacks her
belongings looking for a bill of sale. He tears open a packet of letters and poems written by
Blanche's husband, who committed suicide years ago. Stella tries unsuccessfully to protect her
fragile sister from Stanley's fury.
That night Blanche and Stella go to the movies while Stanley and his friends play poker and
drink. When they return, Blanche is introduced to Mitch, whose courteous manner sets him
apart from Stanley's other friends. She charms Mitch easily and begins to flirt with him. Upset
that the poker game has been interrupted, Stanley explodes in a drunken rage. He hurls a radio
out the window and he strikes Stella. Spurred by Stanley's assault on his pregnant wife, his
friends drag him into the shower. Meanwhile, Stella and Blanche escape upstairs to a friend's
apartment.
Dripping wet, Stanley emerges into the street. Like an animal crying for his mate, he keeps
calling Stella until she comes down and allows herself to be carried off to bed. Later Mitch
returns and apologizes to Blanche for Stanley's coarse behavior.
Blanche is disgusted by Stanley's barbarity and would like to leave, but she has nowhere else to
go. She invents a story about a rich friend named Shep Huntleigh who might give her refuge.
She tries to persuade Stella to flee with her. However, Stella rebuffs Blanche and pledges love
for Stanley regardless of how brutally he treats her.
Mitch, a lonesome man in search of a wife, begins to date Blanche. But Stanley has acquired
some information about her that would probably destroy the relationship. Stanley has learned
that Blanche was an infamous whore back in Laurel. Blanche denies it, but soon after, when
Blanche flirts with a newsboy, you realize that Stanley's assertion may be true.
Mitch talks of marriage. Blanche discloses the tragic story of her earlier marriage to Allan, who
turned out to be a homosexual. When Blanche rejected him, Allan took his own life. Now
Blanche can't erase from her mind the image of his bloody corpse or the sound of the fatal
gunshot. Profoundly moved, Mitch embraces Blanche.
Stanley, meanwhile, has learned that Blanche hasn't taken a leave from her teaching job.
Rather, she has been fired because she seduced one of her students. In addition, she was told to
leave Laurel because night after night she entertained soldiers from a nearby army base.
Stanley tells Mitch about Blanche's past. As Stella prepares a birthday party for her sister,
Stanley tells her, too. Shocked, Stella pleads with Stanley to be gentle with Blanche. But
Stanley presents Blanche with a cruel birthday present- a one-way bus ticket back to Laurel.
Stella rebukes Stanley for his heartlessness, but he reminds her that their marriage had liberated
her from a life of phony gentility. Suddenly Stella feels labor pains and Stanley rushes her to
the hospital.
That evening Mitch visits Blanche. He is highly agitated and tells her what Stanley has said.
She pleads for understanding by confessing that she had been intimate with men in order to fill
her emptiness after Allan's suicide. Her tale arouses Mitch. He wants the sex that she's
dispensed to others. He starts to assault her, but she repels him by shouting "Fire!" out the
window.
Late that night Stanley returns to find Blanche dressed in fine traveling clothes. She informs
Stanley that Shep Huntleigh has invited her on a cruise and that Mitch had apologized for not
coming to her birthday party. Stanley bluntly calls her a liar. He wants to prove that he hasn't
been fooled by her lies. He approaches her seductively. She tries to stop him with a bottle, but
too weak to resist, she collapses at his feet. Stanley picks her up, then carries her off to be
raped.
Weeks later Stella is packing Blanche's belongings. Blanche thinks that she's going to the
country for a rest, but in truth, Blanche is being committed to a mental hospital. Stella doesn't
know if she's doing the right thing. In order to preserve her marriage, however, Stella has
decided to dismiss the story of the rape as just another of Blanche's fictions.
While dressing, Blanche talks of cruises and romantic adventures with Shep Huntleigh.
Shortly, Stella leads Blanche out to meet the doctor and nurse from the hospital. Blanche balks
at the sight of them. The nurse begins to overpower her with a straitjacket. But the doctor
intervenes. He talks kindly to Blanche, as though he is the gentleman caller she's been
expecting. Calmed by the doctor's gentleness, Blanche takes his arm and walks to the waiting
ambulance.
[The Glass Menagerie and A Streetcar Named Desire Contents]
THE CHARACTERS
l BLANCHE DUBOIS
Blanche is an English teacher, but she's one of a kind. You'd never forget her if you took
her course. Shortly before the play begins, Blanche has lost her job. She wasn't fired for
poor teaching skills, however. The superintendent's letter said Blanche was "morally
unfit for her position." That's probably a fair evaluation of a teacher who seduced one of
the seventeen-year-old boys in her class. Also, Blanche's sexual exploits so outraged the
citizens of Laurel, Mississippi, that they practically threw her out of town.
You don't know all these facts about Blanche until late in the play. At first, she seems to
be just a high-strung, but refined, woman who has come to New Orleans to pay her
sister a visit. But as the play unfolds, you see Blanche's past revealed bit by bit. At the
end she is undone, fit only for an asylum. Nevertheless, you never see her humbled by
defeat. She maintains ladylike dignity even after being raped. Perhaps she's not as crazy
as she appears. In fact, there might be places where she would not be regarded insane at
all.
As an ambiguous character Blanche may arouse both compassion and disapproval
simultaneously. She is often regarded as a symbol of a decaying way of life engaged in
a losing struggle against modern commercialism. She came to Elysian Fields seeking
love and help, but she found hostility and rejection. She has been scarred by her
husband's suicide and by the loss of her ancestral home. She's reached a stage of life
when she can no longer depend on her good looks to attract a man. Is it any wonder that
she flirts and prefers dimly lit places?
To compensate for loneliness and despair, she creates illusions, much like Amanda
Wingfield in The Glass Menagerie. Also like Amanda, Blanche clings to the manners
and speech of dying Southern gentility. Pretending is important to her. It makes her feel
special. She says that deception is half of a lady's charm. She calls it "magic."
Unfortunately, though, she is caught in a situation with Stanley Kowalski, who not only
abhors her superior airs, but seems bent on destroying her for them. Why Stanley finds
Blanche such a threat is worth thinking about.
Some people consider Blanche not a tragic victim but an immoral woman who deserves
what she gets. Blanche tells so many lies that she herself can't remember them all. Some
lies may be harmless, but others are destructive. For example, Mitch is crushed by her
untruthfulness.
Because of her past- town whore, liar, sexual deviate- you may agree with critics who
say that Blanche is an object of derision- too degenerate to be taken seriously. On the
other hand, her past behavior can be explained and maybe even defended. If you
appreciate what has happened to her in life, you can understand why she acts the way
she does.
In the end you may see Blanche as an advocate of civilized values. She alone speaks up
for the nobility of humanity, for its achievements in the arts, for progress made by
civilization. Are you struck by the irony of having uplifting words come from the mouth
of an ex-prostitute? It is odd perhaps, but remember that Blanche often confuses truth
and illusion. Perhaps Williams may be implying that society's most illustrious
accomplishments are illusions, too, and that the brutish Stanley more accurately
represents our true nature.
l STANLEY KOWALSKI
You always know where you stand with Stanley. He speaks plainly, he never hides his
feelings, and he hates affectations of any kind. Yet in some respects he is a mystery.
Why is he so intent on destroying Blanche? What makes him so aggressive? What was
he like as a young man? How did he get to meet and court Stella? How does a man as
animal-like as Stanley succeed as a traveling representative of his company? In short, is
there more to Stanley than meets the eye?
You can only speculate. But sparse as the evidence is, you know he's a sturdy man of
Polish descent, who likes to drink, play poker, and bowl. His greatest pleasure is sex. He
also has a violent streak. He strikes Stella, hurls a radio out the window, throws dishes,
shouts, and in uncontrollable fury, he rapes Blanche.
Yet, because of the actor Marlon Brando's original interpretation, Stanley is a brute with
surprising appeal. Brando set the standard, making it difficult for later actors to reshape
the role. Stanley can make you laugh at his earthy wit. His frankness is refreshing.
There's no doubt about the power of his personality. He's always going to extremes,
from his adoration of Stella to his self-centered pleasures.
Stanley's efforts to ruin Blanche reveal still other dimensions of his personality. Blanche
not only interferes with his sex life, she attempts to lure Stella away from him. So his
hatred of Blanche is quick and unrelenting. Perhaps you can respect Stanley for trying
to defend his cave, but must he also destroy the intruder? Do you ravage a person
merely for getting under your skin and cramping your style? Has Blanche really done
anything to provoke Stanley's venom? Did she rob him of Belle Reve as he believes?
Do Blanche's insults stir his hatred? What about Blanche's pretenses and perpetual
lying?
Perhaps Stanley just can't tolerate the thought of being taken advantage of. If that's the
case, he may mean no harm; he merely wants to protect his fragile ego and his way of
life.
A further explanation of Stanley's malice toward Blanche may lie in the fact that they
are a man and a woman. As a virile hunk of man Stanley is used to having his way with
women. Blanche won't give him his way. But his discovery that she's been a whore is
his ticket to tear away her pretenses, rape her, and bring her down to his level once and
for all.
l STELLA KOWALSKI
If you didn't know that Blanche and Stella were sisters, could you guess that they were
related? Both have a refinement that the other residents of Elysian Fields lack. They
grew up together at Belle Reve. After the sisters reached adulthood Stella left for New
Orleans, where she met and married Stanley.
What Stella might have become without Stanley is anybody's guess. She might have
turned out like Blanche, trying futilely to maintain appearances and lying her way
through life. Perhaps she would still be tied to the shabby gentility of the Old South
because who but Stanley would have "pulled [her] down off them columns" on the
plantation?
Stella is an unlikely mate for her brutal husband. She's a gentle woman of about twentyfive,
level-headed and affectionate. Sex and bowling are the only interests she shares
with him. When he plays poker, she goes to the movies. She accepts his tantrums, his
abuses, and his coarse manners, perhaps the price she pays for having Stanley as a
husband and a sex partner.
Stella seems to have the patience of a saint. When Blanche insults her, Stella often
listens unperturbed, as though she is insensitive. But wouldn't you expect Stella to be
hurt by Blanche's patronizing judgments? Why doesn't Stella fight back more often?
Does she decline to defend herself because she has no ground for a defense, or could
there be something else holding her back? Is Blanche's criticism too close to the painful
truth? As Blanche berates her little sister, an unconscious hostility may be building
inside Stella, something that may have begun years ago when the sisters were young. At
the end of the play, when Stella commits Blanche to an asylum, you might regard
Stella's action as her ultimate expression of antagonism toward her older sister.
Of course Stella may send Blanche away for her own good. She may prefer to believe
that Blanche is insane rather than face the truth about Stanley. In effect, Stella chooses
to sacrifice her sister rather than to destroy her marriage. Actually, it's uncertain whether
Stella knows that Stanley raped Blanche. If she knows and closes her eyes to the fact,
however, she is probably behaving true to form. Stella has learned a useful lesson from
her older sister- how to deceive oneself to avoid coping with painful reality.
l HAROLD MITCHELL ("MITCH")
When Blanche meets Mitch, she is ready to turn her life around. Ordinarily, Blanche
might have her eye out for a rich and courtly gentleman like the legendary Shep
Huntleigh. Now she settles for Mitch, a good-hearted and honest fellow, but also a
rather dull and self-conscious one.
Why is Blanche drawn to him? Obviously, it's not his awkward manner or stumbling
speech that attracts her. Nor is it his short supply of intellect, money, wit, or looks. She
is struck by his courtesy. He is the first person to treat her like a lady since her arrival in
New Orleans. Second, he is an unmarried man. And his sense of propriety, in contrast to
the other men in Stanley's poker-playing crowd of slobs, makes him stand out like a
prince. He also happens to be lonely and is looking for someone to love.
Mitch is enthralled by Blanche the moment he sees her. She is clearly more refined,
charming and intelligent than the women he's used to. He knows that his mother would
approve. That's important to him. You rarely hear Mitch speak without mentioning his
mother.
Blanche would be a good substitute for his mother. Blanche dominates Mitch, too,
practically leading him around on a leash. He won't even kiss her without permission.
When you consider their personalities, what are the prospects for a successful match
between Blanche and Mitch?
Stanley's revelations about Blanche's past put an end to the relationship. You don't see
Mitch when he hears the truth about Blanche, but you can imagine his grief and shock.
l EUNICE HUBBELL
The Hubbells own the building where the Kowalskis rent the first-floor apartment.
Eunice and her husband live upstairs. Eunice pries into the daily lives of Stella and
Stanley. You might call her nosy, or to be kind, neighborly. She probably deserves
kindness because, like a big sister, she helps Stella in times of distress. For example, she
gives refuge to Stella whenever Stanley goes on a rampage. The sounds that come from
the Hubbells' apartment add to the jungle-like ambience of Elysian Fields and reveal
that fighting and lovemaking are not restricted to the street floor of the building.
Eunice's comment to Stella about the rape of Blanche illustrates how Eunice, whose
instincts are generally tender, has come to terms with the unspeakable vulgarity around
her: "Don't ever believe it. Life has got to go on. No matter what happens, you've got to
keep on going."
l STEVE HUBBELL
Steve is one of Stanley's poker and drinking cronies. Like Stanley, he is crass and
inelegant. He fights with his wife Eunice, throws dishes at her, and later, comes
crawling back to her apologetically.
l PABLO GONZALES
Pablo is the fourth member of Stanley's card-playing gang. Like the others, he is
slovenly in mind and body.
l A YOUNG COLLECTOR
When he comes to collect for the newspaper he gets a kiss from Blanche instead of his
fee. Blanche's encounter with the boy calls to mind two other boys in her experience:
her young husband and the student in her English class whom she seduced.
l NURSE AND DOCTOR
They come to accompany Blanche to the asylum. The nurse, or matron, is just about to
stuff Blanche into a straitjacket when the doctor, recognizing that a gentle hand is
needed, steps in. Blanche rewards the doctor with thanks.
[The Glass Menagerie and A Streetcar Named Desire Contents]
OTHER ELEMENTS
SETTING
Streetcar arrived on the stage in 1947. But don't assume that the story takes place in that year.
Think of the story unfolding from May to September of any year you choose. It's true that
Stanley and Mitch were army buddies in World War Two, but they could just as well be
veterans of Vietnam or any other war.
The entire drama is played out on a single set. The street called Elysian Fields crosses the front
of the stage. Through the transparent front wall of a shabby two-story structure, you see
Stanley and Stella's flat, two rooms separated by a curtain. Beyond the apartment's rear wall,
also transparent, you see the French Quarter of New Orleans.
Williams may have wanted you to feel that the drama enacted in the Kowalskis' flat was merely
an extension of life in the city, and so he specified see-through walls in his stage directions.
Outside you find railroad yards, a big water tank, empty lots and river docks- in short, nothing
pretty or natural. In the characters you see another kind of ugliness: meanness, lying, hatred
and more. Another possibility is that the transparent walls symbolize Williams' approach to the
people in the play. It's not that you know them inside and out by the time the play ends, but that
the characters' actions invite you to probe the inner workings of their hearts and minds.
Throughout the play you hear the sounds of the city. The tinny music of a "Blue Piano,"
suggesting sadness and lost love, recurs in several scenes. In addition, trains roar, radios blare,
couples fight and make love. Windows and doors are kept open all summer, blurring the
distinction between inside and outside. Stanley and his friends seem to have erased that
distinction from their lives, too. Like animals in heat, they lack inhibition. Stanley especially
lets it all hang out. He says whatever he thinks, regardless of the consequences.
If you know New Orleans you know the French Quarter. It's an historic section of the city, a
hive of narrow streets, alleyways, markets, coffee-houses, honky-tonks and shops of all kinds.
It's known for its quaint charm. Elaborate wrought-iron balconies laced with flowers extend
from the facades of numerous buildings. Some of the residents may live in squalor, but they put
up a pretty front. In a sense, they may remind you of Blanche DuBois.
THEMES
The following are themes of A Streetcar Named Desire.
1. THE VICTORY OF THE APES
One of Blanche's impassioned speeches to Stella depicts Stanley as an ape. It's true,
there is something apelike about him. You see his primitive qualities from the first
moment of the play, when he comes home lugging a package of bloody meat.
Stay alert throughout the play for many allusions to the subhuman quality of life in
Elysian Fields. Sometimes the place is described as a jungle. Shrieks and groans pierce
the hot, humid air. Mitch is described as a bear, the women are called "hens." Stanley
and Stella emit "low, animal moans."
Blanche is the only champion for civilization in the play. "Don't hang back with the
brutes!" she tells Stella. What conclusion can be drawn from the fact that the brutes
ultimately destroy her? Are Blanche's values useless in a savage world? 2. LONELINESS
Loneliness is a fearful plague. Look at what it's done to Blanche. Bereft after her
husband's suicide, she became a prostitute to fill her emptiness. She molests young boys
and has constructed a web of pretense to delude herself and others that she is charming
and sociable. She invents tales about her gentleman friend Shep Huntleigh. Whether he's
a real or an imaginary person isn't important. He is real enough to comfort Blanche and
to keep hope alive that someday she'll be rescued from loneliness.
The pain of loneliness brings Blanche and Mitch together. No doubt Blanche prefers
men of another stripe, but rather than remain a lonely spinster for the rest of her life,
she's willing to put up with him. Mitch, too, hopes to find a woman to replace his
mother, who will soon die.
3. INVENTING A BEAUTIFUL PAST
When most of us glance back to the past, we wear rose-colored glasses, and if the
present is bleak, the past appears still rosier. In Streetcar, hardly a character is immune
from visions of a beautiful past.
Blanche's manner and way of speaking suggest the sort of past she has lodged in her
memory. You'd think she grew up in grandeur and gentility of the Old South, at least
until you hear her tell Stella the history of Belle Reve's decline. Why does Stella recall
the white-columned plantation with fondness? Would she have left the place at an early
age if life there had been so attractive? The name Belle Reve (beautiful dream)
indicates, perhaps, that both Blanche and Stella believe in an illusion.
4. REALITY VS ILLUSION
In symbolic terms, the conflict between Stanley and Blanche pits reality against illusion.
What is reality? To Stanley reality is what you can touch and see. Stanley feels right at
home in reality- that is, among real people, the kind who act natural and who say what
they think and feel. Since a human is an animal, according to Stanley he ought to act
like one. To put on airs, to deny one's instincts, to hide one's feelings- those are
dishonest acts.
No wonder Blanche rejects reality in favor of illusion. Reality has treated her unkindly.
Too much truthfulness destroyed her marriage. Taking refuge in dreams and illusions,
therefore, she plays a perpetual game of let's pretend. She says what ought to be true,
not what is true.
Stanley can't tolerate idealists like Blanche. What she calls "magic" Stanley calls "lies."
Losing her way altogether at the end of the play, Blanche can no longer distinguish
illusion from reality. So she goes to an asylum, the only place where that distinction
doesn't make any difference.
5. SEXUAL VIOLENCE
The proverbial conflict between males and females has often been termed the "battle of
the sexes." Sexual hostilities rage throughout the play. On one side you have Blanche,
who is a veteran of considerable sexual give and take. She lures the newspaper boy into
her arms, but thinks the better of it, and frees him after only one kiss. She wins Mitch's
affection but claims "high ideals" to keep him at a distance. When Mitch discovers that
he's been hoodwinked, he attempts to rape her. Blanche wards off the attack like a
seasoned warrior.
Only Stanley is unconquerable. He sees right through Blanche's sexual pretenses. At the
end of his war with Blanche, he rapes her, proving that in sexual combat, he is the
winner and still champion.
STYLE
This play about people trapped in frightful conditions brims with poetry. A poem doesn't
always need elegant words. In fact, the inelegant residents of Elysian Fields speak in the blunt,
straight-forward idiom of common people. Only Blanche's manner of speaking soars above the
ordinary. Figurative language gushes naturally from her lips. For example, she tells Mitch how
life's joys have been extinguished: "And then the searchlight which had been turned on the
world was turned off again and never for one moment since has there been any light that's
stronger than this- kitchen- candle...." Why did Williams give Blanche the gift of poetic
speech? Yes, she's an English teacher, but perhaps he had other purposes. How does her
eloquence affect her relationship with Stanley, for instance?
You also find poetic language, rich with imagery, in Williams' stage directions: "The houses
[of New Orleans] are mostly white frame, weathered grey, with rickety outside stairs and
galleries and quaintly ornamented gables." To help create the mood of the play, Williams
prescribes the sound of a "tinny piano being played with the infatuated fluency of brown
fingers." To give you a sense of the character, he calls Stanley a "gaudy seed bearer" and a
"richly feathered male bird among hens." Blanche's uncertain manner, as well as her white
clothes, suggest "a moth."
Apes, hens, a moth- Williams' images make up a menagerie. Why does the playwright
repeatedly compare his characters to animals? Does Williams keep you mindful of the constant
tension between man's civilized impulses and his beast-like instincts?
The playwright may also be highlighting the symbolic clash between Stanley and Blanche. To
be sure, Stanley stands for primitivism. Blanche speaks up for civilization. May she also
represent the romantic traditions of the past? Don't be satisfied with only those interpretations
of Stanley and Blanche. Try to extract additional symbolic meanings in the conflict between
the play's antagonists. For example, what can you make of the fact that one is a dreamer and
pretender, the other a realist?
You're always sure to find carefully-chosen symbols in a Williams play. Even the names of
people and places carry symbolic weight. The streetcars, "Desire" and "Cemetery," evoke
among other things, Blanche's need for love and her fear of death. Other names reveal
Williams' irony and humor: he assigns the name "Elysian Fields," a paradise in ancient
mythology, to a cheerless street in modern New Orleans. "Blanche" means white, the color
signifying purity. "Stella," the earthy sister, means star. And "Belle Reve," of course, means
"beautiful dream."
POINT OF VIEW
Unlike The Glass Menagerie, A Streetcar Named Desire has no narrator to tell you the story.
No one comes between you and the characters on the stage. The story is presented as it is in
most plays- by characters simply playing their parts. What the characters represent, how they
interact, how they resolve conflicts all help to establish the playwright's point of view.
In the script of the play Williams includes plenty of material that describes the set, the
appearance of the characters, the sound and light needed to create moods and so forth. But he
doesn't tell you how to view the characters: Is Blanche sane or insane? Does Stanley have
redeeming qualities? Is it right for Stella to commit Blanche to an asylum? Although these are
questions that Williams probably wants you to answer for yourself, he gives you his own bias
by focusing the play on Blanche.
Blanche stands apart as the central figure. Streetcar is her story, and you have a ringside seat to
her private agony and disintegration. You never see anyone except Blanche on stage alone.
Minor characters like the newsboy and the flower peddler are interesting only insofar as they
touch Blanche. By the time the play ends you know Blanche better than any other character.
You probably understand why she acts as she does and appreciate what has happened to her.
That doesn't mean you cherish her. But you might feel compassion for her, as you might for
anyone who has lost her way.
How you feel about Blanche and how you interpret her actions will ultimately determine your
views not only about the other characters, but about the themes and ideas conveyed by the play
as a whole.
FORM AND STRUCTURE
Most plays have acts. Streetcar doesn't. Rather it is divided into eleven scenes occurring in
chronological order and taking place between May and September.
In most productions of a play, you'll find intermissions at natural breaks in the action. In many
productions of Streetcar, intermissions come after Stanley has won his first major victory over
Blanche, at the end of Scene Four. A second break sometimes occurs when Scene Six
concludes, after Blanche has won Mitch's love. Thus, the first third of the play ends with a
defeat for Blanche, the second with a triumph.
The last scenes follow Blanche's decline into permanent defeat- her insanity. You might
observe a kind of rhythm in the action of the play, a pulsing series of episodes, which may
explain why Williams chose to build the play using several short scenes instead of a few longer
acts. There's a rhythm of conflict and reconciliation: Stanley and Stella have a row, then make
up. Eunice and Steve fight, then make up. Blanche, as usual, is out of step with the others. She
establishes a liaison with Mitch, which then breaks up. Perhaps the regularity of the pattern is
meant to suggest vaguely the rhythm of passion, which reaches a climax in the rape scene. The
suggestion becomes more plausible if you think of the play as a sexual battle between Stanley
and Blanche.
A Streetcar Named Desire is episodic. A drawing of the play's structure traces the conflict
between Blanche and Stanley and also parallels the state of Blanche's emotional and mental
health.
l Scene 1:
Blanche arrives in New Orleans, meets Stanley; each takes the other's measure. Blanche
generally optimistic.
l Scene 2:
Conflict over loss of Belle Reve. Blanche submits papers to Stanley.
l Scene 3:
Poker night. Blanche meets Mitch. Blanche hopeful about the future.
l Scene 4:
Blanche berates Stella. Stanley defeats Blanche in competition for Stella's allegiance.
l Scene 5:
Blanche plans for future; she kisses newsboy. Blanche hopes that Mitch will provide
love.
l Scene 6:
Date with Mitch. Blanche wins Mitch's love.
l Scene 7:
Preparation for party. Blanche in high spirits.
l Scene 8:
Stanley gives Blanche bus ticket; Blanche horrified.
l Scene 9:
Mitch visits Blanche, attempts rape. Blanche distraught.
l Scene 10:
Stanley returns; rapes Blanche. Blanche destroyed.
l Scene 11:
Blanche sent to insane asylum.
THE STORY
THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES
[The Glass Menagerie and A Streetcar Named Desire Contents] [The Study Web
Home Page]
© Copyright 1985 by Barron's Educational Series, Inc.
Electronically Enhanced Text © Copyright 1993, World Library, Inc.
The Glass Menagerie
and
A Streetcar Named Desire
Tennessee Williams
1944 and 1947
by George Ehrenhaft
Chairman, English Department
Mamaroneck (N.Y.) High School
Download Entire Booknote to Disk (250k)
SERIES COORDINATOR
Murray Bromberg, Principal,
Wang High School of Queens, Holliswood, New York
Past President, High School Principals Association of New York City
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Our thanks to Milton Katz and Julius Liebb for their advisory assistance on the Book Notes
series.
CONTENTS
l THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES
The Glass Menagerie
n THE PLAY
m The Plot
m The Characters
m Other Elements
n THE STORY
n A STEP BEYOND
m Tests and Answers
m Term Paper Ideas and other Topics for Writing
A Streetcar Named Desire
n THE PLAY
m The Plot
m The Characters
m Other Elements
n THE STORY
n A STEP BEYOND
m Tests and Answers
m Term Paper Ideas and other Topics for Writing
l REFERENCE
m The Critics
m Advisory Board
m Bibliography
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© Copyright 1985 by Barron's Educational Series, Inc.
Electronically Enhanced Text © Copyright 1993, World Library, Inc.
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Glass Menagerie and A Streetcar Named Tennessee Williams
--------------------------------------------------------1944
1947
TENNESSEE
WILLIAMS'S
THE GLASS MENAGERIE & A STREETCAR NAMED
DESIRE
by George
Ehrenhaft
Chairman, English Department, Mamaroneck (N.Y.) High
School
SERIES
COORDINATOR
Murray Bromberg,
Principal,
Wang High School of Queens, Holliswood, New
York
Past President, High School Principals Association of New York
City
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Our thanks to Milton Katz and Julius Liebb for their
advisory
assistance on the Book Notes
series
(C) Copyright 1985 by Barron's Educational Series,
Inc.
Electronically Enhanced Text (C) Copyright 1993, World Library,
Inc.
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
SECTION............................ SEARCH
ON
THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES.............................
WGLAAUTH
The Glass
Menagerie
THE
PLAY
The Plot..........................................
WGLAPLOT
The Characters....................................
WGLACHAR
Other
Elements
Setting......................................
WGLASETT
Themes.......................................
WGLATHEM
Style........................................
WGLASTYL
Point of View................................
WGLAVIEW
Form and Structure...........................
WGLAFORM
THE PLAY..........................................
WGLAPLAY
A STEP
BEYOND
Tests and Answers.................................
WGLATEST
Term Paper Ideas and other Topics for Writing.....
WGLATERM
A Streetcar named
Desire
THE
PLAY
The Plot..........................................
WSTRPLOT
The Characters....................................
WSTRCHAR
Other
Elements
Setting/Theme................................
WSTRSETT
Style/Point of View..........................
WSTRSTYL
Form and Structure...........................
WSTRFORM
THE PLAY..........................................
WSTRPLAY
A STEP
BEYOND
Tests and Answers.................................
WSTRTEST
Term Paper Ideas and other Topics for Writing.....
WSTRTERM
The Glass Menagerie & A Streetcar Named
Desire
The Critics.......................................
WGLACRIT
Advisory Board....................................
WGLAADVB
Bibliography......................................
WGLABIBL
AUTHOR_AND_HIS_TIMES
THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES
(WGLAAUTH)
The Glass Menagerie was Tennessee Williams' first successful
play.
It won the New York Critics' Circle Award as the best play of
the
1944-45 Broadway season. Less than three years later, A
Streetcar
Named Desire opened. It, too, captured the Critics' Circle Award
and
also won the Pulitzer
Prize.
With these achievements Tennessee Williams earned fame and lots
of
money. He was declared one of the best modern playwrights. Had
he
never written another word, his place on the roster of great
artists
would still be secure. Usually, he's named with Eugene O'Neill
and
Arthur Miller as one of the three leading American dramatists of
the
20th
century.
That's not a bad record for a man of thirty-six. At the
time,
however, Williams would gladly have given away his success. He
liked
his plays, but he hated being a celebrity. Success depressed him. As
a
young man who achieved great success, he suddenly missed
the
challenges of life. Perhaps you can understand his reaction.
Many
people who reach glory at an early age realize the emptiness
of
fame. Autograph seekers depressed him. Strangers who told him "I
loved
your play" annoyed him. Praise bothered him. He even suspected
his
friends of false affection. And he felt constant pressure for the
rest
of his life to write plays as good as Menagerie and
Streetcar.
Williams found relief from the public in a hospital, of
all
places. He needed an eye operation. When the gauze mask was
removed
from his face, he viewed his life more clearly, both literally
and
figuratively. He checked out of his posh New York hotel and escaped
to
Mexico, where, as a stranger, he could be his former self
again.
His former self was Thomas Lanier Williams of Columbus,
Mississippi,
where he was born in 1911. His maternal grandfather was
Columbus'
Episcopalian rector. His mother, Edwina, valued refinement and
the
good manners of Southern gentry. She made sure that Tom and his
sister
Rose grew up having both. His father, on the other hand, paid
little
attention to good breeding and culture. He was more fond of a
game
of poker and a tall glass of whiskey. A traveling salesman, he
lived
out of suitcases and had little time for his children.
Returning
from road trips, however, he often criticized his wife for
turning
young Tom into a
sissy.
When Mr. Williams, known as C.C., got an office job with
the
International Shoe Company, the family settled in St. Louis.
Rose
and Tom became city children. They played in littered alleys
where
dogs and cats roamed at night. Or they holed up in a small
dark
bedroom to play with Rose's prized collection of small glass
animals.
Having C.C. around the house strained everyone in the family. C.
C.
fought with Edwina, disparaged Rose, and sometimes beat
Tom.
Eventually, he deserted the family altogether, but not until
Rose,
Tom, and a younger brother, Dakin, had reached
adulthood.
Of the three Williams children, Rose had the hardest time
growing
up. During the early years she and Tom were as close as a sister
and
brother can be, but in her teens she developed symptoms of
insanity.
She withdrew into a private mental world. Mrs. Williams could
not
accept her daughter's illness and tried repeatedly to force friends
on
her. She enrolled Rose in a secretarial course, but that didn't
help
Rose's condition either. Diagnosed as a schizophrenic, Rose was put
in
a mental institution. In 1937 brain surgery turned her into
a
harmless, childlike woman for the rest of her
life.
Tom, who loved Rose dearly, heaped blame for Rose's madness
on
himself. Not even he understood why. But as he saw it,
Rose's
terrors started at about the time when he began to feel
the
irresistible urges of homosexuality. At the time- long before
the
advent of gay rights- to be a homosexual meant being an outcast.
You
were scorned and abused, and you were made to feel excruciating
guilt.
Rose's condition had no bearing on Tom's self-realization, nor did
his
sexual preferences trigger Rose's breakdown. Yet, the two
events
became strangely interlocked in Tom's
thinking.
In the agonies of his family Williams found the stuff of
his
plays. He hardly disguised his parents, his sister and himself when
he
cast them as characters on the stage. Places where he lived
became
settings, and he adapted plots from life's experiences. He relived
the
past as he wrote. ("The play is memory," says Tom, the character
in
The Glass Menagerie.) He wrote about what he knew besthimself.
Perhaps that's why the plays, although considered dream-like
and
unreal, can nevertheless, like magic, give you illusion that has
the
appearance of truth. They often contain an intense passion
that
could come from only one source, the heart and soul of the
playwright.
After high school, Williams went to the University of Missouri
to
study journalism. His father pulled him out after two years for
making
low grades and sent him to work at the shoe company. It was a deadend
job, but it gave Tom a chance to do what he loved best- to write.
He
pushed himself hard to master the art of writing. When the
words
came slowly, he grew tense. He ate little, smoked constantly and
drank
only black coffee. After two years his health broke. The
doctor
ordered him to quit the shoe
company.
He enrolled in a play writing course at Washington University in
St.
Louis. He also started to read widely in world literature. From
the
Russian Chekhov, he discovered how to make dialogue
reveal
character. From plays by Ibsen, the Norwegian dramatist,
Williams
learned the art of creating truth on the stage. Williams owed
his
fascination with uninhibited sexuality partly to the English writer
D.
H. Lawrence. He also studied the works of the master
Swedish
playwright August Strindberg for insights into dramatizing
inner
psychological strife. Through a friend Williams discovered
the
American poet Hart Crane, whose lyrical lines and brief tragic
life
struck a responsive chord in Williams. In all, Williams'
prolific
reading gave his own writing a
boost.
Tom finished his formal schooling at the University of Iowa. When
he
left there in 1938 he adopted the name "Tennessee." Over the
years
he offered varying explanations for the new name. It
was
distinctive. It was a college nickname. It expressed his desire
to
break away from the crowd, just as his father's pioneering
ancestors
had done when they helped to settle the state of
Tennessee.
With his pen and pad he roamed the United States. Says Tom in
The
Glass Menagerie, "The cities swept about me like dead leaves"New
York, Washington, Los Angeles, Key West, Florida. Also New
Orleans,
the city of streetcars, including one named "Desire." He
wrote
stories, poems, even a first play that flopped in
Boston.
Eventually, he landed a job in California writing screenplays for
MGM.
But he despised taking others' stories and turning them into
movies.
He wanted to do originals. While in Hollywood, he wrote a movie
script
entitled The Gentleman Caller. When MGM rejected it, Williams quit
his
job, transformed the script into a play, and called it The
Glass
Menagerie. The play opened on Broadway in March, 1945, and
altered
Williams' life. The years of personal struggle to make it big
were
over.
After moving to Mexico, he turned out a second masterpieceA
Streetcar Named Desire- which reached Broadway in December, 1947.
In
Streetcar, as in The Glass Menagerie, he shaped the story from his
own
experience. If you combine Williams' mother, the genteel and
prudish
Southern lady, with Rose, the fragile sister, you get
Blanche.
Williams knew firsthand what happens when a brute like Stanley
clashes
with a refined lady like Blanche. He saw it almost daily in
his
parents' stormy
marriage.
After Streetcar Williams turned out plays almost every
other
season for thirty-five years. According to critics, though,
after
the 1940's Williams never again reached the heights of Menagerie
and
Streetcar. He reused material and seemed continually
preoccupied
with the same themes and with characters trapped in their
own
private versions of hell. Although many later plays
lacked
freshness, others were smash hits and have since joined the ranks
of
the finest American plays. Cat on a Hot Tin Roof won drama prizes
in
1955, and Night of the Iguana earned honors in
1961.
Because of movies, however, the titles of some of his plays, such
as
Suddenly Last Summer and The Fugitive Kind have become
familiar,
even to people who have never seen a Williams stage play.
Some
Williams plays (and movies) caused a sensation because they
deal
with homosexuality and incest, topics that had been more or less
off
limits on the stage and screen until Williams came along.
People
flocked to Williams movies to see stars like Elizabeth Taylor,
Richard
Burton and Paul Newman. In the film of A Streetcar Named
Desire,
Marlon Brando and Vivian Leigh gave magnificent performances
as
Stanley and
Blanche.
All of Williams' plays illustrate a dark vision of life, a
vision
that grew dimmer as the years went by. During his last
years
Williams kept writing, but one play after the other failed. To
ease
his pain, Williams turned to drink and drugs. His eyes
needed
several operations for cataracts. The new plays received
terrible
notices, driving him deeper into addiction. He died in a New
York
hotel room in 1983. Police reports say that pills were found under
his
body.
Williams left behind an impressive collection of work. His
plays
continue to move people by their richness, intensity of feeling,
and
timelessness. He often transformed private experience into
public
drama. In doing so, he gave us glimpses into a world most of us
have
never seen before. Yet, the plays make Williams' fears,
passions,
and joys ours as well. Few artists will ever leave behind a
more
personal and intense
legacy.
GLASS_MENAGERIE|
PLOT
THE GLASS
MENAGERIE
THE
PLAY
THE PLOT
(WGLAPLOT)
-
How does a young man with the mind and heart of a poet wind up
as
a sailor in the merchant marine? Tom Wingfield can tell you. He's
done
it. Years ago, he ran away from home and joined
up.
One reason Tom left home was his mother, Amanda. She drove him
to
it. How? You'll see the instant you meet her. She nags Tom about
his
smoking, scolds him about getting up in the morning, and instructs
him
in the fine art of chewing food. It isn't easy to have a mother
like
Amanda. Yet Tom put up with her until one tragic night when
his
patience ran out, and he abandoned his
family.
Of course Tom may simply be following in his father's footsteps.
Mr.
Wingfield deserted his family years ago, leaving Amanda to raise
Tom
and his sister Laura in a run-down tenement in the St. Louis
slums.
Amanda is used to better. She repeatedly recites stories of
gracious
young gentlemen who came to court her on the veranda of her
family's
plantation. But she married Mr. Wingfield, and ever since, she
copes
with life by recalling gentle days in the Old South. The details
often
change, however, and her children sometimes suspect Amanda's
stories
to be mere
fabrication.
Lately, Amanda has begun to notice similarities between Tom
and
her husband. Tom is bored with life and very restless. Down at
the
warehouse he ducks into the washroom during slow hours and
writes
poems. Every night, after a dull day of work, he escapes to
the
movies- for adventure, he says. Amanda is worried that Tom drinks.
She
fears that Tom will run away. She gets him to promise that he
won't
leave, at least not until his sister has a good man to provide
for
her.
Laura, in fact, is Amanda's gravest problem. A childhood disease
has
left her partly lame. She is frail and terribly insecure.
Although
she's older than Tom, she's never held a job. One attempt to
send
her to a business school ended dismally. She, like Tom, escapes
to
an unreal world, spending most of her time listening to old
records
and playing with her collection of glass animals. What the
future
holds for Laura, Amanda can't even
guess.
That's why Amanda hounds Tom to bring home a friend, some
eligible
young man who will fall for Laura and marry her. Tom agrees,
not
because he thinks Amanda's scheme will work, but because he
has
pledged himself to help Amanda before he leaves home. Tom
invites
Jim O'Connor, an acquaintance from work. Amanda is thrilled, but
Laura
gets sick with
fright.
Jim turns out to be someone Laura knew and admired from a
distance
back in high school. He charms Amanda and treats Laura kindly.
He
advises Laura to feel more sure of herself. To be a success you
need
confidence, he tells her. He shows her how to dance, and gently
kisses
her. In every respect, Jim seems like Laura's rescuer, the man to
save
her from a life of dependency and illusions. While dancing,
they
accidentally break the horn from Laura's prized glass unicorn.
Now
it looks like an ordinary horse. Symbolically, Jim has
released
Laura from her dream
world.
But Laura's excursion into reality is a short-lived disaster.
Jim
won't be calling on Laura again. He's already engaged to be
married.
When Amanda finds out, she accuses Tom of deliberately making a
fool
of her. In her fury, Amanda refuses to hear Tom's denials. For
Tom,
this is the last straw. He packs up and leaves. Literally, he
escapes.
But he fails to escape completely. As he wanders the
earth,
searching for some elusive paradise, the memory of his sister
haunts
him.
You're left with the thought that happiness, like so much else
in
Tom's life, is an illusion,
too.
GLASS_MENAGERIE|
CHARACTERS
THE CHARACTERS
(WGLACHAR)
TOM
WINGFIELD
When Tennessee Williams created Tom he pulled a neat trick.
He
created a character who exists outside and inside the play's action
at
the same time. When you see him standing on the fire
escape
adjoining the Wingfield apartment, Tom is the narrator. He
is
outside the action. He is a seasoned merchant sailor who's traveled
on
both land and sea. He's a good talker, too, the kind you might like
to
spend an evening with over a few beers. He can be funny, as when
he
describes his runaway father as a "telephone man who fell in love
with
long
distances."
One actor's reading of Tom's lines can give you the
impression
that Tom regrets being a wanderer. Another actor can create
the
sense that Tom looks back with relief, pleased that he broke
away,
at least from his mother. Regardless of the interpretation
you
favor, you know that Laura, Tom's sister, has a firm hold on
his
affections. "Oh, Laura, Laura," he says in the play's final speech,
"I
tried to leave you behind me, but I am more faithful than I
intended
to be!" Evidently, memory is a potent force, one that Tom
can't
escape. Or, looking at Tom's character yet another way, you
might
conclude that he has stepped beyond the bounds of a
brotherly
concern for Laura into a more forbidding
relationship.
Because the whole play is Tom's memory brought to life on the
stage,
Tom may be the most important character. However, you could make
a
case for Amanda's importance as well. Either way, Tom sets
the
sentimental mood of the play and reveals only what he wants you
to
know about his family. If Amanda narrated the play, can you
imagine
how different it would
be?
Tom calls himself a poet. He writes poetry at every opportunity.
You
hear poetic speeches pour from his lips. A co-worker at
the
warehouse calls him "Shakespeare." Does he deserve the name? Do any
of
his speeches sound like poetry to
you?
In addition, Tom claims a poet's weakness for symbols. In
fact,
the story bulges with symbols of all kinds, some obvious (the
little
glass animals signifying Laura), some more obscure
(frequent
references to rainbows, for example). For a full discussion
of
symbolism in the play, see the Symbol section of this
volume.
You rarely see Tom in a cheerful mood. He complains,
groans,
sulks, argues, or pokes fun at others, especially at Amanda.
He
bristles under her constant nagging. He quarrels about inviting home
a
beau for Laura. Most of all, he is repelled by Amanda's
repeated
references to her long-ago past. Why do Amanda's stories bother
him
so? Is his reaction typical of children listening to parents
recount
tales of their
youth?
Tom's resentful manner leads his mother to accuse him of having
a
"temperament like a Metropolitan [Opera] star." Does Amanda have
a
point? Is Tom preoccupied with pleasing himself? Or do
you
sympathize with Tom? Tom's obligations seem to tear him apart.
He's
caught between responsibilities to his family and to himself.
In
short, he faces a dilemma that's often part of growing up. Which,
in
your opinion, ought to take precedence: family responsibility
or
personal
ambition?
To cope with frustration and pain Tom sometimes uses bitter
humor.
When Amanda accuses him of leading a shameful life, he knows
it's
futile to argue. So he jokes with his mother about his second
identity
as "Killer Wingfield" and "El Diablo," the prince of the
underworld.
Or when Amanda is about to start reminiscing about Blue Mountain,
he
comments ironically to Laura, "I know what's
coming."
Humor provides only a little relief, however. That's why he
rushes
off to the movies whenever he can. Watching someone
else's
adventures on the movie screen offers Tom another diversion from
his
own dreary existence. But since he has to come out of the dark
theater
and face life again, escape to the movies solves no problems. At
great
cost Tom learns that running away from problems never clears them
from
your mind. Even when he flees St. Louis, he takes along his
memories
as mental baggage. He can't escape the past, however hard he
tries.
Escape, he discovers in the end, is an illusion,
too.
What Tom tells you as he stands at the edge of the stage may be
more
than just the story of one young man's disillusion. You might think
of
Tom as a representative of a whole generation of young people
coming
of age just as the world is exploding into war. They have high
hopes
and rich dreams. But the future they wish for never comes. It
is
destroyed by forces beyond their control. "The world is lit
by
lightning," Tom
says.
Tom's story, then, may be both personal and generally symbolic
of
life at a bleak time in our history. You can read it either
way.
AMANDA
WINGFIELD
In the production notes of The Glass Menagerie, Tennessee
Williams
tells you that Amanda is "a little woman of great but
confused
vitality clinging frantically to another time and place.... There
is
much to admire in Amanda, and as much to love and pity as there
is
to laugh at." Do you agree? Do you find her as difficult to bear
as
Tom
does?
In contrast to Tom, who sets the mood in the play, Amanda is
a
mover, the character who sets the story into motion. Therefore,
you
might consider her the play's main character. Throughout the play
Tom,
Laura and Jim respond to Amanda's stimulating and complex
personality.
Even her husband, who has run from her, showed a
distinctive
response to Amanda. Tom shares a few tender moments with his
mother,
but more typically, he's put off by her scolding and nagging.
Laura,
unlike her brother, usually obeys Amanda's wishes and tries
to
understand her. Jim, during dinner with the Wingfields, is caught
up
by Amanda's vibrant
cheerfulness.
What are you likely to remember most about Amanda? Is it
her
irrational and inappropriate belief in the romantic past? Or
might
it be her pathetic conviction that her children are bound to
succeed
in life because of their "natural endowments?" She refuses to
accept
the fact that Tom is a malcontent with a dead-end job. As for
Laura,
Amanda denies that her daughter has anything wrong with her that
a
little charm and a typing course won't fix. Even Jim O'Connor,
quite
an ordinary young man, strikes Amanda as a shining prince
destined
to rescue and marry Laura. Amanda's wishes for her
children
sometimes leave her blind to
reality.
To understand Amanda you should decide whether she is really
as
far gone as she often appears. Is she unaware of the truth, or
does
she simply refuse to accept it? Despite her frequent silliness,
she
evidently has a practical streak. She thinks seriously about
the
future. That's why she presses Tom to bring home a friend for
Laura.
Obviously, Amanda acts foolish much of the time. But
she
nevertheless has admirable qualities. Amanda tries hard to be a
good
mother. After her husband runs off, she does the best she can
to
provide for her family. Above all, she is strong, stronger than
Tom
and stronger than her husband. When all her efforts have failed,
she
sticks by Laura. She emerges tender and noble. And you can depend
on
her never to give up hope. At the end of the play, with Tom enroute
to
the seven seas and Laura brokenhearted over Jim, Amanda shows
"dignity
and tragic beauty." What, in your opinion, is the source of
Amanda's
transformation? Or might she have had dignity and tragic beauty
within
her all
along?
LAURA
WINGFIELD
It's more than coincidental that the play's title refers to
the
collection of glass animals that belongs to Laura. She is so
fragile
that she can hardly function in the real world. Not
surprisingly,
her favorite figure in the menagerie is the unicorn, a
creature
which Laura calls "freakish," which is precisely the way Laura
has
felt much of her life. Can you think of other qualities of the
unicorn
that resemble
Laura?
Laura frequently escapes to a private, imaginary world occupied
by
fragile glass animals. When you consider Laura's personality,
can
you speculate on why the menagerie is glass rather than some
other
material?
Of the three Wingfields, Laura stands in the greatest peril, for
she
lacks both the strength of Amanda and the potential to escape,
like
Tom. Laura creates the impression that she's forever going to be
a
misfit. The world is simply too harsh for her. She confesses to
Jim
how awkward she felt in high school. She wore a brace on her leg
and
believed that everyone in school noticed her "clumping" around.
As
people grow older they usually overcome feelings of shyness.
Why
didn't
Laura?
In spite of her fragility, though, Laura is the most serene
member
of her family. She leaves the worrying to Amanda and Tom.
Sometimes
she may remind you of a child who creates havoc and doesn't know
it.
In her innocence, Laura doesn't realize how Tom and Amanda bleed
for
her.
It's possible to think of Laura as merely a timid, neurotic
little
girl, totally absorbed in her own troubles. But can you find
more
substance in her character? Is she sensitive to Amanda and to Tom
in
any way? Does she contribute to the well being of her family?
You
may not have to search far to find likeable and sympathetic
traits
in Laura's
personality.
Laura hides in her make-believe world. Only once, during
Jim
O'Connor's visit, does she venture out of it into the world
of
reality. Jim has given Laura a bit of self-confidence. He
even
convinces her to dance with him. During the dance, they bump
the
table, knocking the glass unicorn to the floor and breaking off
its
single horn. Do you see the symbolism of this mishap? Laura, for
a
short time, feels like any other girl who has been swept off
her
feet by the boy of her dreams. Unfortunately for Laura, though,
the
time of her life lasts no more than a few
minutes.
When Tom leaves home for good, why do thoughts of Laura haunt
his
memory? Is he plagued by guilt? Does he love her more than a
brother
should? Does Laura have charms that have gotten under his
skin?
JIM
O'CONNOR
Tom tells you in his opening speech that Jim is an emissary from
the
world of reality. If that is so, reality must be a fairly
dull
place, for Jim is a nice, but rather ordinary, young man. On
the
surface, he is well-mannered, hard-working, and responsible. He is
a
pleasant guest, and he dutifully entertains Laura after dinner.
He
does all you'd expect him to. Why, then, is Jim so
disappointing?
Even Jim himself knows that he's a disappointment, although
he
puts up a smooth-talking and self-confident front. When you
consider
his admirable high school record, he should be racing up the ladder
of
success by now. Instead, he's still in the
pack.
Common wisdom, which Jim believes, says that if you work
hard,
you'll succeed. Jim has worked hard, but he hasn't succeeded. So
he
takes self-improvement courses in public speaking, thinking
that
greater "social poise" will help him land the executive position
of
his dreams. He's also studying radio engineering in order to get in
on
the ground floor of the new television industry. He seems to
be
doing all the right things and saying the right things, too,
about
opportunity and progress in America. But the ideas sound trite,
as
though Jim is mouthing someone else's
words.
Although he's trying hard, you never know if Jim will make it
big.
Perhaps he will. On the other hand, when you recall that
illusion
dominates the play, you might suspect that Jim's plans are pure
fancy,
and that he's placed too much faith in a hollow dream. In the
end,
he may just plod along like everyone
else.
After dinner at the Wingfields Jim is pleased with himself
for
winning Laura so easily. His conquest reminds him of his high
school
days when he held the world in his hands. Laura is good for his
ego.
He's driven to pursue his dream, even if he has to step on others
as
he goes. Finally, he dismisses Laura with the news that
he's
engaged. Dinner at the Wingfields' turns out to be only a brief
stop
along the way to elusive
success.
Should Jim have revealed his engagement earlier in the
evening?
Was he under any obligation to do so? Or was it all right for him
to
wait until the end of his visit? If he had told his marriage
plans
earlier, Laura would have missed a few moments of happiness. Does
that
fact by itself justify Jim's action? What would you have done
under
similar
circumstances?
GLASS_MENAGERIE|
SETTING
OTHER
ELEMENTS
SETTING
(WGLASETT)
The whole play is set in the Wingfields' apartment, which faces
an
alley in the downtown slums of St. Louis. In the stage
directions
Tennessee Williams draws a vivid picture of the place. It's
cramped
and dark, almost like a jail cell. You can't tell it apart from
the
thousands of other apartments occupied by people trapped in drab
and
joyless lives. No one in the family wants to live there. But
poverty
forces them to. It shouldn't surprise you that "escape"
develops
into a major theme in the
play.
The drawing shows you how the apartment might be arranged for
a
performance. In addition to the usual rooms, there is an
important
fire escape off to one side. The characters in the play
sometimes
stand on the fire escape. Tom delivers his speeches to the
audience
from there. The family uses it to go in and out every day. But it's
an
"escape" only in name because the people living here
are
"fundamentally enslaved" in their lower middle-class
lives.
(See
illustration.)
Across the alley you see the Paradise Dance Hall. Much of
the
music you hear during the play comes from there. Sometimes
the
melodies are subtle comments on events taking place in the
Wingfield
apartment. Almost every detail of the setting in some
manner
suggests a theme or contributes an idea to the play. Consider,
for
instance, the name "Paradise Dance Hall." The young people who
meet
and dance there will soon be going to war. Many will be
killed.
Could Williams be implying that this two-bit dance hall is as close
to
paradise as those boys and girls will ever
get?
Think also of the smiling photo of Mr. Wingfield
prominently
displayed on the wall. Isn't it odd that Amanda, who expresses
disdain
for her husband, keeps it there? Perhaps Amanda preserves
the
photograph as a souvenir, a remembrance from the past. Or the
photo,
which hangs in the living room, may also be kept there to serve as
a
daily reminder to the Wingfields- especially Tom- that escape
is
possible.
When Tom steps onto the fire escape to introduce you to the
play,
the 1940's have begun, and World War II is raging. In his story,
he
takes you back to the 1930's, a decade of hopeless
depression.
You might ask why Tennessee Williams wants you to know the
world
situation during the time of the story. After all, affairs of
state
don't directly touch Tom and the other characters. Is the
play,
then, meant to be more than just a drama of family life? Can
you
find parallels between the events in the apartment and events in
the
world? Would the play be less poignant if you didn't know about
the
civil war in Spain, the massive poverty of the Great Depression,
and
the growth of Nazism? As you think about the play, these are
questions
worth
considering.
GLASS_MENAGERIE|
THEMES
THEMES
(WGLATHEM)
The following are themes of The Glass
Menagerie.
1.
ILLUSION
We all have illusions. You can hardly live without them.
Usually,
they are harmless thoughts about, say, last summer's vacation
or
that very attractive person you just met. Whenever you hold an
opinion
based on what you think is true, or should be true, rather than
what
actually is true, that's an illusion. Because illusions sometimes
help
you deal with painful facts, like good medicine they make you
feel
better. But when you are disillusioned, the pain
returns.
The characters in The Glass Menagerie are hooked by their
illusions.
Without illusion, Amanda would realize the hopelessness of
Laura's
condition. In fact, it's because of her illusions that Amanda
keeps
her hopes alive for that "always expected something" to rescue
Laura
from a life of dependency. Initially, Amanda thinks that a good
typing
course will help Laura pull herself together. And later in the
play,
Amanda foolishly counts on Jim to be Laura's prince
charming.
Amanda, of course, also has illusions about herself. Whether
she
really entertained seventeen gentleman callers one Sunday afternoon
is
beside the point. What counts is that she believes it.
Illusions,
you see, can be very
powerful.
Tom suffers from illusions, too, by expecting to find adventure
in
the movies. When he leaves home and joins the merchant navy
he
anticipates more adventure. Does that fire escape lead to
romance
and glamor? Study his final speech for an answer. Note that Tom
is
haunted by reminders of Laura. Is escape, in the end, an
illusion,
too?
The imaginary world of glass animals provides Laura's refuge
from
reality. But in her case, illusion may be perilous, for
her
menagerie serves as a substitute for life. How long can she go
on
playing with the glass collection before disillusion
strikes?
Jim O'Connor, like the other young people Tom tells you about,
is
also living in an illusion. When success eludes him he places faith
in
the future. But the future he counts on is an illusion, for
there's
a terrible war just around the corner that's going to change the
world
forever.
2.
ESCAPE
The theme of illusion is first cousin to the theme of escape
in
The Glass Menagerie, for all the play's characters believe
incorrectly
that escape from their present situation in life is possible.
Tom
tries repeatedly to escape from tedium and responsibility.
Amanda
indulges at times in reveries about her girlhood. The
glass
menagerie serves as Laura's means of escape from reality, and
Jim
tries desperately to escape from his dead-end job by taking
public
speaking and radio
courses.
Observe that no character in the play makes a clean break
from
this situation. Correction: only Mr. Wingfield escapes- at the
expense
of his family's happiness, but that took place before the play
begins.
A fire escape symbolically points the way out of the
Wingfield
apartment. But when Laura uses it, she stumbles. When Tom leaves
for
good he claims to follow in his father's footsteps, but he
is
pursued by "something." A powerful love? Guilt? He tried to
leave
Laura behind, but couldn't. His closing speech reveals how securely
he
is bound to the
past.
What conclusion about escape can you draw from the situation
in
the play? Does the play advise you to make the best of what
you've
got, because change is impossible? Note Mr. Wingfield's
smiling
portrait. Does the grin tell you
anything?
3.
FRAGILITY
Can you think of anyone who embodies the idea of fragility
better
than Laura? Both physically and psychologically, she is fragile.
A
childhood disease left her with a slight limp. Under the
everyday
stresses of life, her composure shatters, and she can't complete
her
typing course. The thought of receiving a gentleman caller makes
her
sick. How fitting for Laura to keep a menagerie of delicate
glass
animals of which the unicorn- the "freakish" one- is her
favorite.
The characters in The Glass Menagerie have built their lives on
a
fragile foundation of illusions. Take away their illusions and
which
of them would not
break?
In 1939, the time of the play, world peace is in a fragile
state.
The lives of the young lovers who kiss in the alley will soon
be
shattered by big guns and heavy
bombardments.
4.
LIGHT
Because The Glass Menagerie is a memory play, the setting is
dimly
lighted. Dim lights keep details from being seen, for details
fade
from the memory
first.
The electric company turns off the Wingfields' power. Then
the
characters must resort to candles, which soften the illumination
and
add the aura of romance to Jim's visit with
Laura.
Light shining through little glass objects often gives off
tiny
spots of rainbow color. A rainbow, as you probably know from the
old
song, is something you chase. And in biblical myth, the rainbow is
the
symbol of a promise. But when you get close it vanishes. It's
an
illusion, a false promise, like so much else in the play.
Tom
recognizes the illusory quality of rainbows. He says the
pleasures
offered by the Paradise Dance Hall were "like a chandelier
[which]
flooded the world with brief deceptive rainbows." Notice also that
the
scarf given as a souvenir by Malvolio the Magician is rainbowcolored.
In the end, what is it that keeps Laura embedded in Tom's memory?
Shop
windows, "filled with pieces of colored glass... like bits
of
shattered
rainbow."
Tom associates images of Laura with candlelight. To rid himself
of
the haunting memories of his sister, he implores Laura to "blow
out
your candles." At the same time Tom may be urging Laura out of
her
dimly lit past. Her world of candlelight and little glass animals
will
no longer do, for "nowadays the world is lit by
lightning."
5. FAILURE AND THE MYTH OF
SUCCESS
Amanda believes in several common myths about money, success,
and
working hard. She thinks that money, for example, buys happiness.
If
she had only married one of those rich gentlemen
callers....
Then, too, she admires sophisticated society, the "horsey
set"
portrayed in the magazine stories she
sells.
Success, in her view, comes from hard work and from saving
your
money for the future. Amanda is convinced that Tom will
be
successful if he tries hard. Laura will also succeed if she
learns
to type. Plan for the future, Amanda advises. Make provisions and
save
money. To Tom's dismay, she calculates how much money he could save
if
he stopped smoking. With his savings he could enroll in
an
accounting course at the
university.
Jim O'Connor also chases a dream. He tries to sell Tom "a bill
of
goods" about success, for he's already bought one that says if
you
work hard, take the right courses, show self-assurance, and believe
in
the future of capitalism you'll make it big. But Jim has made
little
progress since high school, and with the war coming on, the path
to
success is likely to be
detoured.
The personal failure of all the characters in the play in
some
ways parallels the larger social failure of America. The
Depression
turned millions of American dreams into nightmares. And the only
way
out was no better. It took a catastrophic war to release the
country
from poverty and
fear.
GLASS_MENAGERIE|
STYLE
STYLE
(WGLASTYL)
Almost from the outset you know that The Glass Menagerie is going
to
be a poetic play. Your first clue is Tom's playful use of words.
Tom
announces, "He gives you illusion that has the appearance of
truth.
I give you truth in the pleasant disguise of illusion." He also
uses
metaphors ("the middle class of America was matriculating in
a
school for the blind"), and his language is often alliterative as
in
"fingers pressed forcibly down on the fiery Braille...." But in
case
you missed all that, Tom declares outright, "I have a
poet's
weakness for
symbols."
It is not only Tom who endows the play with poetry. Amanda
also
has a gift for words. She's especially fond of colorful,
figurative
language. You'll find some in almost all her lengthy speeches, as
in
her lecture to Laura about the hopelessness of the future (Scene
Two):
"-stuck away in some little mousetrap of a room... like birdlike
women
without any nest- eating the crust of
humility...."
Because Tennessee Williams had his own mother in mind when
he
created Amanda, he tried to make her sound like a dignified
Southern
lady. (Her lines ought to be spoken with a Southern drawl.)
Nothing
tasteless or vulgar passes her lips. She often uses the sort
of
flowery language you'd expect to hear on a veranda in the Old
South:
"liquid refreshment" for drink, "position" instead of job,
and
"handsome appearance" rather than good
looks.
In addition, Amanda wants to impose her taste in words on
her
children. She rejects Tom's books as "filth." Also, because she
thinks
the word "cripple" is offensive, she won't permit Laura to use
it.
Of course Amanda may deny the word because she refuses to
allow
Laura to pity
herself.
As you study the play some of the symbols, such as Laura's
glass
menagerie, will virtually explain themselves. You can't miss
the
similarity between the delicate glass animals and Laura's
fragility.
On the other hand, you'll have to dig a little to find
symbolic
meaning in, say, the breaking of the unicorn. At first Jim is a
unique
hero. But he turns out to be quite ordinary, after all, just as
the
broken unicorn resembles an ordinary horse. Similarly, during
the
evening of Jim's visit Laura emerges briefly from her makebelieve
world into the world of real people leading ordinary
lives.
Symbols come in a variety of forms in The Glass Menagerie. You
can
readily assign symbolic importance to objects (e.g.,
candles,
rainbows, typewriter chart) and to actions (Laura's tripping on
the
fire escape, Tom's moviegoing). Tom describes Jim O'Connor as
a
symbolic character who represents deferred hopes for the
future.
Many of the images projected on the screen suggest deeper
meanings,
too. Take, for example, "Jolly Roger" (Tom's desire for adventure)
and
"Annunciation" (the news that Jim is coming to dinner). Perhaps
the
whole play, acted out behind transparent screens and dimly
lit,
symbolizes the workings of memory. As you search through the
text
for symbols you're not likely to come up empty handed. But
guard
against turning everything into a symbol. You need to support
your
interpretations with solid evidence from the
play.
GLASS_MENAGERIE|
VIEW
POINT OF VIEW
(WGLAVIEW)
-
Tom is both a character in the play and the play's narrator.
At
the very beginning and at several points along the way Tom,
as
narrator, stands on the fire escape outside the
Wingfields'
apartment and addresses you directly. He tells you about a period
of
time- about three or four years ago- when he broke away from
his
mother and sister and became a wanderer. He also sets the
scene,
establishes the mood, comments on the world situation, and gives
you
background
information.
You know how hard it sometimes is to remember details of events
that
happened only yesterday? Tom knows, too, that you can't
always
depend on your memory. So rather than trying to re-create
precisely
what took place several years ago, he presents the
story
unrealistically. At dinner, for example, the characters don't use
real
dishes and utensils. They pretend to be eating. And if the
actors
are good, the illusion is quite
satisfactory.
"Memory," the playwright tells you in his stage directions, "takes
a
lot of poetic license" because it is "seated predominantly in
the
heart." Consider Williams' words a fair warning that what you see
on
stage is only approximately what happened in reality. Every
event
has been filtered by time and by Tom's feelings. Amanda's nagging
is
supposed to irritate you, just as it irritates Tom. If at any time
you
find Laura particularly lovely or especially helpless,
consider
those impressions to be Tom's, too. In short, Tom is your
emotional
guide through the
play.
You may notice that Tom's vision extends even beyond what
he
actually saw or experienced. Some scenes include only Laura and
Amanda
or Jim O'Connor. Since Tom can't know exactly what happened when
he
wasn't there, he invents dialogue and action and shows you
what
might have occurred. Is that a flaw in the
play?
When people look back to the past, do they recall the good
things
more readily than the bad? Does Tom? Or do his memories seem
more
bitter than sweet? Or are his recollections flavored by both?
Tom
often speaks ironically. Note how he describes Amanda on the
phone
in Scene Three. Is Tom's humor biting? Or do you find it
gentle,
touched by nostalgia? Tom calls the play "sentimental," which
suggests
Tennessee Williams'
intentions.
GLASS_MENAGERIE|
FORM
FORM AND STRUCTURE
(WGLAFORM)
The play has seven scenes. The first four take place over a
few
days' time during the winter season. The remaining scenes occur on
two
successive evenings during the following spring. Since the
play
contains no formal "acts," a director can prescribe an intermission
at
any time. How would you divide the play if you were directing
a
performance? In formulating your answer take into account
the
passage of time, climactic moments in the play, and the development
of
the characters. Why do you suppose Williams chose not to tell
you
where to break the
action?
Williams attempted to unify the several episodes by devising
a
series of projected images and words on a screen, but most
directors
don't bother using the technique. The story, they feel, can
stand
unaided, despite repeated jumps between present and
past.
Tom, the narrator, exists in the present. He talks directly to
the
audience at the start of the play, at the openings of Scenes Three
and
Six, and again at the end. Also, he steps briefly into
the
narrator's shoes part way through Scene
Five.
The rest of the time Tom is a character in the play. Even at
those
times, however, your focus is shifted to the past. Amanda,
for
example, frequently recalls her life as a young girl, and Laura
and
Jim refer to their high school days, which ended six years
before.
Because the play comes from Tom's memory, time loses its
usual
sequence and structure in The Glass Menagerie. In your
memory,
thoughts can bounce at will between the recent and distant
past.
That may explain the play's flow of events. During most of the
play
Tom's memory is fastened to the period just before he leaves
home.
Each episode in the play helps to explain why in the end Tom had
no
choice but to escape. If you examine his closing speech,
however,
you'll see whether or not he truly
escaped.
GLASS_MENAGERIE|
SCENE_I
THE PLAY
(WGLAPLAY)
SCENE
ONE
Tennessee Williams gives you a lengthy set of stage directions
at
the start. He wants you to see the run-down tenement where
the
Wingfield family lives, and he wants to create a mood that
combines
dinginess, desperation and depression. After you are familiar with
the
play, return to the opening scene and reexamine Williams' choice
of
details: the fire escape, the alley, the blown-up photo of smiling
Mr.
Wingfield, and the typewriter keyboard chart. All, you will
see,
play important roles somewhere in The Glass
Menagerie.
When Tom steps out on the fire escape to talk to the audience,
he
tells you the social background of the play (the 1930's).
He
introduces himself and the play's other characters, including
his
father. Although Mr. Wingfield shows up only in his photograph,
he's
an influential character in the play. Later on you'll see
why.
By the end of Tom's opening speech you know a great deal
about
him. From his appearance you know he is a merchant sailor. You
know,
too, that he has a way with words and a "poet's weakness for
symbols."
His first words- "Yes, I have tricks in my pocket"- alert you to
his
playful disposition. He's going to trick you by giving you truth
in
the guise of illusion. That is, he's going to tell you a true
story
but make it seem unreal. Illusions, you'll soon see, pile up one
after
the other as the play
proceeds.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: ON ILLUSION The very nature of theater depends on
illusion.
When you watch a play you make believe that the actors on stage
are
the characters they portray. The better the acting, the more
easily
you accept the illusion. Here Tom forewarns you that the play
is
unreal. The characters, setting, props, effects, and so on are
not
meant to be real but rather to serve as metaphors and symbols
of
reality.
While illusion is part of any play, it is particularly vital in
this
one. Illusion, in fact, is a major theme. The characters
survive
because their illusions protect them from the painful facts of
their
lives. As you continue, keep in mind that illusions can prove to
be
self-destructive as well as helpful. Do the Wingfields'
illusions
create damage, or are they merely harmless aspects of
their
personalities?
--------------------------------------------------------------------The very first "trick" Tom has in store is a quick change
in
identity. In a moment, he leaves his role as narrator and as a
younger
man walks into the Wingfield dining room to join his mother Amanda
and
sister Laura at
supper.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Tom shifts between his role as narrator and his role as
a
character several times during the play. As narrator Tom moves
the
story from one episode to the next, informs you about himself
and
his family, and describes the social and political context of
the
play. Try to compare Tom's personality in his two roles. The
narration
takes place years after the story's events occurred. Do you
notice
differences between the two Toms? Which do you prefer? Think of
what
might have happened to him between the time he left his family and
the
time he comes back to tell his
story.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Tom wishes he hadn't sat down, for no sooner does he start to
eat
than Amanda begins to lecture him on the need to chew his
food
properly. If you've ever been scolded about your table manners,
you
know how Tom feels. His mother gives advice kindly, but Tom
can't
stand it. He bolts from the table and reaches for a cigarette.
But
Amanda doesn't like Tom's smoking any more than his
chewing.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: ON STAGING THE PLAY Tom's cigarette is probably imagery,
just
like the knives and forks. Remember, the play is not supposed to
be
realistic. Still another unrealistic feature is the use of legends
and
images projected on a screen. The legend which preceded this
dinner
scene reads "Ou sont les neiges," a phrase from an old French
poem
which asks, "Where are the snows of yesteryear?" The answer,
of
course, is "gone," just as the past is always gone. This
legend
lends an element of nostalgia to your feelings for
Amanda.
Throughout the play you will find other phrases and pictures. What,
if
anything, do they add to the play? Some critics have said they
detract
from the drama. Do you
agree?
--------------------------------------------------------------------Laura offers to bring in the dessert. Is she being helpful or
does
she simply want to avoid listening to her mother nag Tom?
Either
way, Amanda stops Laura and says she'll play the "darky," a
word
that gives you a clue to Amanda's origins. She's from the
South.
From the kitchen, Amanda begins to tell her children about
the
gentlemen callers she had as a girl in Blue Mountain. You can
tell
from Tom and Laura's reaction that they've heard the story
before.
Laura listens politely. Tom, on the other hand, is skeptical
and
impatient. Their reactions are important clues to
their
personalities and to the roles they play in the family. Because
the
facts of the tale change from time to time, Tom teases Amanda
and
utters sarcastic comments. He doesn't believe a word she
says.
Does Amanda herself believe the story she's fond of telling?
Does
she really think that seventeen wealthy young admirers came to call
on
her one Sunday afternoon in Blue Mountain? You'll see later in
the
play that Amanda often twists truths. Does that mean she's a liar?
She
doesn't deceive anyone, and she's not out to harm anyone with
her
inventions. In fact, her intent is quite admirable, for she wants
to
help Laura find romance in her life. Many think that she deserves
a
pat on the back for her efforts. Tom, however, rejects
Amanda's
fantasy.
GLASS_MENAGERIE|
SCENE_II
SCENE
TWO
Alone in the apartment, Laura washes and polishes her
glass
collection. At the sound of her mother's footsteps outside,
Laura
hurriedly stows her menagerie and pretends to study the typing
chart
on the wall. Why doesn't she want to be caught caring for her
glass
animals? At the instant of Amanda's entrance, Laura starts
to
explain that she was just studying the chart. But as though she
sees
right through the pretense, Amanda says, "Deception? Deception?"
But
it's another deception that Amanda has in
mind.
She acts brokenhearted, weeping and lamenting as though a
terrible
tragedy has occurred. She makes the most of this opportunity to
play
the role of betrayed mother. She is so melodramatic that you
can't
take her too seriously. She even yanks the typing chart from
the
wall and tears it into pieces. Meanwhile, Laura behaves as
though
she can't possibly imagine what has kindled Amanda's dismay. Laura
may
well suspect the origin of the trouble, however. For weeks
she's
been skipping her typing classes at Rubicam's Business
College.
Sure enough, Amanda has found out. Typing seems like a
fairly
harmless course, but not for one as fragile as Laura. The
pressure
made her so sick that she threw up at the school. Then, instead
of
telling her mother, she has wandered the city each day until it
was
time to come home. For Laura it was easier to visit the zoo or
the
park than to reveal the truth and see that "awful suffering look"
of
disappointment on her mother's face. Does Laura's story
sound
plausible? While it explains her truancy, does it excuse
her
deception?
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: ON THEMES Have you noticed that two interrelated
themesdeception
and illusion- have just appeared? They will show
up
repeatedly in numerous variations throughout the play. You should
have
no trouble spotting
them.
In this scene both Amanda and Laura have practiced
deception,
pretending to be what they are not: Laura posed as a student
of
typing, and Amanda as a mother crushed by her daughter's
betrayal.
True, Amanda is wounded by Laura, but not to the extent she
claims.
Any time Amanda meets hard unpleasant facts, she's likely to
be
hurt. Perhaps that's why she often makes up illusions.
Pretending
keeps painful truths at arm's
length.
For now, Amanda is caught in the illusion that Laura's problems
will
be solved by a typing course. Would you agree that learning to
type
seems like an effective way to solve Laura's problems? Laura
herself
doesn't seem to think so. She acts as though it's perfectly okay
to
play with her menagerie instead of working. She chooses to walk in
the
park instead of owning up to failure. When Laura says "I couldn't
face
it," she analyzes her condition accurately. She truly cannot
face
reality. And when Amanda discovers the truth about Laura, she
has
the urge to "find a hole in the ground and hide myself in it
forever!"
--------------------------------------------------------------------Laura apparently fails to share her mother's concern about
the
future. She never talks about it, and despite Amanda's warnings,
she
does nothing to prepare for it. Laura seems almost like a
small
child in that
respect.
Compared to Laura, Amanda is almost a realist. Experience has
taught
her that unless you earn a living you will inevitably depend on
others
all your life, eating the "crust of humility." Amanda asks
Laura,
"Is that the future we've mapped out for
ourselves?"
The only choice left, of course, is marriage. Perhaps Amanda
has
considered it and discarded the notion for Laura. Remember that
her
own marriage turned out badly. What would Laura do if she,
like
Amanda, ended up with a runaway husband? Also, as far as we
know,
Laura has never had a
date.
Regardless, Amanda's spirits are revived by the thought of
Laura's
marriage. Since Laura isn't cut out for a business career, she'll
have
to marry a nice young man. Laura objects: "I'm- crippled!"
But
Amanda won't hear it. She doesn't even want Laura to say the
word.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Does Laura have a point? Is she truly "crippled"? She
limps
just slightly. Would you say that she is more psychologically
than
physically crippled? What do you know about her thus far to
suggest
that she'll always have a hard time functioning in the
world?
Amanda cringes at the word "crippled." She told Laura never to
use
the word. Perhaps Amanda believes in the power of words. That is,
if
you tell a lie often enough, after a while you begin to believe it.
In
what respects does this saying seem to be valid in The
Glass
Menagerie?
--------------------------------------------------------------------GLASS_MENAGERIE|
SCENE_III
SCENE
THREE
Tom returns as narrator to tell you about Amanda's
obsession:
finding a nice young man to marry Laura. If you have ever
known
someone with a one-track mind you can appreciate what Amanda must
have
been like at the time. She even took a part-time job
selling
magazine subscriptions by telephone to earn extra money for redoing
both Laura and the apartment. Amanda is a woman of action as well
as
words.
While Tom doesn't object to his mother's frantic activities,
he
doesn't support them either. Rather, he thinks they are amusing.
At
least he seems to poke gentle fun at Amanda's efforts. But do you
note
an ache in Tom's recollection of Amanda on the telephone with
Ida
Scott? He remembers how pathetically Amanda tried to
ingratiate
herself with a customer who obviously didn't care. Rather than
admit
to his pain, Tom recalls the situation with bitter humor. Like
many
people who demonstrate a talent for laughter when their emotions
are
stirred, Tom may laugh to keep from crying. What does Tom's
attitude
reveal about his deepest feelings toward his
mother?
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: As you continue with the play you'll have numerous
chances
to laugh at comical lines (mostly Tom's) and situations. Some of
the
humor may be pure, unadulterated fun. But some of it may strike you
as
humorous only until you realize that the words or actions grow
out
of the characters' desperation. Would Amanda, for instance, find
humor
in Tom's rendition of her quest to find Laura a
husband?
---------------------------------------------------------------------
When Tom steps back into his role in the play, you find
him
embroiled in a shouting match with his mother. Evidently, she
has
interrupted him at his writing and has criticized the books
he
reads. "I won't allow such filth brought into my house!"
screams
Amanda. Tom won't permit Amanda to claim their apartment as
"my
house," for his salary pays the rent. Consider Tom's reasoning.
Does
the fact that he is the family breadwinner give him the right
to
disregard his mother's
wishes?
The fury between mother and son intensifies. Tom is about to
curse
at his mother and rush out the door. Laura desperately calls
out:
"Tom!" At the sound of her voice, the shouting diminishes. Tom, now
in
control of his passion, talks intensely to Amanda about how he
hates
the life he
leads.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: ON LAURA Do you find yourself taking sides in the
fight
between Amanda and Tom? You're not given much choice when
the
antagonists are a bossy, narrow-minded woman and her
selfish,
irresponsible son. Since Tom and Amanda will fight to a draw
anyway,
pay attention to Laura's role in the conflict. Isn't she, after
all,
the reason that Tom and Amanda fight? If there were no Laura,
Tom
would probably have moved out of the house long ago, and
Amanda
would have no one to worry about but herself. As in all families,
each
member has a particular function. In the Wingfield household,
Laura
serves as peacemaker. You'll see her step between Tom and
Amanda
several more times in the
play.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Tom's catalog of grievances includes a miserable job at
the
Continental Shoemakers warehouse. He also hates living in
this
wretched little apartment where he has a nagging mother, no
privacy,
and nothing to call his own. He feels like a slave to his job
and
family. Every morning when Amanda's piercing "Rise and shine!"
awakens
him, he'd prefer to be dead. No, he's not selfish, Tom replies
to
Amanda's accusation. If he were, he'd be like his fathergone!
Does Amanda lack compassion for her own son? It may seem so
at
times. Perhaps fear of the future and anxiety for Laura blind her
to
Tom's problems. All she can think of is that Tom's erratic
and
irresponsible behavior jeopardizes her security as well as
Laura's.
Since both she and Laura depend on Tom for life's necessities,
does
she have a good reason to be apprehensive? How would you feel
about
depending on Tom for your
livelihood?
As Tom starts to leave again, Amanda grabs at him. "Where are
you
going?"
"I'm going to the movies!" he replies
brutally.
She calls him a liar, an accusation which launches him into
a
semi-tragic, semi-comic list of his nightly sins. Although you
can
find humor in Tom's speech, you may also be struck by the
bitterness
of his words. Although his speech is one of the funniest moments
in
the play, its tone is bitter and sarcastic. Tom concludes by
calling
Amanda an "ugly- babbling oldwitch...."
As he rushes from the apartment, his arm gets caught in the
sleeve
of his bulky coat. Impatiently, he hurls the coat away. It strikes
the
shelf holding Laura's menagerie, shattering the glass animals.
Laura
is stunned. When you consider how highly Laura values her
menagerie,
its wreckage probably marks a turning point in her life. But
how
sharply she might change remains to be seen. Do you think she
has
the capacity to change very
much?
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: You have seen that all the characters feel trapped by
the
circumstances of their lives. Since people naturally seek
freedom,
each has figured out a way to escape, at least temporarily:
Amanda
uses her illusions, Laura retires to her glass collection, Tom goes
to
the movies. How well each of these escape mechanisms works
becomes
clear in the next few scenes. Pay particular heed to Laura. See if
the
breaking of the glass menagerie sets her free from her illusory
world.
On the other hand, the damage to the glass could have the
reverse
effect. That is, it could shatter her inner
peace.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
Deeply hurt, Amanda calls after Tom, "I won't speak to youuntil
you
apologize."
GLASS_MENAGERIE|
SCENE_IV
SCENE
FOUR
Slightly drunk, Tom returns to the apartment at five in the
morning.
Laura opens the door for him. Last night, Tom explains, he went to
the
movie theater. The stage show featured Malvolio the Magician.
(In
those days, when you went to the movies, you were offered a full
range
of entertainment. Movies were often accompanied by live
performances.)
Malvolio performed tricks of illusion that had the appearance
of
truth: turning water to wine, then to beer, then to whiskey. But
the
best trick was Malvolio's escape from a nailed up coffin. Tom
says
bitterly, "There is a trick that would come in handy for me- get
me
out of this two-by-four
situation."
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Tom's references to magic and illusions should call to
mind
the opening of Scene One. You have already observed several
examples
of deception and illusion in the characters' actions. Stay alert
for
more in the scenes
ahead.
Tom's allusion to his trap- his "two-by-four situation"reveals
that escape is never far from his thoughts. Would it have startled
you
to learn that Tom had taken permanent leave from home last night
after
his blow-up with Amanda? He had a tailor-made opportunity to go,
but
here he is, back again. Why did he come back? What might it take
to
drive him off for
good?
--------------------------------------------------------------------After you hear the six o'clock church bells, Amanda starts
her
day. Although she's still angry about last night, she unleashes
a
few "rise and shines" in Tom's direction, but she won't talk to
her
son. Laura, the peacemaker, tries without luck to get Tom to
apologize
to Amanda. What do you suppose prevents him from making
up?
Soon Amanda sends Laura on an errand to the deli. Laura
objects,
however. She is afraid to face the scowling deli man when she asks
for
credit. But she goes, and then slips on the fire escape on her
way
out.
10}
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: ON SYMBOLISM It may seem like a trivial incident, but
Laura's
stumble shouldn't be ignored. Why did the playwright have
her
stumble on the fire escape? Symbolically, it could suggest
the
perils of entering the real
world.
Some readers object to the search for symbolic meaning in
every
action or word. Be assured, however, that symbolism in The
Glass
Menagerie is not accidental. Tennessee Williams stated at the
outset
that the play is full of symbols, but ultimately you're the one
who
must decide whether to take his statement at face value. You
needn't
seek symbols in every line of dialogue and each piece of
stage
business. But if you uncover symbolic treasures as you
continue,
studying the play may be that much richer an experience for
you.
In this scene thus far you might consider the potential symbolism
in
Tom's rainbow-colored scarf, and the illumination of Mr.
Wingfield's
photograph. You'll soon be hearing the strains of "Ave Maria,"
perhaps
reminding you that Amanda resembles a suffering madonna when she
is
deeply disappointed by her
children.
--------------------------------------------------------------------As soon as Tom apologizes, you see the gradual return of the
old
Amanda. First she bemoans her fate and then plays the role of a
hurt
and troubled mother: "My devotion has made me a witch and so I
make
myself hateful to my children." What can Tom possibly say in
reply,
especially after he has just
apologized?
Amanda doesn't give up easily. She wants to discuss Tom's
drinking
and moviegoing again, hoping that Tom will see the
connection
between his habits and his sister's future. Tom explains
that
because he's restless for adventure, he goes to the movies.
Amanda
asserts that most men find adventure in their careers. Of
all
people, though, Amanda knows how comforting a short flight
into
illusion can be. So she accepts, somewhat reluctantly, Tom's
reasons
for his nightly escape. Instead of trying futilely to restrain
him,
Amanda makes a deal with him. She will not hold him back if,
in
return, he provides a man for
Laura.
Tom has been manipulated by Amanda, but he doesn't seem to
mind.
He probably views the deal as a small price to pay for freedom.
As
he goes off to work, he agrees to bring home a friend from
the
warehouse.
GLASS_MENAGERIE|
SCENE_V
SCENE
V
Winter has surrendered to spring. The legend projected on the
screen
reads "Annunciation," suggesting that in this scene an announcement
of
some note will be
made.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: The "Annunciation" refers to the biblical account of the
angel
Gabriel's announcement to the Virgin Mary that she was to bear the
son
of God. The annunciation in this scene may not seem quite as
momentous
as the original, but to Amanda it is almost as important, as
you
will see. Also, the feast of the Annunciation is celebrated on
March
25, so the legend on the screen helps to note the arrival of
spring.
--------------------------------------------------------------------The months have not altered Amanda. She still badgers Tom
and
laments his lack of ambition. She's still hoping that Tom
will
settle down, and find contentment as a CPA. Tired of the
nagging,
Tom retreats to the fire escape, where, as narrator again,
he
addresses the
audience.
He observes life outside the Wingfield apartment. Every
evening,
young couples used to come to the Paradise Dance Hall to while
away
hours dancing or kissing in the adjacent alley. That, Tom says,
was
their form of escape from dull, dreary
lives.
Little did these young people know that change was approaching
in
the form of war. Many of them would be killed fighting the
Nazis.
But in their innocence, they danced to the music of "The World
is
Waiting for the Sunrise." As Tom comments, the wait was really
for
"bombardments."
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Tom names people and places associated with the coming
of
World War II. Berchtesgaden = Hitler's mountain
headquarters.
Chamberlain = British prime minister blamed for failing to
stop
Hitler's march across Europe. Guernica = a Spanish town destroyed
by
the fascists in 1937 and which became a symbol for
atrocities
against innocent people. Pablo Picasso's "Guernica"
painting,
depicting the horrors of war, is world
famous.
--------------------------------------------------------------------On this warm spring evening Amanda joins Tom on the fire
escape.
While talking with Tom, she sounds much like a young girl
flirting
with a gentleman caller on the plantation porch. Tom uses
the
opportunity to give Amanda the news she's been wanting to hear
for
many months. He has invited a young man, Jim O'Connor, to
dinnertomorrow!
Amanda is ecstatic, of course, but also very
businesslike,
thinking of what has to be done to prepare for the guest. Her
mind
races through the list of chores: do the laundry, polish the
silver,
put up fresh curtains, plan the menu. She quizzes Tom about Jim's
job,
background, and looks. She wants to know especially if he
drinks.
Jim would not be right for Laura if he were a drinking man.
Although
she's just heard of the invitation, Amanda speaks of Jim as
Laura's
future husband, as a man with family responsibilities. Amanda
has
probably imagined this moment so often, has anticipated every
detail
of the courtship, that the news merely triggers the plan into
action.
Tom tries to yank Amanda back to reality. He hasn't told Jim
about
Laura's existence. The invitation was casual, not couched in
terms
of "don't you want to meet my sister?" Furthermore, Tom
reminds
Amanda, Laura is not one to make an instant good impression.
She's
peculiar, living "in a world of her own- a world of little
glass
ornaments... She plays old phonograph records and- that's about
all."
Tom's accurate description of Laura troubles Amanda. But it's only
a
temporary setback. She has too much invested in her illusion to
be
waylaid by the
truth.
GLASS_MENAGERIE|
SCENE_VI
SCENE
SIX
You're soon to meet Jim O'Connor, the man designated by Amanda
to
rescue Laura from a life of dependency. Early in his narration,
Tom
called Jim a symbolic figure- "the long-delayed but always
expected
something that we live for." At the start of this scene Tom
tells
you about the real Jim
O'Connor:
Tom recalls that Jim was the most revered student at Soldan
High
School- popular, talented, athletic- the kind everyone envies.
You
suspect, too, that Jim is the high school hero Laura liked
years
ago. But the real world failed to treat Jim as kindly as the
world
of school. Six years after graduation, he holds only a modest job
at
the Continental Shoemakers warehouse. Because Tom remembered
the
days of Jim's triumphs, Jim valued Tom's friendship. He also
nicknamed
Tom "Shakespeare" for his habit of writing poetry in the
warehouse
bathroom during slow
hours.
Jim's arrival approaches. Amanda has brightened up the
apartment
overnight. Laura wears a new dress. The stage directions say that
a
"fragile, unearthly prettiness has come out in Laura: she is like
a
piece of translucent glass touched by light, given a
momentary
radiance, not actual, not lasting." Do you find the last few
phrases
of that description ominous? Is Laura's prettiness an
illusion?
Amanda intends to snare the unsuspecting Mr. O'Connor. The
final
touch is her own "spectacular appearance." She dons the same
party
dress that she wore as a girl- the one she wore the day she met
her
future husband. The garment is totally out of place in a St.
Louis
tenement, but to Amanda, for the time being, the apartment
could
just as well be a mansion in Mississippi on the night of
the
Governor's Ball. Can there be any doubt that Amanda has attempted
to
re-create a piece of her own youth? If Laura can't win Mr.
O'Connor
with her lovely fragility, Amanda intends to overwhelm him with
charm.
Amanda has kept Jim's name from Laura until now, just a
few
minutes before her prospective beau is due to arrive. Another
little
deception, Amanda? Laura is horrified by the revelation.
She's
overcome with fright and claims to feel sick. She refuses to
open
the door when the knock comes. Instead, she darts to the
record
player, her safe haven. But Amanda forces her to let Jim
in.
Jim acknowledges Laura, but hardly notices her. He's too involved
in
telling Tom about a public speaking course he's taking. Jim is
also
intent on advising Tom to shape up at the warehouse. The
boss
disapproves of Tom's work and has talked about firing
him.
The warning doesn't trouble Tom. Rather, he almost welcomes
it
because he knows that he has completed his side of the bargain
with
Amanda. He tells Jim that he's ready to quit the job anyway. He's
even
tired of the vicarious thrills he gets in the movies. He
wants
firsthand excitement now. Tom shows Jim a Union of Merchant
Seamen
card, which he bought with money that he should have used to pay
the
light bill. Jim, however, dismisses Tom's revelations as hot
air.
Could it be that Jim doesn't believe his friend, or that he
doesn't
understand
him?
Presently Amanda, oozing charm, joins the two young men.
Her
appearance shocks Tom. Even Jim is taken aback slightly. Amanda
must
think that talking nonstop is the best way to impress Jim. She
plunges
ahead at full throttle, skipping from topic to topic at random.
This
is Amanda in her prime, entertaining a flock of gentleman callers
in
Blue
Mountain.
Tom is embarrassed, but Jim, after his initial shock, is won
over.
He nods and smiles at Amanda's monologue, and during the
remainder
of the scene says literally only one single
word.
Meanwhile Laura remains terror stricken in the kitchen.
Her
illness is not feigned. Fear has brought on a fever. Amanda
explains
to Jim that Laura became ill standing over a hot stove. Tom
helps
Laura into the living room to lie
down.
GLASS_MENAGERIE|
SCENE_VII
SCENE
SEVEN
Although Laura lies huddled on the couch all through
dinner,
Amanda remains cheerful. She's so high spirited that you'd
think
that Jim was invited to dinner for her and not for
Laura.
No sooner does the scene start than the lights go out. Tom,
you've
heard, has not paid the light bill, and the electric company
has
chosen this moment to cut off the power. Can you imagine what
Amanda
might say about Tom's failure to pay the bill if Jim weren't
present?
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: ON "LIGHT" You have seen numerous references to lights of
all
kinds throughout the play: moon, lightbulbs, match flame,
candlelight,
torch, lightning. If moonlight conventionally symbolizes romance,
what
could lightning represent? Could it be the harsh light of
reality?
When Tom remarks that "nowadays the world is lit by lightning"
he
seems to be referring to war. Since a courtship of sorts
dominates
this scene, you'll see many lights usually associated with
romance:
candles, moonlight, and so forth. The abrupt loss of
electricity,
while reminding you that you can't ignore the reality of paying
your
bills, also provides a convenient reason for using candles
to
illuminate this "love" scene between Jim and Laura. At the
same
time, though, keep in mind that the whole play is dimly lit
to
represent
memory.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
Amanda manages to remain charming despite the stress she
must
feel. But even as she banters with Jim, you'll hear hints
of
seriousness. In a few sentences of apparently light
conversation,
she mentions the "mysterious universe," the "high price
for
negligence," and "everlasting darkness." Perhaps these phrases
have
been included to prepare you for things to come in the
play,
although you should guard against reading something too ominous
into
the
words.
Finally, Amanda sends Jim into the living room to keep
Laura
company. To light his way, she gives him an old candelabrum, a
relic
from the burned-down Church of the Heavenly
Rest.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: ON CHRISTIAN REFERENCE Are you tempted to seek a
symbolic
meaning in the church candelabrum? This isn't the first reference
to
religion in the play, but it comes at a crucial moment. Amanda
may
view Jim as a "savior" of sorts as he goes to talk to Laura.
Could
that be the reason she equips him with a holy object? Jim as
a
Christ figure may be hard for you to accept. Nevertheless, he has
been
summoned to save Laura. And don't ignore the fact that earlier
in
the play Amanda plans fish for dinner because Jim is Irish
Catholic.
Fish, you may know, is a traditional symbol for
Christ.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
We're about to find out if Amanda's carefully laid plan- or
would
you prefer to call it a trap?- will work as she hopes. Jim sits
down
with Laura and talks with her warmly. Frightened and breathless
as
usual, Laura
listens.
Jim dominates the conversation. He's friendly and self
assured.
Maybe he's practicing what he learned in his courses on how to
be
successful. His monologue may remind you of Amanda's
behavior
earlier in the evening. Is he trying to win Laura's admiration as
he
was won over by
Amanda?
Jim obviously likes to talk about himself. Laura is just
the
opposite. As soon as Jim swings the topic of conversation to
Laura's
shyness, notice how nimbly Laura tosses the ball back to
Jim.
Laura raises the subject of Jim's singing. It's her way of
reminding
him that they've met before. As they talk, memories of high
school
come flooding back. Jim remembers that he called Laura "Blue Roses,"
a
name that rhymes with pleurosis, an ailment that kept Laura out
of
school for a time. The name fits somehow, even six years
later,
because a blue rose, like Laura, is "different," set apart
from
others. If you ever see a blue rose, you can bet it's one of a
kind.
Laura steers the conversation to Jim's triumphant high
school
career. When she hands him their high school yearbook (notice
its
name: The Torch!), Jim accepts it "reverently." To Jim, the book
is
a precious record of his past
glory.
Although he delights in recalling the past, Jim keeps his eye on
the
present. (Remember, Tom labelled Jim "an emissary from the world
of
reality.") He confesses to Laura that he hasn't yet accomplished
all
that he once hoped to. Jim's willingness to talk openly
emboldens
Laura. She asks about Jim's high school sweetheart. The news that
he
dropped her long ago sends Laura's insides into a
tumult.
Instinctively, she reaches for her glass menagerie, her haven in
times
of
stress.
Laura wouldn't think of Jim as her "savior" in the
religious
sense. Yet, he shows the zeal of a missionary in his effort
to
redeem Laura from lifelong feelings of inferiority. Notice his
long,
sermon-like speeches about the proper way to lead one's Life.
Christ
taught many moral lessons through example. In his preaching, Jim
cites
his own actions to illustrate selfconfidence.
Will Jim actually rescue Laura from misery? If you think
so,
you're seeing Jim through rose-colored glasses, the way Amanda
and
Laura do. On the other hand, if Jim strikes you as just an
ordinary
fellow out for a pleasant evening, you're probably more
realistic
about him. Look closely at his behavior. Does he truly intend
to
change Laura? Or does he brag a bit only to boost his own
ego?
His advice to Laura could just as well be delivered to himself.
It
heightens still more his desire to keep striving for success.
He's
even moved to sing the praises of American
democracy.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Jim's vision of American democracy is cloudy. It's based
on
his naive belief that a young person with the right connections
and
a few night school courses in executive behavior will zoom to
the
top of the corporate ladder. But how many young people achieve
success
that way? Jim's plan sounds like an obsolete success myth- that is,
an
illusion. In addition, Jim ignores the approach of World War II,
a
real event which postponed or upset virtually every American's
plans
for the
future.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Jim takes a polite interest in Laura's glass collection. Observe
how
respectfully Jim accepts Laura's fantasy about her unicorn. A
less
sensitive person might ridicule Laura's notion that the unicorn
"loves
the light," but not Jim. He's more appreciative than she could
wish.
Then he asks Laura to dance. You have to admire him, for who
would
have thought that anyone could ever get Laura to dance?
While
dancing they bump the table. The unicorn falls to the floor.
Its
horn has broken off. Now it's like all the other
horses.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: The symbolism of the unicorn's breakage is as transparent
as
the glass itself. But that doesn't make it any less poignant
or
effective. Without its horn, the unicorn is no longer unique.
During
the evening Laura has broken out of her world of unreality.
She,
too, has become less "freakish." It's a significant moment in
the
play.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Jim blames himself for the mishap, but Laura seems not to mind
at
all. How much Laura has changed! Recall that earlier in the play
she
had been distraught when Tom knocked the menagerie shelf to the
floor.
Jim is struck by Laura's graceful good humor as well as by
her
uniqueness. Suddenly, he's overcome by emotions he can't control.
He
is tongue tied. He can't think of anything better to do than
kiss
Laura on the
lips.
Jim immediately realizes his mistake. He shouldn't have led
her
on. Gently, he breaks the news to Laura that he won't be calling
again
because he's engaged to Betty. Laura is speechless with shock.
As
Tennessee Williams writes, "The holy candles on the altar of
Laura's
face have been snuffed out." Jim asks Laura to speak, but she
can't.
Instead, she gives him the broken glass unicorn as a souvenir.
A
souvenir of what? Of a happy evening? Maybe a token of
appreciation
for his attempt to help her overcome her problem? Or does she
intend
to make him feel
guilty?
Do you blame Jim for withholding the information about
his
engagement? Was it wrong for Jim to lead Laura on under
false
pretenses? Or is he perfectly justified in doing so because he
had
been invited to dinner only for the purpose of meeting Laura?
You
might sympathize with him for being a victim of his own
conflicting
emotions. Perhaps he would like to love Laura, but he
feels
compelled to hold back because she doesn't fit the mold of
a
business executive's
wife.
Amanda chooses this moment to serve lemonade. As bubbly as
before,
she encounters a tense and somber situation in the living room.
Her
gaiety makes the news of Jim's engagement all the more shocking.
In
a moment, Jim is out the door. Not only has Jim failed to be
Laura's
knight in shining armor, but he hasn't even been an
eligible
candidate.
While the evening may not have been a disaster for Laura, it
has
been for Amanda. She casts about for someone to blame. She won't
blame
herself, of course, although you might argue that she should
have
known the risks of investing so much in one evening. Tom,
therefore,
has to be responsible. Amanda's temper rises. She accuses Tom
of
deliberate deception, of living in a dream world and
manufacturing
illusions. Do you see that Amanda could just as easily be
talking
about herself? In this instance there may be truth in the old
idea
that we dislike in others what we dislike about
ourselves.
Tom refuses to take the blame. It was an innocent mistake,
he
claims, but Amanda refuses to accept such an excuse. Tom knows
his
mother well enough to realize he has no hope of dissuading her,
so
he immediately sets off for the movies. But, as you'll see, he
goes
much farther. He has fulfilled his obligation at home and can do
no
more. As he leaves, Amanda shouts after him, "Go to the moonyou
selfish
dreamer!"
Do you share Amanda's judgment that Tom is a selfish dreamer?
You
may also appreciate Tom's desperation and his need to do what
every
young person must do at some point in life: break from home and
find
one's own identity and place in the
world.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Tom leaves the apartment in a rage, but he doesn't leave
St.
Louis until he is fired from his job. If you could look into
Tom's
head you might find considerable confusion. He wants to leave
home,
but it's difficult to do so. He also may realize that he could fail
to
find his dream out in the world. To guard against assuming
total
responsibility for possible failure, he waits until he is fired.
As
a result, he can blame his boss instead of himself in case things
turn
out badly. Tom, like his mother, needs a
scapegoat.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Tom's closing speech reviews his wanderings since he left St.
Louis.
Does he believe that he made the right choice to follow his
father's
footsteps? Did he find the adventure he sought in the merchant
navy?
Tom declares that "cities swept about me like dead leaves... torn
from
the branches." Does the statement suggest that world travel
suited
him?
Why did Tom apparently fail to find the romance he craved?
Has
life so embittered him that he can't ever be saved from selfpity
and sullenness? Or is he guilt ridden over deserting his mother
and
sister? Still another possibility is that Tom was doomed to
chase
rainbows. Adventure, romance, excitement- that's what you see in
the
movies. To pursue them in real life amounts to self-deception,
for
they are often as elusive as
illusions.
Tom can't shake loose his memories of the past. Images of
Laura
haunt him. His emotional ties to the past may stretch, but
they
never break. Do you think we are all held captive by our past or
is
Tom a special case? In the last moment of the play Laura blows out
her
candles, casting the stage into total darkness. Williams has devised
a
dramatic ending to the play, but the action also suggests that Tom
has
finally rid himself of Laura's memory. Why he should suddenly
be
able to do so, however, is not totally clear. Perhaps the
war,
symbolized by lightning, has changed everything, including the way
men
think.
GLASS_MENAGERIE|
TEST
A STEP
BEYOND
TEST AND ANSWERS
(WGLATEST)
TEST
_____ 1. Amanda frequently talks about her husband because
she
A. still loves him in spite of the fact that he
deserted
her
B. fears that Tom will turn out to be like
him
C. wants her children to know their family
heritage
_____ 2. The setting of The Glass Menagerie is unrealistic
because
I. it exists only in Tom's
imagination
II. it is intended to be
symbolic
III. Tom's memory of the details has
faded
A. I, II, and
III
B. I and III
only
C. II and III
only
_____ 3. Amanda recalls the gentlemen callers of the past
whenever
A. the present becomes too painful to
bear
B. she wants to impress others with her social
background
C. Tom insults
her
_____ 4. Laura usually listens to her mother's stories of
Blue
Mountain because
she
A. enjoys hearing
them
B. wants Amanda to enjoy recalling her
girlhood
C. expects to learn how to be
popular
_____ 5. Tom goes to the movies
to
I. get away from
Amanda
II. find
adventure
III. compensate for the boredom of his
life
A. I, II and
III
B. I and II
only
C. II and III
only
_____ 6. Amanda and Tom get into an argument
over
A. Tom's reading
habits
B.
money
C. Tom's indifference to
Laura
_____ 7. Tom chooses to invite Jim O'Connor to meet Laura
because
A. Jim and Laura knew each other in high
school
B. he can't think of anyone
else
C. he owes Jim a
favor
_____ 8. The Paradise Dance Hall contributes to the play as
a
I. symbol for temporary and illusory
happiness
II. sign of the neighborhood's run-down
condition
III. source of background
music
A. I and III
only
B. II and III
only
C. I, II, and
III
_____ 9. Laura gives Jim the broken unicorn
because
A. she doesn't want him to forget
her
B. she's grateful for his
kindness
C. she wants him to have a wedding
gift
_____ 10. Tom refers to cities as "dead leaves"
because
A. they have no meaning to
him
B. they have been destroyed by World War
II
C. Laura is not with
him
11. Why is The Glass Menagerie an appropriate title for this
play?
-
12. Does this play have a villain?
Explain.
13. To what extent is Tom responsible for his "two-byfour
situation"?
14. Laura recalls how self-conscious she felt in high school
while
"clumping up the aisle." How would you explain Jim's response
that
he "never even
noticed"?
15. Which characters, if any, are better off at the end of
the
play than they were at the
beginning?
ANSWERS
1. B 2. C 3. A 4. B 5. A 6. A 7.
B
8. C 9. B 10.
A
11. Begin by assuming that the title is appropriate. The
menagerie
itself belongs to Laura and symbolizes her fragility. But since
the
collection gives the play its title, Laura's animals
probably
signify more. Think about the menagerie's other qualities. The
animals
are not real, for example; they are copies. One piece, the
unicorn,
doesn't even represent a real animal. Remember that the menagerie
is
not made of window glass. When you look through the little
glass
figures, everything appears
distorted.
Additional qualities of the glass menagerie may occur to you:
For
instance, think of what glass does to light (makes rainbows),
where
the collection is located (on a shelf), and how it helps
Laura
escape from
reality.
Can you describe Amanda and her family in similar terms? Are
the
Wingfields hardy, realistic people or are they apt to break easily?
Do
they view the world clearly and rationally? Do they lead
"unreal"
lives?
You might review the parts of this Book Notes which
discuss
character, setting and themes. In those sections you'll find
more
similarities between the glass menagerie and other aspects of
the
play. The more examples you cite, the more firmly you can
assert
that the title fits the play very
snugly.
12. Not every work of literature has a villain, so start by
defining
the term. The definition will shape your
answer.
The usual concept of a villain is someone (or something)
whose
deliberate actions bring harm to others. Most literary villains
may
have redeeming qualities, but readers ordinarily disapprove
of
villains. Using this definition, you may decide everyone in
The
Glass Menagerie has some villainous qualities. Tom, Laura, and
Jim
cause Amanda grief and worry. Amanda makes Tom suffer. Jim
raises
Laura's hopes and then dashes them. Tom selfishly abandons his
family.
You might search beyond the characters to find your villain. Look
to
the circumstances of their lives. You could reasonably blame
the
social context for the plight of the Wingfields and Jim O'Connor.
To
support this position, read the numerous accounts of the time
(the
1930's) and the place (St. Louis tenement) in the stage directions
and
in Tom's
narration.
13. If you believe that Tom ought to bear responsibility for his
own
situation, try to show that he has deliberately chosen a
dull,
dead-end job. Also show that he purposely provokes Amanda and
that
he's too unimaginative and lazy to leave his rut. For example,
you
could argue that if Tom seriously aimed to be a poet, he should
stay
home and write rather than go to the movies every
night.
Of course, Tom wouldn't be Tom if he did that, so you might
conclude
that Tom is partly a victim of circumstances. He thinks he can
get
himself out of his two-by-four situation, but he won't make
the
move- not until the end of the play. Family responsibility keeps
him
from breaking away. Also, his vision is limited. Another
person
might change his life without leaving home. But Tom thinks that
the
only way to change is by cutting his ties to Amanda and
Laura.
A third choice- that Tom is trapped through no fault of his
owninvites
you to analyze Tom's personality and conditions of
his
family life. Tom has no choice about working. He's been stuck as
the
family breadwinner since his father left. During the
Depression,
people rarely quit jobs because new ones were hard to get. Also,
Tom's
conscience keeps him from walking out on his family. And regardless
of
his caged-in feeling, he loves Laura too much to leave her in
the
lurch.
14. This question calls for an exploration of Jim's past and
present
personality. How do you interpret Jim's response to Laura? Yes, Jim
is
polite. He takes pains to avoid wounding her. Further, his effort
to
boost her self-confidence will fail if he allows her to
feel
self-pity. So even if he had noticed her "clumping," is he likely
to
acknowledge it? Certainly he can be forgiven his little white
lie.
Perhaps more to the point, though, is that he may be telling
Laura
the truth. Perhaps he didn't notice her clumping. Think of the sort
of
person Jim was in high school. He was blinded by his own
glitter.
Surrounded by admirers and absorbed by self-importance, would
he
have noticed Laura? Perhaps he is destined always to be saying,
"I
never even
noticed."
Another interpretation: Laura's was a relatively mild defect
and,
like a roaring in one's ears, was really noticeable only to Laura.
She
made too much of it while others, even if they were aware of it
at
first, were ready to overlook
it.
15. To some extent the four characters remain unchanged at the
end
of the play. Amanda continues to relive her youth, Laura still
has
no prospects for an independent future, Jim keeps pursuing
elusive
success, and Tom remains unfulfilled in his quest for adventure.
In
fact, you might argue that some characters are worse off. Laura,
for
one, after tasting a few moments of happiness may feel more
hopeless
than
before.
On the other hand, if any character has realized something
about
life or about himself, that person has grown in some way.
Consider
Amanda. In the final scene she has "dignity and tragic beauty."
You
couldn't have described her that way at the start of the play.
What
has happened to her in the
interim?
While Laura still has no suitor when the play ends, she has had
a
modest social triumph, however short-lived. Might the
experience
propel her out of her
shell?
Tom could never be happy at home. Although he hasn't found
the
adventure he yearned for, is he better off for having
tried?
Finally, Jim. There's little evidence to show that he was better
off
after his visit than before. However, his ego may have been boosted
by
Laura's admiration. Perhaps he has also become more sensitive to
other
people's
feelings.
GLASS_MENAGERIE|
TERM_PAPER_IDEAS
TERM PAPER IDEAS AND OTHER TOPICS FOR WRITING
(WGLATERM)
-
CHARACTER
STUDIES
1. What gives Tom the sense that he's in a "two-by-four"
situation?
2. What are the apparent causes of Laura's removal from
reality?
What are the probable hidden
causes?
3. If Tom were to write home after he leaves, what would he say
to
Amanda? To
Laura?
4. If the play were in the memory of a character other than Tom,
how
would the play be
different?
5. Who is the hero of the play? What evidence can you offer
to
support your
opinion?
6. What are Amanda's strengths and failings as a
mother?
SYMBOLISM IN THE
PLAY
1. Are the symbols for each character
appropriate?
2. How do the play's symbols relate to its
themes?
3. Compare and contrast symbolism in The Glass Menagerie with
that
in A Streetcar Named
Desire.
THE PLAY AND ITS
MEANINGS
1. How do the unconventional, anti-realistic production
techniques
contribute to the play's
meanings?
2. In which ways does "memory" contribute to the mood of the
play?
3. Is the ending of the play optimistic or pessimistic?
Explain.
4. Discuss whether Tom's predicament is common or
extraordinary.
5. What are the uses of illusion in everyday life? Do the
play's
characters use illusions in an unusual
way?
6. To what degree is the play
autobiographical?
STREETCAR|
PLOT
A STREETCAR NAMED
DESIRE
THE
PLAY
THE PLOT
(WSTRPLOT)
Imagine a delicate white moth flitting about a heap of garbage
in
a cinder lot. That's approximately the feeling created by the sight
of
Blanche DuBois arriving in Elysian Fields to visit her sister
Stella
and brother-in-law Stanley Kowalski. Blanche not only looks out
of
place, she acts that way, too. Refinement and good breeding show
in
all she says and does, at least until her mask is stripped away bit
by
bit.
Blanche teaches high school English in Laurel, Mississippi.
She
needs a place to stay while recovering from a nervous
breakdown.
Stella agrees to accommodate Blanche, at least for a while, but
she
cautions Blanche that the apartment is tiny and that Stanley isn't
the
sort of man Blanche may be used to. He's rough and undignified.
But
Stella adores him despite his crude
manner.
Soon after arriving, Blanche reveals that Belle Reve, the old
family
plantation in Laurel, has been lost to creditors. Blanche blames
her
sister for leaving home years ago while she was forced to stay
on
and watch all the residents of Belle Reve die off one by
one.
The loss of Belle Reve troubles Stanley. He distrusts Blanche
and
accuses her of having sold the plantation to buy furs and jewels.
When
Blanche denies wrongdoing, Stanley ransacks her belongings looking
for
a bill of sale. He tears open a packet of letters and poems written
by
Blanche's husband, who committed suicide years ago. Stella
tries
unsuccessfully to protect her fragile sister from Stanley's
fury.
That night Blanche and Stella go to the movies while Stanley and
his
friends play poker and drink. When they return, Blanche
is
introduced to Mitch, whose courteous manner sets him apart
from
Stanley's other friends. She charms Mitch easily and begins to
flirt
with him. Upset that the poker game has been interrupted,
Stanley
explodes in a drunken rage. He hurls a radio out the window and
he
strikes Stella. Spurred by Stanley's assault on his pregnant wife,
his
friends drag him into the shower. Meanwhile, Stella and Blanche
escape
upstairs to a friend's
apartment.
Dripping wet, Stanley emerges into the street. Like an animal
crying
for his mate, he keeps calling Stella until she comes down
and
allows herself to be carried off to bed. Later Mitch returns
and
apologizes to Blanche for Stanley's coarse
behavior.
Blanche is disgusted by Stanley's barbarity and would like to
leave,
but she has nowhere else to go. She invents a story about a
rich
friend named Shep Huntleigh who might give her refuge. She tries
to
persuade Stella to flee with her. However, Stella rebuffs
Blanche
and pledges love for Stanley regardless of how brutally he treats
her.
Mitch, a lonesome man in search of a wife, begins to date
Blanche.
But Stanley has acquired some information about her that
would
probably destroy the relationship. Stanley has learned that
Blanche
was an infamous whore back in Laurel. Blanche denies it, but
soon
after, when Blanche flirts with a newsboy, you realize
that
Stanley's assertion may be
true.
Mitch talks of marriage. Blanche discloses the tragic story of
her
earlier marriage to Allan, who turned out to be a homosexual.
When
Blanche rejected him, Allan took his own life. Now Blanche can't
erase
from her mind the image of his bloody corpse or the sound of the
fatal
gunshot. Profoundly moved, Mitch embraces
Blanche.
Stanley, meanwhile, has learned that Blanche hasn't taken a
leave
from her teaching job. Rather, she has been fired because
she
seduced one of her students. In addition, she was told to leave
Laurel
because night after night she entertained soldiers from a
nearby
army
base.
Stanley tells Mitch about Blanche's past. As Stella prepares
a
birthday party for her sister, Stanley tells her, too. Shocked,
Stella
pleads with Stanley to be gentle with Blanche. But Stanley
presents
Blanche with a cruel birthday present- a one-way bus ticket back
to
Laurel. Stella rebukes Stanley for his heartlessness, but he
reminds
her that their marriage had liberated her from a life of
phony
gentility. Suddenly Stella feels labor pains and Stanley rushes her
to
the
hospital.
That evening Mitch visits Blanche. He is highly agitated and
tells
her what Stanley has said. She pleads for understanding
by
confessing that she had been intimate with men in order to fill
her
emptiness after Allan's suicide. Her tale arouses Mitch. He
wants
the sex that she's dispensed to others. He starts to assault
her,
but she repels him by shouting "Fire!" out the
window.
Late that night Stanley returns to find Blanche dressed in
fine
traveling clothes. She informs Stanley that Shep Huntleigh has
invited
her on a cruise and that Mitch had apologized for not coming to
her
birthday party. Stanley bluntly calls her a liar. He wants to
prove
that he hasn't been fooled by her lies. He approaches her
seductively.
She tries to stop him with a bottle, but too weak to resist,
she
collapses at his feet. Stanley picks her up, then carries her off
to
be
raped.
Weeks later Stella is packing Blanche's belongings. Blanche
thinks
that she's going to the country for a rest, but in truth, Blanche
is
being committed to a mental hospital. Stella doesn't know if
she's
doing the right thing. In order to preserve her marriage,
however,
Stella has decided to dismiss the story of the rape as just another
of
Blanche's
fictions.
While dressing, Blanche talks of cruises and romantic
adventures
with Shep Huntleigh. Shortly, Stella leads Blanche out to meet
the
doctor and nurse from the hospital. Blanche balks at the sight
of
them. The nurse begins to overpower her with a straitjacket. But
the
doctor intervenes. He talks kindly to Blanche, as though he is
the
gentleman caller she's been expecting. Calmed by the
doctor's
gentleness, Blanche takes his arm and walks to the waiting
ambulance.
STREETCAR|
CHARACTERS
THE CHARACTERS
(WSTRCHAR)
BLANCHE
DUBOIS
Blanche is an English teacher, but she's one of a kind.
You'd
never forget her if you took her course. Shortly before the
play
begins, Blanche has lost her job. She wasn't fired for poor
teaching
skills, however. The superintendent's letter said Blanche was
"morally
unfit for her position." That's probably a fair evaluation of
a
teacher who seduced one of the seventeen-year-old boys in her
class.
Also, Blanche's sexual exploits so outraged the citizens of
Laurel,
Mississippi, that they practically threw her out of
town.
You don't know all these facts about Blanche until late in the
play.
At first, she seems to be just a high-strung, but refined, woman
who
has come to New Orleans to pay her sister a visit. But as the
play
unfolds, you see Blanche's past revealed bit by bit. At the end she
is
undone, fit only for an asylum. Nevertheless, you never see
her
humbled by defeat. She maintains ladylike dignity even after
being
raped. Perhaps she's not as crazy as she appears. In fact, there
might
be places where she would not be regarded insane at
all.
As an ambiguous character Blanche may arouse both compassion
and
disapproval simultaneously. She is often regarded as a symbol of
a
decaying way of life engaged in a losing struggle against
modern
commercialism. She came to Elysian Fields seeking love and help,
but
she found hostility and rejection. She has been scarred by
her
husband's suicide and by the loss of her ancestral home. She's
reached
a stage of life when she can no longer depend on her good looks
to
attract a man. Is it any wonder that she flirts and prefers
dimly
lit
places?
To compensate for loneliness and despair, she creates
illusions,
much like Amanda Wingfield in The Glass Menagerie. Also like
Amanda,
Blanche clings to the manners and speech of dying
Southern
gentility. Pretending is important to her. It makes her
feel
special. She says that deception is half of a lady's charm.
She
calls it "magic." Unfortunately, though, she is caught in
a
situation with Stanley Kowalski, who not only abhors her
superior
airs, but seems bent on destroying her for them. Why Stanley
finds
Blanche such a threat is worth thinking
about.
Some people consider Blanche not a tragic victim but an
immoral
woman who deserves what she gets. Blanche tells so many lies
that
she herself can't remember them all. Some lies may be harmless,
but
others are destructive. For example, Mitch is crushed by
her
untruthfulness.
Because of her past- town whore, liar, sexual deviate- you may
agree
with critics who say that Blanche is an object of derisiontoo
degenerate to be taken seriously. On the other hand, her past
behavior
can be explained and maybe even defended. If you appreciate what
has
happened to her in life, you can understand why she acts the way
she
does.
In the end you may see Blanche as an advocate of civilized
values.
She alone speaks up for the nobility of humanity, for its
achievements
in the arts, for progress made by civilization. Are you struck
by
the irony of having uplifting words come from the mouth of
an
ex-prostitute? It is odd perhaps, but remember that Blanche
often
confuses truth and illusion. Perhaps Williams may be implying
that
society's most illustrious accomplishments are illusions, too,
and
that the brutish Stanley more accurately represents our true
nature.
STANLEY
KOWALSKI
You always know where you stand with Stanley. He speaks
plainly,
he never hides his feelings, and he hates affectations of any
kind.
Yet in some respects he is a mystery. Why is he so intent
on
destroying Blanche? What makes him so aggressive? What was he
like
as a young man? How did he get to meet and court Stella? How does
a
man as animal-like as Stanley succeed as a traveling representative
of
his company? In short, is there more to Stanley than meets the
eye?
You can only speculate. But sparse as the evidence is, you know
he's
a sturdy man of Polish descent, who likes to drink, play poker,
and
bowl. His greatest pleasure is sex. He also has a violent streak.
He
strikes Stella, hurls a radio out the window, throws dishes,
shouts,
and in uncontrollable fury, he rapes
Blanche.
Yet, because of the actor Marlon Brando's original
interpretation,
Stanley is a brute with surprising appeal. Brando set the
standard,
making it difficult for later actors to reshape the role.
Stanley
can make you laugh at his earthy wit. His frankness is
refreshing.
There's no doubt about the power of his personality. He's always
going
to extremes, from his adoration of Stella to his selfcentered
pleasures.
Stanley's efforts to ruin Blanche reveal still other dimensions
of
his personality. Blanche not only interferes with his sex life,
she
attempts to lure Stella away from him. So his hatred of Blanche
is
quick and unrelenting. Perhaps you can respect Stanley for trying
to
defend his cave, but must he also destroy the intruder? Do
you
ravage a person merely for getting under your skin and cramping
your
style? Has Blanche really done anything to provoke Stanley's
venom?
Did she rob him of Belle Reve as he believes? Do Blanche's
insults
stir his hatred? What about Blanche's pretenses and perpetual
lying?
Perhaps Stanley just can't tolerate the thought of being
taken
advantage of. If that's the case, he may mean no harm; he merely
wants
to protect his fragile ego and his way of
life.
A further explanation of Stanley's malice toward Blanche may
lie
in the fact that they are a man and a woman. As a virile hunk of
man
Stanley is used to having his way with women. Blanche won't give
him
his way. But his discovery that she's been a whore is his ticket
to
tear away her pretenses, rape her, and bring her down to his
level
once and for
all.
STELLA
KOWALSKI
If you didn't know that Blanche and Stella were sisters, could
you
guess that they were related? Both have a refinement that the
other
residents of Elysian Fields lack. They grew up together at Belle
Reve.
After the sisters reached adulthood Stella left for New Orleans,
where
she met and married
Stanley.
What Stella might have become without Stanley is anybody's
guess.
She might have turned out like Blanche, trying futilely to
maintain
appearances and lying her way through life. Perhaps she would still
be
tied to the shabby gentility of the Old South because who
but
Stanley would have "pulled [her] down off them columns" on
the
plantation?
Stella is an unlikely mate for her brutal husband. She's a
gentle
woman of about twenty-five, level-headed and affectionate. Sex
and
bowling are the only interests she shares with him. When he
plays
poker, she goes to the movies. She accepts his tantrums, his
abuses,
and his coarse manners, perhaps the price she pays for
having
Stanley as a husband and a sex
partner.
Stella seems to have the patience of a saint. When Blanche
insults
her, Stella often listens unperturbed, as though she is
insensitive.
But wouldn't you expect Stella to be hurt by Blanche's
patronizing
judgments? Why doesn't Stella fight back more often? Does
she
decline to defend herself because she has no ground for a
defense,
or could there be something else holding her back? Is
Blanche's
criticism too close to the painful truth? As Blanche berates
her
little sister, an unconscious hostility may be building inside
Stella,
something that may have begun years ago when the sisters were
young.
At the end of the play, when Stella commits Blanche to an
asylum,
you might regard Stella's action as her ultimate expression
of
antagonism toward her older
sister.
Of course Stella may send Blanche away for her own good. She
may
prefer to believe that Blanche is insane rather than face the
truth
about Stanley. In effect, Stella chooses to sacrifice her
sister
rather than to destroy her marriage. Actually, it's
uncertain
whether Stella knows that Stanley raped Blanche. If she knows
and
closes her eyes to the fact, however, she is probably behaving true
to
form. Stella has learned a useful lesson from her older sister- how
to
deceive oneself to avoid coping with painful
reality.
HAROLD MITCHELL
("MITCH")
When Blanche meets Mitch, she is ready to turn her life
around.
Ordinarily, Blanche might have her eye out for a rich and
courtly
gentleman like the legendary Shep Huntleigh. Now she settles
for
Mitch, a good-hearted and honest fellow, but also a rather dull
and
self-conscious
one.
Why is Blanche drawn to him? Obviously, it's not his
awkward
manner or stumbling speech that attracts her. Nor is it his
short
supply of intellect, money, wit, or looks. She is struck by
his
courtesy. He is the first person to treat her like a lady since
her
arrival in New Orleans. Second, he is an unmarried man. And
his
sense of propriety, in contrast to the other men in
Stanley's
poker-playing crowd of slobs, makes him stand out like a prince.
He
also happens to be lonely and is looking for someone to
love.
Mitch is enthralled by Blanche the moment he sees her. She
is
clearly more refined, charming and intelligent than the women
he's
used to. He knows that his mother would approve. That's important
to
him. You rarely hear Mitch speak without mentioning his
mother.
Blanche would be a good substitute for his mother. Blanche
dominates
Mitch, too, practically leading him around on a leash. He won't
even
kiss her without
permission.
When you consider their personalities, what are the prospects
for
a successful match between Blanche and
Mitch?
Stanley's revelations about Blanche's past put an end to
the
relationship. You don't see Mitch when he hears the truth
about
Blanche, but you can imagine his grief and
shock.
EUNICE
HUBBELL
The Hubbells own the building where the Kowalskis rent
the
first-floor apartment. Eunice and her husband live upstairs.
Eunice
pries into the daily lives of Stella and Stanley. You might call
her
nosy, or to be kind, neighborly. She probably deserves
kindness
because, like a big sister, she helps Stella in times of distress.
For
example, she gives refuge to Stella whenever Stanley goes on
a
rampage. The sounds that come from the Hubbells' apartment add
to
the jungle-like ambience of Elysian Fields and reveal that
fighting
and lovemaking are not restricted to the street floor of the
building.
Eunice's comment to Stella about the rape of Blanche illustrates
how
Eunice, whose instincts are generally tender, has come to terms
with
the unspeakable vulgarity around her: "Don't ever believe it. Life
has
got to go on. No matter what happens, you've got to keep on
going."
STEVE
HUBBELL
Steve is one of Stanley's poker and drinking cronies.
Like
Stanley, he is crass and inelegant. He fights with his wife
Eunice,
throws dishes at her, and later, comes crawling back to
her
apologetically.
PABLO
GONZALES
Pablo is the fourth member of Stanley's card-playing gang.
Like
the others, he is slovenly in mind and
body.
A YOUNG
COLLECTOR
When he comes to collect for the newspaper he gets a kiss
from
Blanche instead of his fee. Blanche's encounter with the boy
calls
to mind two other boys in her experience: her young husband and
the
student in her English class whom she
seduced.
NURSE AND
DOCTOR
They come to accompany Blanche to the asylum. The nurse,
or
matron, is just about to stuff Blanche into a straitjacket when
the
doctor, recognizing that a gentle hand is needed, steps in.
Blanche
rewards the doctor with
thanks.
STREETCAR|
SETTING
OTHER
ELEMENTS
SETTING
(WSTRSETT)
Streetcar arrived on the stage in 1947. But don't assume that
the
story takes place in that year. Think of the story unfolding
from
May to September of any year you choose. It's true that Stanley
and
Mitch were army buddies in World War Two, but they could just
as
well be veterans of Vietnam or any other
war.
The entire drama is played out on a single set. The street
called
Elysian Fields crosses the front of the stage. Through the
transparent
front wall of a shabby two-story structure, you see Stanley
and
Stella's flat, two rooms separated by a curtain. Beyond
the
apartment's rear wall, also transparent, you see the French Quarter
of
New
Orleans.
Williams may have wanted you to feel that the drama enacted in
the
Kowalskis' flat was merely an extension of life in the city, and so
he
specified see-through walls in his stage directions. Outside
you
find railroad yards, a big water tank, empty lots and river
docksin
short, nothing pretty or natural. In the characters you see
another
kind of ugliness: meanness, lying, hatred and more.
Another
possibility is that the transparent walls symbolize Williams'
approach
to the people in the play. It's not that you know them inside
and
out by the time the play ends, but that the characters' actions
invite
you to probe the inner workings of their hearts and
minds.
Throughout the play you hear the sounds of the city. The tinny
music
of a "Blue Piano," suggesting sadness and lost love, recurs in
several
scenes. In addition, trains roar, radios blare, couples fight and
make
love. Windows and doors are kept open all summer, blurring
the
distinction between inside and outside. Stanley and his friends
seem
to have erased that distinction from their lives, too. Like animals
in
heat, they lack inhibition. Stanley especially lets it all hang
out.
He says whatever he thinks, regardless of the
consequences.
If you know New Orleans you know the French Quarter. It's
an
historic section of the city, a hive of narrow streets,
alleyways,
markets, coffee-houses, honky-tonks and shops of all kinds. It's
known
for its quaint charm. Elaborate wrought-iron balconies laced
with
flowers extend from the facades of numerous buildings. Some of
the
residents may live in squalor, but they put up a pretty front. In
a
sense, they may remind you of Blanche
DuBois.
STREETCAR|
THEMES
THEMES
(WSTRTHEM)
The following are themes of A Streetcar Named
Desire.
1. THE VICTORY OF THE
APES
One of Blanche's impassioned speeches to Stella depicts Stanley
as
an ape. It's true, there is something apelike about him. You see
his
primitive qualities from the first moment of the play, when he
comes
home lugging a package of bloody
meat.
Stay alert throughout the play for many allusions to the
subhuman
quality of life in Elysian Fields. Sometimes the place is described
as
a jungle. Shrieks and groans pierce the hot, humid air. Mitch
is
described as a bear, the women are called "hens." Stanley and
Stella
emit "low, animal
moans."
Blanche is the only champion for civilization in the play.
"Don't
hang back with the brutes!" she tells Stella. What conclusion can
be
drawn from the fact that the brutes ultimately destroy her?
Are
Blanche's values useless in a savage
world?
2.
LONELINESS
Loneliness is a fearful plague. Look at what it's done to
Blanche.
Bereft after her husband's suicide, she became a prostitute to
fill
her emptiness. She molests young boys and has constructed a web
of
pretense to delude herself and others that she is charming
and
sociable. She invents tales about her gentleman friend Shep
Huntleigh.
Whether he's a real or an imaginary person isn't important. He is
real
enough to comfort Blanche and to keep hope alive that someday
she'll
be rescued from
loneliness.
The pain of loneliness brings Blanche and Mitch together. No
doubt
Blanche prefers men of another stripe, but rather than remain a
lonely
spinster for the rest of her life, she's willing to put up with
him.
Mitch, too, hopes to find a woman to replace his mother, who will
soon
die.
3. INVENTING A BEAUTIFUL
PAST
When most of us glance back to the past, we wear rosecolored
glasses, and if the present is bleak, the past appears still
rosier.
In Streetcar, hardly a character is immune from visions of a
beautiful
past.
Blanche's manner and way of speaking suggest the sort of past
she
has lodged in her memory. You'd think she grew up in grandeur
and
gentility of the Old South, at least until you hear her tell
Stella
the history of Belle Reve's decline. Why does Stella recall
the
white-columned plantation with fondness? Would she have left the
place
at an early age if life there had been so attractive? The name
Belle
Reve (beautiful dream) indicates, perhaps, that both Blanche
and
Stella believe in an
illusion.
4. REALITY VS
ILLUSION
In symbolic terms, the conflict between Stanley and Blanche
pits
reality against illusion. What is reality? To Stanley reality
is
what you can touch and see. Stanley feels right at home in
realitythat
is, among real people, the kind who act natural and who
say
what they think and feel. Since a human is an animal, according
to
Stanley he ought to act like one. To put on airs, to deny
one's
instincts, to hide one's feelings- those are dishonest
acts.
No wonder Blanche rejects reality in favor of illusion.
Reality
has treated her unkindly. Too much truthfulness destroyed
her
marriage. Taking refuge in dreams and illusions, therefore,
she
plays a perpetual game of let's pretend. She says what ought to
be
true, not what is
true.
Stanley can't tolerate idealists like Blanche. What she
calls
"magic" Stanley calls "lies." Losing her way altogether at the
end
of the play, Blanche can no longer distinguish illusion
from
reality. So she goes to an asylum, the only place where
that
distinction doesn't make any
difference.
5. SEXUAL
VIOLENCE
The proverbial conflict between males and females has often
been
termed the "battle of the sexes." Sexual hostilities rage
throughout
the play. On one side you have Blanche, who is a veteran
of
considerable sexual give and take. She lures the newspaper boy
into
her arms, but thinks the better of it, and frees him after only
one
kiss. She wins Mitch's affection but claims "high ideals" to
keep
him at a distance. When Mitch discovers that he's been
hoodwinked,
he attempts to rape her. Blanche wards off the attack like
a
seasoned
warrior.
Only Stanley is unconquerable. He sees right through
Blanche's
sexual pretenses. At the end of his war with Blanche, he rapes
her,
proving that in sexual combat, he is the winner and still
champion.
STREETCAR|
STYLE
STYLE
(WSTRSTYL)
-
This play about people trapped in frightful conditions brims
with
poetry. A poem doesn't always need elegant words. In fact,
the
inelegant residents of Elysian Fields speak in the
blunt,
straight-forward idiom of common people. Only Blanche's manner
of
speaking soars above the ordinary. Figurative language
gushes
naturally from her lips. For example, she tells Mitch how
life's
joys have been extinguished: "And then the searchlight which
had
been turned on the world was turned off again and never for one
moment
since has there been any light that's stronger than thiskitchencandle...."
Why did Williams give Blanche the gift of poetic
speech?
Yes, she's an English teacher, but perhaps he had other
purposes.
How does her eloquence affect her relationship with Stanley,
for
instance?
You also find poetic language, rich with imagery, in Williams'
stage
directions: "The houses [of New Orleans] are mostly white
frame,
weathered grey, with rickety outside stairs and galleries and
quaintly
ornamented gables." To help create the mood of the play,
Williams
prescribes the sound of a "tinny piano being played with
the
infatuated fluency of brown fingers." To give you a sense of
the
character, he calls Stanley a "gaudy seed bearer" and a
"richly
feathered male bird among hens." Blanche's uncertain manner, as
well
as her white clothes, suggest "a
moth."
Apes, hens, a moth- Williams' images make up a menagerie. Why
does
the playwright repeatedly compare his characters to animals?
Does
Williams keep you mindful of the constant tension between
man's
civilized impulses and his beast-like
instincts?
The playwright may also be highlighting the symbolic clash
between
Stanley and Blanche. To be sure, Stanley stands for
primitivism.
Blanche speaks up for civilization. May she also represent
the
romantic traditions of the past? Don't be satisfied with only
those
interpretations of Stanley and Blanche. Try to extract
additional
symbolic meanings in the conflict between the play's
antagonists.
For example, what can you make of the fact that one is a dreamer
and
pretender, the other a
realist?
You're always sure to find carefully-chosen symbols in a
Williams
play. Even the names of people and places carry symbolic weight.
The
streetcars, "Desire" and "Cemetery," evoke among other
things,
Blanche's need for love and her fear of death. Other names
reveal
Williams' irony and humor: he assigns the name "Elysian Fields,"
a
paradise in ancient mythology, to a cheerless street in modern
New
Orleans. "Blanche" means white, the color signifying purity.
"Stella,"
the earthy sister, means star. And "Belle Reve," of course,
means
"beautiful
dream."
STREETCAR|
VIEW
POINT OF VIEW
(WSTRVIEW)
Unlike The Glass Menagerie, A Streetcar Named Desire has no
narrator
to tell you the story. No one comes between you and the
characters
on the stage. The story is presented as it is in most playsby
characters simply playing their parts. What the
characters
represent, how they interact, how they resolve conflicts all help
to
establish the playwright's point of
view.
In the script of the play Williams includes plenty of
material
that describes the set, the appearance of the characters, the
sound
and light needed to create moods and so forth. But he doesn't tell
you
how to view the characters: Is Blanche sane or insane? Does
Stanley
have redeeming qualities? Is it right for Stella to commit
Blanche
to an asylum? Although these are questions that Williams
probably
wants you to answer for yourself, he gives you his own bias
by
focusing the play on
Blanche.
Blanche stands apart as the central figure. Streetcar is
her
story, and you have a ringside seat to her private agony
and
disintegration. You never see anyone except Blanche on stage
alone.
Minor characters like the newsboy and the flower peddler
are
interesting only insofar as they touch Blanche. By the time the
play
ends you know Blanche better than any other character. You
probably
understand why she acts as she does and appreciate what has
happened
to her. That doesn't mean you cherish her. But you might
feel
compassion for her, as you might for anyone who has lost her
way.
How you feel about Blanche and how you interpret her actions
will
ultimately determine your views not only about the other
characters,
but about the themes and ideas conveyed by the play as a
whole.
STREETCAR|
FORM
FORM AND STRUCTURE
(WSTRFORM)
Most plays have acts. Streetcar doesn't. Rather it is divided
into
eleven scenes occurring in chronological order and taking
place
between May and
September.
In most productions of a play, you'll find intermissions
at
natural breaks in the action. In many productions of
Streetcar,
intermissions come after Stanley has won his first major
victory
over Blanche, at the end of Scene Four. A second break
sometimes
occurs when Scene Six concludes, after Blanche has won Mitch's
love.
Thus, the first third of the play ends with a defeat for
Blanche,
the second with a
triumph.
The last scenes follow Blanche's decline into permanent
defeather
insanity. You might observe a kind of rhythm in the action
of
the play, a pulsing series of episodes, which may explain why
Williams
chose to build the play using several short scenes instead of a
few
longer acts. There's a rhythm of conflict and
reconciliation:
Stanley and Stella have a row, then make up. Eunice and Steve
fight,
then make up. Blanche, as usual, is out of step with the others.
She
establishes a liaison with Mitch, which then breaks up. Perhaps
the
regularity of the pattern is meant to suggest vaguely the rhythm
of
passion, which reaches a climax in the rape scene. The
suggestion
becomes more plausible if you think of the play as a sexual
battle
between Stanley and
Blanche.
A Streetcar Named Desire is episodic. A drawing of the
play's
structure traces the conflict between Blanche and Stanley and
also
parallels the state of Blanche's emotional and mental
health.
(See
illustration.)
Scene 1: Blanche arrives in New Orleans, meets Stanley; each
takes
the other's measure. Blanche generally
optimistic.
Scene 2: Conflict over loss of Belle Reve. Blanche submits papers
to
Stanley.
Scene 3: Poker night. Blanche meets Mitch. Blanche hopeful about
the
future.
Scene 4: Blanche berates Stella. Stanley defeats Blanche
in
competition for Stella's
allegiance.
Scene 5: Blanche plans for future; she kisses newsboy. Blanche
hopes
that Mitch will provide
love.
Scene 6: Date with Mitch. Blanche wins Mitch's
love.
Scene 7: Preparation for party. Blanche in high
spirits.
Scene 8: Stanley gives Blanche bus ticket; Blanche
horrified.
Scene 9: Mitch visits Blanche, attempts rape. Blanche
distraught.
Scene 10: Stanley returns; rapes Blanche. Blanche
destroyed.
Scene 11: Blanche sent to insane
asylum.
STREETCAR|
SCENE_I
THE PLAY
(WSTRPLAY)
SCENE
ONE
At the start of A Streetcar Named Desire, Tennessee
Williams
paints a loving portrait of New
Orleans.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Williams spent several months in the city before writing
the
play. He lived in a flat overlooking the streetcar tracks where
one
car named Desire and another called Cemetery ran back and
forth
every day. Somehow the names of the streetcars and their
ceaseless
comings and goings struck his poetic mind with "having some
symbolic
bearing of a broad nature on the life in the [French Quarter]and
everywhere else, for that
matter...."
--------------------------------------------------------------------Like April in Paris, May in New Orleans is one of those
legendary
times of year. The air is warm but not yet thick with summer
heat.
Brilliant flowers sprout on sills and terraces. Open doors and
windows
blur the distinctions between sidewalk and living room. You
walk
down the street in the French Quarter and hear the sounds of a
jazz
piano and the voices of the people. The smells are sweet
from
cargoes of coffee and bananas in freighters along the
river.
Williams' affection for the place extends even to the rundown
section of town between the railroad tracks and the waterfront.
There,
you find a street named Elysian
Fields.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: The name comes from Greek myth. Elysium was a happy land,
a
paradise free from rain, snow, cold or misfortune of any kind.
When
you get further into the play you'll doubtlessly recognize the
irony
in Williams' choices of
names.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Stanley Kowalski comes on stage first, walking with his
friend
Mitch. He is a hulk of a man carrying a package of bloody
meat,
which he heaves to his wife Stella, standing on the first
floor
landing. Williams probably wants you to imagine Stanley as a
modern
caveman, returning to his mate with the kill for the day. Instead
of
wearing a leopard skin, however, he's carrying a bowling
jacket.
Stanley tells Stella that he's on his way to bowl and she,
his
faithful mate, follows him to the
alley.
Shortly after Stella leaves, Blanche DuBois, carrying a
suitcase,
hesitantly walks down Elysian Fields. From her gestures and
her
clothing you can tell instantly that she is a stranger. She Looks
as
though she ought to be headed for a summer tea party in the
garden
district instead of searching for the rickety, two-story
building
occupied by the
Kowalskis.
As soon as she speaks- to ask directions from Eunice Hubbell,
the
Kowalskis' upstairs neighbor- you can be sure that Blanche is
used
to more refined surroundings. Despite Blanche's doubts that
Stella
really lives in such a place, Eunice assures her that she's
found
the right address. When Blanche discloses she is Stella's
sister,
Eunice escorts Blanche into the apartment. Eunice wants to chat,
but
Blanche asks to be left alone, claiming to be tired from her
trip.
As she leaves, Eunice offers to tell Stella of Blanche's
arrival.
Until now you have no reason to doubt that Blanche is anything
other
than what you've observed and heard: a worn-out traveler
from
Mississippi where she teaches school and owns her family's
ancestral
home, Belle Reve, a large plantation with a white-columned
mansion.
As soon as Eunice goes out, however, you watch Blanche,
apparently
upset and nervous about something, find whiskey in a closet
and
quickly swallow half a glassful. Then she mutters to herself,
"I've
got to keep hold of
myself!"
Whatever has caused Blanche's agitation begins to unfold
soon
after Stella returns. Blanche chatters at a feverish pace. As
she
speaks, she reveals her unsettled emotional state. In just a
brief
dialogue with her sister, Blanche expresses affection, shock,
modesty,
concern for Stella, vanity, resentment, and uncertainty about
herself.
While almost every sentence reveals another dimension of
Blanche's
inner turbulence, the dialogue also illustrates the
relationship
between the
sisters.
Blanche explains that she has suffered a nervous breakdown and
has
therefore taken a leave from her teaching job in the middle of
the
term. Blanche then disparages Stella's messy apartment
and
reproaches Stella for gaining so much weight. (Blanche does not
know
that Stella is
pregnant.)
Stella almost apologizes for the size of her apartment. She
also
starts to prepare Blanche for meeting Stanley and his friends.
They're
not exactly the type of men Blanche is accustomed to. Perhaps
Stella
already realizes that Stanley and Blanche are not going to
get
along. They come from two different worlds. Since Stella
came
originally from the same landed gentry as Blanche, she somehow
must
have leapt across a social chasm, for now Stella worships
Stanley
despite his rough cut. She admits that much of his appeal is
sexual.
Blanche finally turns the conversation to news of home. She
fears
telling it, just as anyone might shrink, say, from bearing
the
grievous news of a loved one's death. Blanche announces that
Belle
Reve has been lost. Before Stella can ask why, Blanche launches into
a
passionate and morbid apology which assigns blame for the loss on
a
parade of sickness and death that marched through the family.
Every
death had to be paid for with a little piece of Belle Reve,
and
gradually the place just slipped away through Blanche's
fingers.
More shocked than angry, Stella says nothing. Blanche thinks
that
Stella doubts the story and cruelly lashes out at her sister:
"Yes,
accuse me! Sit there and stare at me, thinking I let the place go!
I
let the place go? Where were you! In bed with yourPolack!"
Blanche's attack on Stella suggests the intensity of her
feelings
about the loss. On the other hand, she could be covering up the
facts,
possibly to protect herself, possibly because she can't face
the
truth. Unable to accept responsibility, she may be casting blame
on
the dead people in her family and ultimately on her little sister,
all
characters, take note, without the capacity to defend
themselves.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: It takes a particularly skillful actress to play
Blanche.
She possesses many villainous qualities. In this scene you
have
observed her being cruel, bossy, hypocritical and dishonest.
Yet,
the actress who portrays her must preserve the goodwill of
the
audience. If you didn't like Blanche at least a little, her
struggle
with Stanley, which is about to begin, would be far less
compelling
than it
is.
--------------------------------------------------------------------When Stella runs to the bathroom in tears, Stanley and
friends,
Steve and Mitch, return from bowling and plan a poker game for
the
following evening. You see that Stanley easily lives up to
Stella's
description. He is crude and animal like, but he knows his
sexual
attractiveness and uses it
unsparingly.
Notice how Stanley treats Blanche during their first encounter.
Is
there any apparent reason for him to be nasty to her? Does he
simply
lack grace? Or has he just taken an instant dislike to
Blanche?
Perhaps her airs annoy him. Perhaps he can't tolerate
Blanche's
prattling about looking fresh and powdering her face. Because
Stella
has told him about her sister, Stanley may long ago have made up
his
mind to dislike her. It's also possible that Stanley, like an
animal
smelling danger, senses that Blanche may come between him and his
mate
in their small living
quarters.
Finally, when Stanley asks about her marriage, Blanche cannot
talk
about it with him. Is the subject too painful? Or does she
have
something to hide? You'll find out later, but for the moment,
she
feels too sick to
continue.
STREETCAR|
SCENE_II
SCENE
TWO
It's poker night at the Kowalskis. Stella plans to take Blanche
on
the town to get her out of the house while Stanley and his
cronies
drink beer and play for modest
stakes.
While Blanche soaks in the tub Stella urges Stanley to be kind
to
Blanche. Stanley ignores Stella's pleas. He wants to know more
about
the loss of Belle Reve. He can't understand that the place is
justgone!
He wants to see a bill of sale or papers of some kind to
confirm
Blanche's story. He cites the Napoleonic Code that says what
belongs
to the wife also belongs to the husband and vice versa. If
Belle
Reve is gone, it's his loss as well as
Stella's.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Stanley is right. Because the Louisiana Territory was owned
by
France before President Thomas Jefferson bought it for the
United
States, French civil law, the so-called Code Napoleon, was used
for
a long time to govern Louisiana's civil affairs. In the Code
you
find rules about inheritance and property. In recent years,
however,
the Code has gradually been superseded by new laws and
court
decisions.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Stanley suspects that Blanche used the money from Belle Reve to
deck
herself in furs and jewels and costly dresses. In defense
of
Blanche, Stella tells him that the furs are cheap and the jewelry
is
fake, but Stanley refuses to let the matter
rest.
Taking Blanche's side could not be easy for Stella, yet she
stands
up for her sister. She may believe Blanche's story. Or
perhaps
Blanche's nervous condition has aroused Stella's sympathy. In
either
case, Stella is caught in the middle. Before Blanche emerges
from
the bathroom, Stella escapes to the porch, leaving Stanley to
face
Blanche
alone.
Not suspecting what is in store, Blanche comes out of the
bathroom
and banters cheerfully with Stanley. She plays the role of
coquette,
flaunting her helplessness and fishing for compliments. But he is
wise
to her flirtatious antics, and she is not impressed with
his
brutishness. Considering his sexual power, he may also be
testing
the water. Does she have the strength to resist him? He probably
would
like to find
out.
Blanche could probably go on all day, but Stanley grows
impatient
with the chatter. Suddenly he booms out "Now let's cut the re-bop!"
He
wants to know the truth about Belle Reve. When he cites the
Napoleonic
Code to Blanche, she taunts him, "My, but you have an
impressive
judicial air!" She sprays him with perfume, teasing him some more.
Her
seductive manner drives him to say that he'd get the wrong ideas
about
her if she wasn't Stella's sister. The remark sobers her a little.
She
grants that while she may fib a little, she wouldn't lie
about
something as important as Belle Reve. She'll show the papers
to
Stanley if he wants to see
them.
Impatient for the papers, Stanley grabs for them inside
Blanche's
trunk. What he finds is a packet of love letters and poems
written
by Blanche's late husband, Allan. Blanche refers to her husband as
a
"boy." It's a curious usage. Blanche and he were married when
both
were very young. Allan died before he reached manhood. In
another
sense, Allan lacked the qualities to be considered a man in
the
fullest sense of the term. You'll find out why further in the play.
In
any event, Blanche treasures his letters and vows to burn them
now
that Stanley's hands have touched
them.
Finally, she hands Stanley a towering pack of legal papers that
span
the history of Belle Reve. This time, Blanche attributes the loss
of
the plantation not to the numerous deaths that occurred there,
but
to the "epic fornications" of generations of DuBois men. Stanley
is
befuddled by the mass of papers. Perhaps Blanche was telling the
truth
after all. He explains his interest in Stella's welfare,
especially
now that she's going to have a
baby.
The news of Stella's baby stirs Blanche. She rushes out to
find
Stella and to tell her that she and Stanley have settled
their
differences. Blanche brags that she conquered Stanley with wit and
a
bit of flirting. But you'll notice that her triumph over Stanley
is
mostly wishful thinking. If he were to retell what happened
during
this scene, the story would probably be a lot
different.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: You might think of A Streetcar Named Desire as a
modern
equivalent of a classic tragedy, in which you follow the suffering
and
gradual defeat of a person who probably doesn't deserve it. As
the
hero fights to survive he cannot keep from sinking further
into
hopelessness and despair. It seems as though his fate has
been
predetermined. As you continue the play, try to discern
other
similarities between Blanche and a typical tragic
hero.
--------------------------------------------------------------------STREETCAR|
SCENE_III
SCENE
THREE
The poker game is still underway when Blanche and Stella return
from
their night out. Stanley, on a losing streak, lashes out at
Mitch
for wanting to go home. He also snaps at Blanche, whacks Stella on
the
thigh, and orders the two women to leave the men to their
game.
Alone with Stella in the other room, Blanche observes that Mitch
had
seemed noticeably more courteous and sensitive than the other
men.
When Blanche and Stella laugh aloud, Stanley shouts, "You hens cut
out
that conversation in there." But Stella protests. In her
house
she'll do as she
pleases.
Does it seem as though a row is about to begin? When Blanche
turns
on the radio, Stanley demands that it be turned off. When she
refuses,
he does it himself. The poker players, like nervous animals before
a
storm, become restless with Stanley's antics. When Mitch drops
out
of the game, Blanche seizes the chance to talk with him.
Observe
Blanche in conversation with Mitch. She's a study in deception.
She
knows just how to charm him. She talks of the beauty of sick
people.
(Stella has told her that Mitch is devoted to his sick mother.)
She
playfully slurs some words, pretending to be slightly drunk. She
tells
him that Stella is her older sister (a lie), and that Stella's
need
for help has brought her to town (another
lie).
Blanche asks Mitch to cover a naked light bulb with a
colored
paper lantern, bought earlier that evening. Mitch obliges,
unaware
of Blanche's intention to hide her real age and, when you consider
her
other deceptions, perhaps a lot more than that. At any rate,
Blanche's
wiles work on Mitch. He is won over instantly, hypnotized by
her
charm.
Blanche clicks on the radio. You hear a beautiful waltz. Caught
up
in the music, Blanche dances gracefully. Mitch imitates her
awkwardly,
like a dancing
bear.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: The waltz, Wien, Wien, nur du allein, is a
sentimental
expression of love for old-time Vienna, the city of dreams. The
song
conjures up images of elegance and splendor that contrast with
the
run-down apartment of the Kowalskis. Ironically, at the time
A
Streetcar Named Desire was written the beauty of Vienna existed
only
as a memory. The city lay in ruins from heavy bombing during
the
war. Watch for other discrepancies between reality and illusion in
the
play.
--------------------------------------------------------------------10}
Stanley, in a rage, stalks into the room, grabs the radio and
throws
it out the window. Then he charges Stella and strikes her. Before
he
can land another blow, the other men rush forward and pin his
arms
behind him. He suddenly becomes limp, as though exhausted by
his
tantrum. To sober him up, his friends drag him to the
shower.
Meanwhile, Blanche, distraught and frightened, has organized a
hasty
escape upstairs to Eunice's with Stella in
tow.
Soon Stanley emerges dripping. Somehow his meanness has
vanished.
Now he's like a vulnerable little boy almost in tears, crying
for
his baby, his Stella. Half dressed, he stumbles outside to the
front
pavement and howls again and again, "Stella! Stella!" Eunice warns
him
to leave her alone, but after a time Stella comes out the door
and
slips down the stairs to Stanley. The two embrace. Stanley
then
lifts her and carries her into the dark
flat.
Does it surprise you to see Stella return to Stanley so soon
after
he abused her? Obviously, she loves him desperately. Perhaps she
is
aroused by Stanley's
bestiality.
15}
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Williams learned a good deal about uninhibited
sexuality
from the writings of the English novelist D. H.
Lawrence
(1885-1930). An artist-rebel, Lawrence scorned conventional
sexual
behavior. Williams, himself a sexual nonconformist, admired
both
Lawrence and his work. One of Williams' plays, I Rise in
Flame,
Cried the Phoenix, is based on the last days of Lawrence's
life.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Blanche seems shaken by Stanley's outburst. Mitch returns
and
tries to comfort her. Together, they smoke a cigarette.
Apparently
still dazed and confused by what she had witnessed, Blanche
thanks
Mitch for his
kindness.
STREETCAR|
SCENE_IV
SCENE
FOUR
The next morning Stella, tired but evidently content after a
night
of love, lies peacefully in bed. Blanche expresses dismay over
last
night's brawl, but Stella objects. It's scarcely worth speaking
of.
Anyway, all is forgiven because Stanley felt ashamed
afterwards.
Stella admits to her sister that Stanley's brutish manner appeals
to
her. In fact, it's rather thrilling. Stella recounts the excitement
of
her wedding night when Stanley charged around the apartment
breaking
lightbulbs with the heel of her shoe. How might Blanche have
reacted
in a like
situation?
You've already seen Blanche treating Stella tactlessly. But
now
she becomes downright cruel. Stanley is a madman, she says, and
if
Stella had any sense, she'd leave him
immediately.
To understand Stella, you might ask why she chooses to stay with
her
ill-tempered husband. Is she a model of broad-mindedness? Or is
she
a weakling? Or has she become a fatalist, that is, someone who
just
accepts her lot in life? As you'll see later, Stella's personality
and
values will help to seal Blanche's
fate.
Blanche urges Stella to come away with her. She proposes opening
a
shop of some kind with money provided by Shep Huntleigh, a
rich
acquaintance. Although Shep may be only a figment of
her
imagination, Blanche starts to write him a telegram: "Sister and
I
in desperate situation...." In truth, of course, the despair is
all
Blanche's.
For Stella most of life's anxieties and troubles are made trivial
by
what she calls the "things that happen between a man and a woman
in
the dark." Stella calls it love, but Blanche terms it
"brutal
desire" and begins to address Stella on the subject of
Stanley's
bestiality. Blanche, as though a spokesman for civilization,
talks
of man's noble accomplishments in art and poetry. All that,
she
says, has passed Stanley by. Blanche ends with a passionate
plea:
"Don't- don't hang back with the
brutes!"
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Blanche's speech illustrates one of the play's
major
conflicts, a symbolic clash between civilization and barbarism. By
the
end of the scene, you'll be able to chalk up a victory for one
of
them.
--------------------------------------------------------------------After Blanche finishes, Stanley reveals that he'd overheard
the
whole conversation. Stella's moment of decision has come. Will
she
be swayed by Blanche's eloquence? Stanley's grin of triumph,
flashed
at Blanche over Stella's shoulder, suggests that it was really
no
contest.
STREETCAR|
SCENE_V
SCENE
FIVE
To keep her hope alive, or at least to keep up the pretense of
hope,
Blanche composes a letter to Shep Huntleigh, informing him that
she
intends to make room in her crowded social life to visit him
in
Dallas.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
NOTE: Regardless of whether Shep is imaginary or real, to Blanche
he
represents a chance to be rescued from her plight. He's a savior,
a
symbol of a vanishing breed- the gallant, romantic, and
wealthy
Southern gentleman. More than likely, such a man is
Blanche's
mirage. Earlier you heard her rage against the real Southern
gentlemen
she
knew.
--------------------------------------------------------------------While Blanche reads a piece of the letter to Stella, you
hear
angry shouts and curses from upstairs. Steve and Eunice
are
embroiled in one of their periodic arguments. Later they make
up
and, like Stella and Stanley after the poker game, clasp each
other
fiercely. Have you noticed the characters' fluctuating
emotions?
Rapidly, their joy may turn to anger or anger to joy. They
hit
emotional peaks and valleys in swift succession. Could
these
fluctuations signify the characters' instability? Or do
they
suggest, as some critics have noted, the rhythms of sexual
passion?
Some time after, Stanley startles Blanche by mentioning a
certain
man named Shaw from Laurel. Shaw claims to have met a woman
named
Blanche at Laurel's Hotel Flamingo, a seedy place frequented by
the
town's lowlife. Stanley stops short of calling Blanche a whore, but
he
strongly implies that Blanche is something other than an
English
teacher. Blanche denies it, of course, but nervousness gives her
away.
While Blanche might like Stella as a confidante, someone to whom
she
can unburden herself, it's not a role Stella savors.
However,
Blanche asks Stella for advice about Mitch, soon to arrive for
another
evening out. Like a young girl just starting to date, Blanche asks
how
freely she can grant sexual favors and still retain her
beau's
respect. For a teenager the question is a puzzlement. For a
grown
woman, whose career includes a spell as town whore, the problem
is
both comic and tragic, but important
nevertheless.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: The further you explore the play, the more psychological
turns
and byways you'll discover. By now the play has turned almost into
a
psychological drama, recalling works by Chekhov, the
Russian
playwright, who let characters unveil their mental processes
without
help from a narrator or from the remarks of other characters.
You
understand the inner being of characters almost solely from
the
words they say. In his later years Tennessee Williams
often
acknowledged Chekhov's influence on his
work.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Soon after Stella and Stanley leave for the evening, a boy
of
about high school age comes to collect for the newspaper.
Blanche
makes advances. She flirts with him, and finally, to the
boy's
astonishment, plants a kiss on his mouth. Afterwards she
mutters,
"It would be nice to keep you, but I've got to be good- and keep
my
hands off children." Blanche says the words as though
she's
recalling her past, suggesting perhaps that she's had
encounters
with children
before.
Why does she kiss the young man? Is she a sexual deviant? Does
the
encounter make her feel young? Is she testing her seductive
powers?
Later, after you learn more about Blanche's past, you might
develop
additional theories. Similarly, you might ponder the boy's
response.
Was he stunned with surprise? Did he submit out of
courtesy?
Blanche's brush with the boy has buoyed her morale. Moments
later,
Mitch arrives bearing a bouquet of roses. Coquettishly she presses
the
flowers to her lips and calls Mitch her
"Rosenkavalier."
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: The central moment in the Richard Strauss opera
Der
Rosenkavalier is the presentation of a silver rose to a
beautiful
young woman. The allusion certainly goes way over Mitch's head, but
he
catches the spirit of Blanche's words and smiles
appreciatively.
--------------------------------------------------------------------STREETCAR|
SCENE_VI
SCENE
SIX
It's two a.m., and Blanche and Mitch are returning from an
evening
out. The streets are empty. Even the streetcars have stopped.
However,
Blanche asks Mitch whether "Desire" is still running. She's
teasing
him, inquiring about the state of his desire- presumably for
her.
You may understand Blanche's subtle joke, but Mitch
doesn't.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: "Desire" carried Blanche to Elysian Fields. The
other
streetcar was "Cemetery." Such names may allude remotely to
the
excessive desire and string of deaths that led to the loss of
Belle
Reve. In another sense, Blanche desires to find beauty in life. If
she
loses the desire, she might as well be dead. By the end of the
play,
other explanations may become
apparent.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Blanche and Mitch sit on the steps outside the building. Would he
be
a suitable mate for Blanche? Probably not, but Blanche can't
be
particular at this point in life. Mitch is a man, and that's
what
she wants. Now you see Blanche deftly baiting a trap. Mitch is
easy
prey for her. But she has to make him believe that he's caught
her,
not vice
versa.
Blanche seems to enjoy toying with Mitch. At one
point
overconfidence almost gives her away. She laughs cynically
at
Mitch's sincerely meant, but prosaic, declaration, "I have never
known
anyone like
you."
Inside the apartment, Blanche lights a candle instead of
turning
on the light. Whimsically, she suggests they pretend to be
Parisian
artists. In French, Blanche says, "I am the Lady of the Camellias,
and
you are
Armand."
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Blanche, speaking in French, surely knows that Mitch has
no
idea what she's talking about. The Lady of the Camellias is
a
courtesan in a 19th-Century novel by Alexandre Dumas fils. Her
lover
Armand reforms her, but before long she dies of
consumption.
Giuseppe Verdi's famous opera La Traviata is based on the
story.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Also in French, Blanche asks, "Will you sleep with me tonight?"
Poor
Mitch! He doesn't understand that Blanche is making a fool of him.
But
is she being unkind to him? Or is she just having a bit of
innocent
fun?
Blanche feigns interest as he describes gym workouts and
the
firmness of his stomach muscles. Mocking him, Blanche says that
his
bodyweight is "awe-inspiring." You might feel sorry for Mitch.
After
all, he's not at fault for being something of a buffoon. Although
he's
a grown man, he's still under his mother's wing. When Mitch
reveals
that his mother asked to know Blanche's age, you can be sure
that
marriage is on his
mind.
Before she accepts a proposal, Blanche needs to be sure that
Mitch
knows nothing about Shaw and about her soiled reputation. If
Stanley
were to tell him... well, you can see why she ominously
calls
Stanley her
"executioner."
Possibly to win Mitch's sympathy, Blanche relates the story of
her
marriage. It's a tragic tale of love, homosexuality, and
violence.
It's hard not to feel moved by it. All of a sudden you
understand
Blanche far better than before. She's tortured by guilt about
her
husband's
death.
The story brings Mitch close to tears. Realizing that Blanche
is
as lonely as he, Mitch takes her in his arms and kisses her.
Blanche
sobs in relief. She's worked hard to land Mitch, and in
triumph,
declares "Sometimes- there's God- so
quickly!"
STREETCAR|
SCENE_VII
SCENE
SEVEN
After four months Blanche and Stanley are still at odds. Is
there
any doubt which of them will win in the
end?
Stella is setting up for Blanche's birthday celebration when
Stanley
comes home elated. "I've got th' dope on your big sister,
Stella,"
he says. A supply man who's been driving through Laurel for
years
has told him the X-rated story of Blanche DuBois. Her daintiness
and
squeamish ways are nothing but a big
act.
Stella refuses to believe the outrageous story, but
Stanley
insists that Blanche had been told to leave town for being a
hotel
whore and for seducing one of the seventeen-year-old boys in
her
class.
As Stanley tells the story, Blanche soaks in the tub
and
cheerfully sings "Paper Moon," a pop tune about a world that's
"as
phony as it can
be."
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: The stage directions often prescribe playing
background
music that relates to the action. In Scene Six, as Blanche
recalled
her husband's suicide, you heard "The Varsouviana" a polka that
was
played at the Moon Lake Casino on the night Allan shot himself.
You'll
soon hear it
again.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Stella urges Stanley to be kind to Blanche, who
needs
understanding because of her tragic marriage. But Stanley
won't
relent. Moreover, he's already informed Mitch about Blanche's
sordid
past. Stanley claims that he felt obliged to warn Mitch that
Blanche
is a fraud, but you might suspect other reasons for his
action.
Blanche's marriage to Mitch is now out of the question.
To
compound the injury, Stanley has bought Blanche a bus ticket back
to
Laurel. What's to become of Blanche, Stella wonders.
Stanley's
answer shows how little he
cares.
Emerging from the bathroom, Blanche reads distress on Stella's
face,
but Stella won't disclose the reason. That task belongs to
Stanley.
STREETCAR|
SCENE_VIII
SCENE
EIGHT
Naturally, Mitch doesn't show up for the birthday dinner.
Blanche
tries vainly to keep up her spirits and tells a joke. Stella
laughs
weakly, but Stanley remains stone faced. As he reaches across
the
table for another chop, Stella calls him a "pig." She orders him
to
wash his greasy face and fingers and to help her clear the
table.
Stanley throws his plate and cup on the floor. "That's how
I'll
clear the table!" he
bellows.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Audiences watching Streetcar often laugh at
Stanley's
table-clearing technique. While Stanley's action contains humor,
it
also has its frightening aspect. When he allows himself to
be
dominated by violence, he has the potential to do unspeakable
damage.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Stanley berates Stella. Since Blanche arrived, he's been
a
second-class member of his own household. As you watch Stanley
reclaim
his position as "king" of the roost, he reveals that he's
embittered
by the wedge that Blanche has placed between him and Stella.
Perhaps
you can sympathize with him on that
score.
After Stanley stalks out, Blanche tries to phone Mitch to find
out
why he stood her up. Meanwhile, Stella goes to Stanley on the
porch
and starts to weep. Stanley embraces and comforts her. He
assures
her that Blanche's departure will set things right once
more.
They'll make love using the colored lights again, and they'll make
all
the noise they
want.
Suddenly, you hear Steve and Eunice's shrieking laughter
upstairs.
It serves as a reminder that Elysian Fields is a type of jungle,
where
primitive impulses and instincts
prevail.
To bring the so-called party to an end, Stanley presents
Blanche
with a birthday gift. Blanche perks up in surprise, but when
she
sees that it's a bus ticket to Laurel, she gags in anguish. Can
you
find any justification for Stanley's cruelty? However you
view
Stanley, he seems determined to drag Blanche's life to a
tragic
conclusion.
As the scene ends, Stella's labor begins, and Stanley rushes
her
to the
hospital.
STREETCAR|
SCENE_IX
SCENE
NINE
Later that evening Blanche is drinking alone. "The Varsouviana"
in
the background suggests that she is thinking about her
past.
Mitch arrives, unshaven and dressed in work clothes. This is a
Mitch
you haven't seen before. Blanche quickly hides the bottle. You
can
tell that he's ready to accuse Blanche of deceiving him. Why
he
needs to do so is
puzzling.
Gruffly, he ignores her offer of a kiss and turns down a
drink.
Although Blanche is slightly drunk, she's not unaware that Mitch
is
troubled. As her tension mounts, the music playing in her
mind
intensifies. Mitch can't hear it, of course, and thinks only
that
Blanche has drunk too
much.
Mitch accuses her of "lapping up [liquor] all summer." Then
he
startles her by forcing her to turn on a bright light. "I
don't
think I ever seen you in the light," he says. To get a good look
at
her, Mitch tears the paper lantern off the light bulb. If you
recall
that he mounted the lantern on the night they met, what does
its
removal probably
symbolize?
Mitch charges Blanche with deceit. She protests
vigorously,
preferring to call her misrepresentations "magic." She says,
"I
don't tell truth, I tell what ought to be truth." Clearly, Blanche
and
Mitch view the world differently. To Blanche illusions are
harmless
fabrications that make her feel young and alluring. However,
Mitch,
like Stanley, can't distinguish between illusion and
deceit.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: If Blanche is a tragic figure, she needs a tragic flaw,
a
quality of personality that leads to her destruction. Ordinarily
the
flaw may be rather harmless; it might even be admirable. But
because
of the circumstances in which the tragic figure finds himself,
the
flaw is lethal. With this in mind, you can probably infer
Blanche's
tragic flaw from her dialogue with
Mitch.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Blanche tries to defend against Mitch's charges by lying.
Earlier
Blanche won his sympathy with the woeful tale of her marriage. Now
she
tries to sway him with the next chapter of her heartbreaking
story.
She explains why she had become intimate with
strangers.
Suddenly, they are interrupted by the calls of a blind
Mexican
vendor, selling funeral flowers made of tin. Frightened, Blanche
tells
the uncomprehending Mexican that death led to loss of Belle Reve
and
to the decline of her happiness and love. She begins to
repeat
confusing fragments of conversations from her past. The opposite
of
death, she says, is desire. To prove that she had not been warped
by
death, she gave herself to young soldiers stationed near Belle
Reve.
Some might call her action degrading and immoral. Blanche saw it as
an
affirmation of
life.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Some critics think that Blanche seems too delicate to
have
been the whore for a company of soldiers. On the contrary, say
other
critics. Because Blanche is loving and sensitive, she
reacted
vehemently to her husband's death. It took a monstrous act to fill
her
vast emptiness. Her nightly intimacies with soldiers, therefore,
are
fully
understandable.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Unmoved or possibly bewildered by Blanche's tale, Mitch
declares
that he wants Blanche to give what she's denied him all summerher
body. Only if he'll marry her, she protests. Disgusted, Mitch
says
that Blanche isn't clean enough to bring into the same house as
his
mother. He advances, intent on raping her. To scare him off
Blanche
rushes to the window shouting, "Fire! Fire! Fire!" as Mitch runs
off.
STREETCAR|
SCENE_X
SCENE
TEN
Blanche is left alone and without hope. A weaker person might
do
away with herself. But Blanche is likely to find a way out, perhaps
in
her fantasy world. When this scene opens you find Blanche
talking
aloud to herself about a moonlight swim in a rock quarry. Is
she
drunk? Or has her mind become unhinged? You can't be sure
until
Stanley comes
in.
First she asks about Stella. The baby hasn't come yet, so
Stanley
will spend the night at home. Blanche suddenly becomes wary,
alarmed
at the thought of being alone in the apartment with
him.
He asks about her fine attire. Blanche explains that
Shep
Huntleigh has invited her on a Caribbean yacht cruise. Stanley
plays
along with Blanche's fantasy, asking questions and implying
that
Shep may want more than just Blanche's companionship. She
objects
and starts to lecture him on the transitory nature of physical
things.
What lasts, she says is "beauty of the mind and richness of the
spirit
and tenderness of the heart." To some extent these words may
define
a philosophy of life that Blanche has unsuccessfully tried to live
by.
On second thought, perhaps you can find evidence that
supports
Blanche's partial
success.
She stops short, realizing that she's casting pearls before
swinewasting
her words on someone who can't appreciate them.
Stanley
bristles at the word "swine," but holds his tongue. Not for
long,
however, for when Blanche tells how she has put Mitch in his place
for
being cruel to her, Stanley explodes in anger. As Stanley's
temper
builds, Blanche senses danger. To emphasize her terror, stage
lighting
suddenly engulfs the room in long dancing shadows and
lurid
reflections. Blanche rushes to the phone to call Shep for
help.
Meanwhile Stanley retreats to the bathroom to don his special
silk
pajamas.
He comes out barechested, and grinning. His threatening
words
cause Blanche to smash a bottle on the table edge and use the
jagged
top to fend him off. Stanley is excited by the prospect
of
rough-housing with Blanche. He approaches her cautiously. When
she
swings at him, he catches her wrist and forces her to drop the
weapon.
She collapses at his feet. Then he picks up her limp form
and
carries her into the
bedroom.
Is there any reason for Stanley to rape Blanche? Is he a savage or
a
rapist at heart? Or does he only want to cap his victory
over
Blanche with this ultimate act of degradation? Rape is such
a
complex and violent crime that it's usually not easy to identify
the
motives, although they are worth thinking
about.
You might ask who is the winner in the end? And the answer
might
well be both- Stanley because he achieved gratification: sex,
even
though it was rape; and Blanche, because she did not submit to
her
baser instincts and had to be
raped.
STREETCAR|
SCENE_XI
SCENE
ELEVEN
Blanche, of course, has told Stella about the rape. As a new
mother,
Stella looks to the future with hope and refuses to
believe
Blanche's story. At the start of this scene Stella tells Eunice,
"I
couldn't believe her story and go on living with Stanley."
Eunice
concurs: "Don't ever believe it. Life has got to go on. No matter
what
happens, you've got to keep on
going."
Even if Stella and Eunice secretly believe Blanche's storyyou
can't tell whether they do or don't- they've chosen to deny
its
validity. Stella has probably convinced herself that
Blanche
invented the rape to avoid going back to Laurel. Also, after
Mitch
threw her off, Blanche lost touch with reality, so Stella has
arranged
a "rest" for Blanche at an insane asylum in the country.
Some
critics have observed that Stella sends Blanche away as an act
of
revenge for all the abuse she's taken from her older sister. On
the
other hand, Stella may have Blanche's best interests in
mind.
Blanche has confused her trip to the country with the cruise
on
Shep's yacht, and as this scene opens, Blanche is preparing
her
wardrobe. Stella caters to Blanche's every wish, hoping to keep
her
sister calm before she leaves. She's also feeling remorseful
about
having committed Blanche to an asylum. When the time comes for
Blanche
to be taken away, Stella cries out in despair. Perhaps she
still
harbors doubts about the alleged
rape.
During this scene Stanley and his friends are back at the
poker
table. This time Stanley is winning. It seems fitting that he
should
be ahead. This is the day he resumes his position as king of
his
castle.
Blanche's voice diverts Mitch's attention from the game. You
can't
be sure what Mitch is thinking, but his gaze is preoccupied, as
though
he's pondering what might have
been.
Soon the car from the asylum arrives. When Blanche sees that
the
doctor is not Shep Huntleigh, she returns to the apartment,
pretending
to have forgotten something. The matron follows and prepares
a
straitjacket in case Blanche balks or grows violent.
Distressed,
Blanche begins to hear voices as reverberating echoes. Then you
hear
the polka playing in the distance. The same lurid reflections
you
saw on the night of the rape begin to dance on the apartment
walls.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: All through the play Williams has used sound and light
to
focus attention on something he wants you to remember. It is
a
technique you'll find in the works of other American playwrights,
like
Eugene O'Neill and Thornton Wilder. The montage of images
sweeping
across the stage in this scene of Streetcar demonstrates how
vividly
the technique can portray characters'
emotions.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Stanley and the matron approach Blanche, who becomes
increasingly
panic-stricken. Stanley tells her cruelly that she hasn't
forgotten
anything of value unless she means the paper lantern, which he
tears
off the lightbulb and hands to her. Blanche cries out as if
the
lantern were herself. She tries to run, but the matron grabs
her.
Outside, Stella moans, "Oh, God, what have I done to my
sister?"
Finally the doctor speaks kindly. Blanche responds with relief
and
takes his arm. While being escorted to the waiting car, she
tells
the doctor, "Whoever you are- I have always depended on the
kindness
of
strangers."
Stella is distraught. Stanley comes to her aid. As Blanche is
driven
away, Stanley puts his hand inside Stella's blouse. It appears
that
life will soon return to normal for the Kowalskis and for the
other
residents of Elysian
Fields.
STREETCAR|
TEST
A STEP
BEYOND
TEST AND
ANSWERS
TEST
(WSTRTEST)
_____ 1. Blanche proposes that Stella and she escape from
Elysian
Fields because
Blanche
A. feels threatened by the lifestyle of the
place
B. knows that her younger sister feels trapped by
the
circumstances of
life
C. wants company when she leaves New
Orleans
_____ 2. When Blanche calls Mitch her "Rosenkavalier," she
is
A. trying to impress him with her knowledge of
opera
B. poking fun at his
awkwardness
C. having a bit of harmless
fun
_____ 3. Mitch asks Blanche why she attempted to enjoy their
date
even though she didn't feel like it. His
question
I. shows that Mitch is
naive
II. reveals that Mitch does not understand Blanche's
values
III. illustrates the clash of cultures you find in the
play
A. I and III
only
B. II and III
only
C. I, II, and
III
_____ 4. Stanley feels obliged to tell Mitch about
Blanche's
degenerate past because
he
A. wants to destroy Blanche's chance to marry
Mitch
B. doesn't want his old army buddy to be
fooled
C. will feel guilty if he
doesn't
_____ 5. In addition to being the name of a streetcar,
"Desire"
A. refers to the love between Mitch and
Blanche
B. symbolizes the life force in Blanche and
other
characters
C. stands for Blanche's self-destructive
personality
_____ 6. Blanche tells the truth
about
A. the loss of Belle
Reve
B. her activities in the hotel called Tarantula
Arms
C. Shep
Huntleigh
_____ 7. Stanley can't abide Blanche
because
I. she interferes with his sex
life
II. she considers herself superior to
him
III. of her numerous
pretenses
A. I and II
only
B. II and III
only
C. I, II, and
III
_____ 8. Elysian Fields is often called a jungle and its
residents
described in animal terms largely
because
A. the play is full of
violence
B. the language of the play reflects Blanche's point
of
view
C. it's a dangerous place to
be
_____ 9. Mitch and Blanche are attracted to each other because
both
I. have been in love with people who
died
II. feel out of place in the brutal world around
them
III. are lonely and in need of
love
A. I and III
only
B. II and III
only
C. I, II, and
III
_____ 10. Blanche is committed to an asylum at the end of the
play
A. to symbolize the victory of brutality over
gentility
B. as poetic justice for her sinful
life
C. to keep her safe from further
harm
11. In which ways is the conflict between Stanley and Blanche
more
than a mere disagreement between two incompatible
people?
12. How does Tennessee Williams create the mood for
Streetcar?
13. How does Stella try to bridge the gap between Blanche
and
Stanley?
ANSWERS
1. A 2. C 3. C 4. A 5. B 6. A 7.
C
8. B 9. A 10.
A
-
11. The question implies that Stanley and Blanche are
symbolic
figures. Your task is to determine what each stands
for.
You know that Stanley is lusty and animalistic. He rages and
grunts,
but isn't he more than just an uncaged ape? Outside the house,
he
holds a responsible job at a factory. He travels a good deal
and
apparently earns enough money to provide for Stella and even to
feed
and support Blanche for several months. What does Stanley like
to
do? He bowls, plays cards, and drinks. If television had been in
use
in the 1940s, he probably would watch ballgames and sitcoms.
Except
for his violent streak, he's probably not very much different
from
millions of other middle-class urban
men.
Does Williams mean to imply that Stanley symbolizes middleclass
America? Or do Stanley's actions merely suggest that life in
that
level of society brings out men's basest, most animal-like
instincts?
Stanley's adversary, Blanche, represents another stratum
of
society altogether. Her people used to be wealthy landowners. In
the
early days, the DuBois family probably owned slaves. Blanche
herself
is well-educated and appreciates poetry and music. During much
of
the play she tries to maintain the illusion that traditional
values
are alive and well. In the end, she is
destroyed.
What conclusion might be drawn? That Stanley's world now
dominates
Blanche's? That Blanche stands for a faded and useless way of
life?
That man's bestial instincts, repressed by civilization, will
again
reign supreme? Obviously, the conflict between Stanley and Blanche
may
be interpreted in many ways. Regardless of how you see it, you
can
feel certain that it is more than just a misunderstanding
between
two people who don't see eye to
eye.
12. Before you tackle this question, decide what moods you
found
in the play. "Mood" is an elusive term. A piece of literature
as
complex as Streetcar might contain several moods
simultaneously.
Here are some possibilities: (1) violent, angry, and tense;
(2)
sad and sentimental; (3) sexual and animalistic; (4) morbid
and
tragic; (5) grotesquely comical. Williams creates such moods
using
characters' words and actions as well as music, lighting and
stage
directions. The "Characters" section of this Book Notes
provides
numerous examples of how dialogue and action shape the mood of
the
play. For example, Stanley's bellowing into the night for Stella
to
return to him creates a sense of savagery that hangs in the
air
throughout the
play.
If you examine Williams' stage directions, you'll
discover
prescriptions for mood-enhancing sound effects (trains, voices
in
the background, gunshots) and music (a waltz for romance, a
faint
polka to convey the feeling of lost happiness). Similarly, the
stage
lighting, from the dim glow of Blanche's lanterns to the
oppressive
glare around the poker table, helps to set the mood of each
scene.
Williams leaves little to chance. He knows how to create moods
and
gives play directors plenty of
help.
13. It takes skill to mediate between two people who detest
each
other. If you've ever tried, you can appreciate the problem
Stella
faces throughout the play. She employs various tactics to
force
Stanley and Blanche into peaceful coexistence. None of her
methods
work,
however.
From the beginning she pleads for understanding. To keep
Blanche
from being shocked, Stella prepares her sister to meet Stanley.
She
explains that Stanley may be different from the sort of men
Blanche
may be accustomed to. Later, Stella points out
Stanley's
attractiveness, especially in bed, but her words fall on deaf
ears.
Similarly, Stella can't convince Stanley to accept Blanche. He
is
unmoved by Blanche's delicate condition and the tragic loss of
her
husband. He distrusts Blanche the moment he meets her. Once
he's
made up his mind, nothing can sway
him.
During most of the play Stella acts as a buffer between
the
adversaries. Gradually, she drifts toward Blanche's side. Her
sister
needs help. But if Stella isn't careful, she stands to
antagonize
Stanley.
Ultimately she sends her sister away. Why Stella sides
with
Stanley in the end is worth exploring. What has Stella
realized
about her sister, about Stanley, and about herself? Why can't
she
simply continue to serve as intermediary? What might Williams
be
saying by having Stella and Stanley reunited at the end of the
play?
STREETCAR|
TERM_PAPER_IDEAS
TERM PAPER IDEAS AND OTHER TOPICS FOR WRITING
(WSTRTERM)
CHARACTERS
1. How real are the play's characters? To what degree are
they
grotesques or caricatures of real
people?
2. What are the sources of conflict between Stanley and
Blanche?
In what ways does the nature of their conflict change as the
play
progresses?
3. In what ways are Stanley and Blanche symbolic
figures?
4. How does each character contribute to Blanche's breakdown?
What
does Blanche contribute
herself?
5. Regardless of her past, why is Blanche a generally
sympathetic
figure?
Explain.
THE MEANING OF THE
PLAY
1. Do the themes in the play have contemporary relevance? In
what
ways?
-
2. Is Williams' portrayal of the world totally pessimistic,
or
does he leave room for at least a little optimism? Defend your
answer.
3. Does Williams prefer Blanche's world of traditional
Southern
gentility or Stanley's of modern hedonism? What is your
evidence?
THE PLAY AS
DRAMA
1. How does the setting contribute to the mood and meaning of
the
play?
2. What kinds of symbols does Williams insert in his play,
and
what does symbolism add to the play's mood or
meaning?
3. In which ways does the use of sound contribute to the mood of
the
play?
4. How does Streetcar compare to a classical Greek
tragedy?
CRITICS
THE CRITICS
(WGLACRIT)
ON SYMBOLISM IN THE GLASS
MENAGERIE
Roger B. Stein thinks that Williams wanted his play to be
more
than a social and personal tragedy. To suggest the story's
deeper
meaning, he crowded The Glass Menagerie with Christian
symbols.
Amanda, who condemns instinct and urges Tom to think in terms of
the
mind and spirit, as "Christian adults" do, is often characterized
in
Christian terms. Her music... is "Ave Maria." As a girl, she
could
only cook angel food cake. She urges Laura, "Possess your soul
in
patience," and then speaks of her dress for the dinner scene
as
"resurrected" from a trunk. Her constant refrain to Tom is "Rise
an'
Shine," and she sells subscriptions to her friends by waking
them
early in the morning and then sympathizing with them as
"Christian
martyrs."
...In a very small sense both Amanda and Laura are searching for
a
Savior who will come to help them, to save them, to give their
drab
lives
meaning.
-"The Glass Menagerie
Revisited:
Catastrophe without Violence,"
1964
ON THE USE OF TIME IN THE GLASS
MENAGERIE
The lives of the characters are touched by the past, present,
and
future. But as critic Frank Durham points out, time is used in
a
poetic way,
too:
Tom stands with us in the immediate present.... But through
his
consciousness we are carried back in time to his life in the
drab
apartment before his escape.... Within this train of memory
there
are two types of time, the generalized and the specific, and
through
the use of these two we are given a deeper insight into the
lives
and relationships of the Wingfields. The first scene in the
apartment,
the dinner scene, is an example of generalized time. It is not any
one
particular dinner but a kind of abstraction of all the
dinners
shared by the trio in their life of
entrapment....
-"Tennessee Williams, Theater Poet in Prose,"
1971
ON A STREETCAR NAMED
DESIRE
Some early theatergoers were attracted to A Streetcar Named
Desire
by its sensationalism. Others objected to its sordidness. Here is
part
of theater critic Brooks Atkinson explanation of the artistry of
the
play:
As a matter of fact, people do appreciate it thoroughly. They
come
away from it profoundly moved and also in some curious way elated.
For
they have been sitting all evening in the presence of truth,
and
that is a rare and wonderful experience. Out of nothing
more
esoteric than interest in human beings, Mr. Williams has
looked
steadily and wholly into the private agony of one lost person.
He
supplies dramatic conflict by introducing Blanche to an
alien
environment that brutally wears on her nerves. But he takes no
sides
in the conflict. He knows how right all the characters arehow
right she is in trying to protect herself against the disaster that
is
overtaking her, and how right the other characters are in
protecting
their independence, for her terrible needs cannot be
fulfilled.
There is no solution except the painful one Mr. Williams provides
in
his last
scene.
-"'Streetcar'
TragedyMr. Williams' Report on Life in New
Orleans,"
The New York Times,
1947
George Jean Nathan, another respected theater critic, found
less
to admire in
Streetcar:
The borderline between the unpleasant and the disgusting is...
a
shadowy one, as inferior playwrights have at times found out
to
their surprise and grief. Williams has managed to keep his play
wholly
in hand. But there is, too, a much more shadowy borderline between
the
unpleasant and the enlightening, and Williams has tripped over
it,
badly. While he has succeeded in making realistically dramatic
such
elements as sexual abnormality, harlotry, perversion, seduction
and
lunacy, he has scarcely contrived to distil from them any
elevation
and purge. His play as a consequence remains largely a
theatrical
shocker which, while it may shock the emotions of its
audience,
doesn't in the slightest shock them into any spiritual
education.
-"The Streetcar Isn't Drawn by
Pegasus,"
The New York Journal-American,
1947
IMAGERY IN A STREETCAR NAMED
DESIRE
Much of the verbal and theatrical imagery that constitutes the
drama
is drawn from games, chance and luck.... Indeed, the tactics
and
ceremonial games. in general, and poker in particular, may be
seen
as constituting the informing structural principle of the play as
a
whole. Pitting Stanley Kowalski, the powerful master of Elysian
Fields
against Blanche DuBois, the ineffectual ex-mistress of Belle
Reve,
Williams makes the former the inevitable winner of the game
whose
stakes are survival in the kind of world the play
posits.
-Leonard
Quirino,
"The Cards Indicate a Voyage on A Streetcar Named
Desire,"
Tennessee Williams: Thirteen Essays,
1980.
ADVISORY_BOARD
ADVISORY BOARD
(WGLAADVB)
We wish to thank the following educators who helped us focus
our
Book Notes series to meet student needs and critiqued
our
manuscripts to provide quality
materials.
Sandra Dunn, English
Teacher
Hempstead High School, Hempstead, New
York
Lawrence J. Epstein, Associate Professor of
English
Suffolk County Community College, Selden, New
York
Leonard Gardner, Lecturer, English
Department
State University of New York at Stony
Brook
Beverly A. Haley, Member, Advisory
Committee
National Council of Teachers of English Student Guide
Series
Fort Morgan,
Colorado
Elaine C. Johnson, English
Teacher
Tamalpais Union High School
District
Mill Valley,
California
Marvin J. LaHood, Professor of
English
State University of New York College at
Buffalo
Robert Lecker, Associate Professor of
English
McGill University, Montreal, Quebec,
Canada
David E. Manly, Professor of Educational
Studies
State University of New York College at
Geneseo
Bruce Miller, Associate Professor of
Education
State University of New York at
Buffalo
Frank O'Hare, Professor of English and Director of
Writing
Ohio State University, Columbus,
Ohio
Faith Z. Schullstrom, Member of Executive
Committee
National Council of Teachers of
English
Director of Curriculum and
Instruction
Guilderland Central School District, New
York
Mattie C. Williams, Director, Bureau of Language
Arts
Chicago Public Schools, Chicago,
Illinois
THE END OF BARRON'S BOOK
NOTES
TENNESSEE WILLIAMS THE GLASS MENAGERIE AND A STREETCAR NAMED
DESIRE
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(WGLABIBL)
MENAGERIE_&_STREETCAR
FURTHER
READING
CRITICAL
WORKS
Durham, Frank. "Tennessee Williams, Theater Poet in Prose."
In
Parker, Twentieth Century Interpretations of The Glass
Menagerie,
pp. 121-34. A discussion of the play as a type of
poem.
Jackson, Esther M. The Broken World of Tennessee
Williams.
Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965. A study of Williams'
use
of nonrealism.
Miller, Jordan Y., editor. Twentieth Century Interpretations of
A
Streetcar Named Desire. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1971.
A
rich selection of essays about Streetcar as a movie, as a
Broadway
production, and as a work of dramatic
art.
Nelson, Benjamin. "The Play is Memory." In Tennessee Williams,
the
Man and his Work. New York: Ivan Obolensky, Inc., 1961, pp. 98112.
Insightful discussion of characters and themes in The Glass
Menagerie.
Parker, R. B., editor. Twentieth Century Interpretations of
The
Glass Menagerie. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1983. A
collection
of writings about the play, including reviews of the
original
production.
Rader, Dotson. Tennessee: Cry of the Heart. Garden
City:
Doubleday, 1985. A personal memoir of
Williams.
Spoto, Donald. The Kindness of Strangers. Boston: Little,
Brown,
1985. Deals with Williams' life and
art.
Stanton, Stephen, S., editor. Tennessee Williams: A Collection
of
Critical Essays. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1977. Several
essays
about Williams, the man, and his plays. One interpretive
essay
specifically on The Glass
Menagerie.
Stein, Roger B. "The Glass Menagerie Revisited:
Catastrophe
without Violence." In Stanton, Stephen S., editor, Tennessee
Williams:
A Collection of Critical Essays, pp. 36-44. Fascinating study of
the
Christian symbolism in the
play.
Tharpe, Jac. Tennessee Williams: Thirteen Essays.
Jackson:
University Press of Mississippi, 1980. Critical essays on
Williams'
work.
Williams, Tennessee. Memoirs. New York: Doubleday and Co.,
1975.
To know the man you must read this
autobiography.
AUTHOR'S MAJOR
WORKS
1940 Battle of
Angels
1944 The Glass
Menagerie
1947 A Streetcar Named
Desire
1948 Summer and
Smoke
1950 The Roman Spring of Mrs.
Stone
1951 The Rose
Tattoo
1953 Camino
Real
1955 Cat on a Hot Tin
Roof
1957 Orpheus
Descending
1959 Suddenly Last Summer
(screenplay)
1959 Sweet Bird of
Youth
1960 The Fugitive Kind
(screenplay)
1960 Period of
Adjustment
1961 The Night of the
Iguana
1963 The Milk Train Doesn't Stop Here
Anymore
1973 Small Craft
Warnings
THE END OF THE BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR BARRON'S BOOK
NOTES
TENNESSEE WILLIAMS THE GLASS MENAGERIE AND A STREETCAR NAMED
DESIRE
1940
945
RICHARD
WRIGHT'S
NATIVE SON & BLACK
BOY
by Michael
Gallantz
Communications
Program
School of Business
Administration
University of California at
Berkeley
SERIES
COORDINATOR
Murray
Bromberg
Principal, Wang High School of
Queens
Holliswood, New
York
Past
President
High School Principals Association of New York
City
(C) Copyright 1986 by Barron's Educational Series,
Inc.
Electronically Enhanced Text (C) Copyright 1993, World Library,
Inc.
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
SECTION............................ SEARCH
ON
THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES.............................
WNATAUTH
Native
Son
THE
NOVEL
The Plot..........................................
WNATPLOT
The Characters....................................
WNATCHAR
Other
Elements
Setting......................................
WNATSETT
Themes.......................................
WNATTHEM
Style........................................
WNATSTYL
Point of View................................
WNATVIEW
Form and Structure...........................
WNATFORM
THE STORY.........................................
WNATSTOR
A STEP
BEYOND
Tests and Answers.................................
WNATTEST
Black
Boy
THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY.................................
WBLAINTR
The Characters....................................
WBLACHAR
Other
Elements
Themes........................................
WBLATHEM
THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY.................................
WBLAAUTO
A STEP
BEYOND
Tests and Answers.................................
WBLATEST
Native Son & Black
Boy
Term Paper Ideas and other Topics for Writing.....
WNATTERM
The Critics.......................................
WNATCRIT
Advisory Board....................................
WNATADVB
Bibliography......................................
WNATBIBL
AUTHOR_AND_HIS_TIMES
THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES
(WNATAUTH)
After Bigger Thomas, the central character of the novel
Native
Son, has "murdered a white girl and cut her head off and burnt
her
body," he thinks that he has "created a new life for himself. It
was
something that was all his own, and it was the first time in
his
life he had had anything that others could not take from him."
Richard
Wright could well have felt the same way about the quiet, creative
act
of writing Native Son as that novel's protagonist felt about
his
bloody act of violence. Wright had grown up poor and lonely, without
a
stable family life, a regular education, or a solid community
of
friends. Until he was in his late twenties, no one took
his
ambitions seriously. But Native Son gave Wright "new life" as
a
financially secure and internationally famous author. And,
unlike
the brief sense of power that came from Bigger's physical
expression
of anger, the changes resulting from Wright's literary expression
of
the same emotion were
permanent.
Some of Wright's early background resembles Bigger's. Like
Bigger,
he was brought up without a father; like Bigger's family,
Wright's
also left the South for the urban ghetto of Chicago; like
Bigger,
whose schooling only went as far as the eighth grade,
Wright's
finished with the ninth, and like his fictional creation, the
author
of Native Son grew up a loner and a rebel, whose devoutly
religious
family thought him a candidate for a life of
crime.
And Richard Wright's life affected his writing in two
more
fundamental ways as well. He was often a victim of the white
world's
hostility to blacks; as a result many of his books, including
Native
Son, portray both racial discrimination and the black response to
that
injustice. Similarly, even as an adult, Wright frequently
felt
isolated, from blacks as well as from whites, and several of his
major
characters share this sense of being separate and
alone.
Wright was born on September 4, 1908, in a tenant farmer's
cabin
in the hamlet of Roxie, Mississippi. His father, Nathaniel, was
a
son of one of the few local freedmen to have retained the small
farm
he had acquired after the Civil War. But because Nathaniel
deserted
the family when Richard was five, his mother, Ella Wilson
Wright,
was by far the more important parent to him. Unlike Nathaniel,
Ella
--------------------------------------------------------Electronically Enhanced Text (C) Copyright 1991 - 1993 World
Library, Inc.
The Glass Menagerie
and
A Streetcar Named Desire
Tennessee Williams
THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES
The Glass Menagerie was Tennessee Williams' first successful play. It won the New York
Critics' Circle Award as the best play of the 1944-45 Broadway season. Less than three years
later, A Streetcar Named Desire opened. It, too, captured the Critics' Circle Award and also
won the Pulitzer Prize.
With these achievements Tennessee Williams earned fame and lots of money. He was declared
one of the best modern playwrights. Had he never written another word, his place on the roster
of great artists would still be secure. Usually, he's named with Eugene O'Neill and Arthur
Miller as one of the three leading American dramatists of the 20th century.
That's not a bad record for a man of thirty-six. At the time, however, Williams would gladly
have given away his success. He liked his plays, but he hated being a celebrity. Success
depressed him. As a young man who achieved great success, he suddenly missed the
challenges of life. Perhaps you can understand his reaction. Many people who reach glory at an
early age realize the emptiness of fame. Autograph seekers depressed him. Strangers who told
him "I loved your play" annoyed him. Praise bothered him. He even suspected his friends of
false affection. And he felt constant pressure for the rest of his life to write plays as good as
Menagerie and Streetcar.
Williams found relief from the public in a hospital, of all places. He needed an eye operation.
When the gauze mask was removed from his face, he viewed his life more clearly, both
literally and figuratively. He checked out of his posh New York hotel and escaped to Mexico,
where, as a stranger, he could be his former self again.
His former self was Thomas Lanier Williams of Columbus, Mississippi, where he was born in
1911. His maternal grandfather was Columbus' Episcopalian rector. His mother, Edwina,
valued refinement and the good manners of Southern gentry. She made sure that Tom and his
sister Rose grew up having both. His father, on the other hand, paid little attention to good
breeding and culture. He was more fond of a game of poker and a tall glass of whiskey. A
traveling salesman, he lived out of suitcases and had little time for his children. Returning from
road trips, however, he often criticized his wife for turning young Tom into a sissy.
When Mr. Williams, known as C.C., got an office job with the International Shoe Company,
the family settled in St. Louis. Rose and Tom became city children. They played in littered
alleys where dogs and cats roamed at night. Or they holed up in a small dark bedroom to play
with Rose's prized collection of small glass animals.
Having C.C. around the house strained everyone in the family. C.C. fought with Edwina,
disparaged Rose, and sometimes beat Tom. Eventually, he deserted the family altogether, but
not until Rose, Tom, and a younger brother, Dakin, had reached adulthood.
Of the three Williams children, Rose had the hardest time growing up. During the early years
she and Tom were as close as a sister and brother can be, but in her teens she developed
symptoms of insanity. She withdrew into a private mental world. Mrs. Williams could not
accept her daughter's illness and tried repeatedly to force friends on her. She enrolled Rose in a
secretarial course, but that didn't help Rose's condition either. Diagnosed as a schizophrenic,
Rose was put in a mental institution. In 1937 brain surgery turned her into a harmless, childlike
woman for the rest of her life.
Tom, who loved Rose dearly, heaped blame for Rose's madness on himself. Not even he
understood why. But as he saw it, Rose's terrors started at about the time when he began to feel
the irresistible urges of homosexuality. At the time- long before the advent of gay rights- to be
a homosexual meant being an outcast. You were scorned and abused, and you were made to
feel excruciating guilt. Rose's condition had no bearing on Tom's self-realization, nor did his
sexual preferences trigger Rose's breakdown. Yet, the two events became strangely interlocked
in Tom's thinking.
In the agonies of his family Williams found the stuff of his plays. He hardly disguised his
parents, his sister and himself when he cast them as characters on the stage. Places where he
lived became settings, and he adapted plots from life's experiences. He relived the past as he
wrote. ("The play is memory," says Tom, the character in The Glass Menagerie.) He wrote
about what he knew best- himself. Perhaps that's why the plays, although considered dreamlike
and unreal, can nevertheless, like magic, give you illusion that has the appearance of truth.
They often contain an intense passion that could come from only one source, the heart and soul
of the playwright.
After high school, Williams went to the University of Missouri to study journalism. His father
pulled him out after two years for making low grades and sent him to work at the shoe
company. It was a dead-end job, but it gave Tom a chance to do what he loved best- to write.
He pushed himself hard to master the art of writing. When the words came slowly, he grew
tense. He ate little, smoked constantly and drank only black coffee. After two years his health
broke. The doctor ordered him to quit the shoe company.
He enrolled in a play writing course at Washington University in St. Louis. He also started to
read widely in world literature. From the Russian Chekhov, he discovered how to make
dialogue reveal character. From plays by Ibsen, the Norwegian dramatist, Williams learned the
art of creating truth on the stage. Williams owed his fascination with uninhibited sexuality
partly to the English writer D. H. Lawrence. He also studied the works of the master Swedish
playwright August Strindberg for insights into dramatizing inner psychological strife. Through
a friend Williams discovered the American poet Hart Crane, whose lyrical lines and brief tragic
life struck a responsive chord in Williams. In all, Williams' prolific reading gave his own
writing a boost.
Tom finished his formal schooling at the University of Iowa. When he left there in 1938 he
adopted the name "Tennessee." Over the years he offered varying explanations for the new
name. It was distinctive. It was a college nickname. It expressed his desire to break away from
the crowd, just as his father's pioneering ancestors had done when they helped to settle the state
of Tennessee.
With his pen and pad he roamed the United States. Says Tom in The Glass Menagerie, "The
cities swept about me like dead leaves"- New York, Washington, Los Angeles, Key West,
Florida. Also New Orleans, the city of streetcars, including one named "Desire." He wrote
stories, poems, even a first play that flopped in Boston. Eventually, he landed a job in
California writing screenplays for MGM. But he despised taking others' stories and turning
them into movies. He wanted to do originals. While in Hollywood, he wrote a movie script
entitled The Gentleman Caller. When MGM rejected it, Williams quit his job, transformed the
script into a play, and called it The Glass Menagerie. The play opened on Broadway in March,
1945, and altered Williams' life. The years of personal struggle to make it big were over.
After moving to Mexico, he turned out a second masterpiece- A Streetcar Named Desirewhich
reached Broadway in December, 1947. In Streetcar, as in The Glass Menagerie, he
shaped the story from his own experience. If you combine Williams' mother, the genteel and
prudish Southern lady, with Rose, the fragile sister, you get Blanche. Williams knew firsthand
what happens when a brute like Stanley clashes with a refined lady like Blanche. He saw it
almost daily in his parents' stormy marriage.
After Streetcar Williams turned out plays almost every other season for thirty-five years.
According to critics, though, after the 1940's Williams never again reached the heights of
Menagerie and Streetcar. He reused material and seemed continually preoccupied with the
same themes and with characters trapped in their own private versions of hell. Although many
later plays lacked freshness, others were smash hits and have since joined the ranks of the
finest American plays. Cat on a Hot Tin Roof won drama prizes in 1955, and Night of the
Iguana earned honors in 1961.
Because of movies, however, the titles of some of his plays, such as Suddenly Last Summer
and The Fugitive Kind have become familiar, even to people who have never seen a Williams
stage play. Some Williams plays (and movies) caused a sensation because they deal with
homosexuality and incest, topics that had been more or less off limits on the stage and screen
until Williams came along. People flocked to Williams movies to see stars like Elizabeth
Taylor, Richard Burton and Paul Newman. In the film of A Streetcar Named Desire, Marlon
Brando and Vivian Leigh gave magnificent performances as Stanley and Blanche.
All of Williams' plays illustrate a dark vision of life, a vision that grew dimmer as the years
went by. During his last years Williams kept writing, but one play after the other failed. To
ease his pain, Williams turned to drink and drugs. His eyes needed several operations for
cataracts. The new plays received terrible notices, driving him deeper into addiction. He died in
a New York hotel room in 1983. Police reports say that pills were found under his body.
Williams left behind an impressive collection of work. His plays continue to move people by
their richness, intensity of feeling, and timelessness. He often transformed private experience
into public drama. In doing so, he gave us glimpses into a world most of us have never seen
before. Yet, the plays make Williams' fears, passions, and joys ours as well. Few artists will
ever leave behind a more personal and intense legacy.
THE PLAY (The Glass Menagerie)
THE PLAY (A Streetcar Named Desire)
[The Glass Menagerie and A Streetcar Named Desire Contents] [The Study Web
Home Page]
© Copyright 1985 by Barron's Educational Series, Inc.
Electronically Enhanced Text © Copyright 1993, World Library, Inc.
The Glass Menagerie
Tennessee Williams
THE PLAY
THE PLOT
How does a young man with the mind and heart of a poet wind up as a sailor in the merchant
marine? Tom Wingfield can tell you. He's done it. Years ago, he ran away from home and
joined up.
One reason Tom left home was his mother, Amanda. She drove him to it. How? You'll see the
instant you meet her. She nags Tom about his smoking, scolds him about getting up in the
morning, and instructs him in the fine art of chewing food. It isn't easy to have a mother like
Amanda. Yet Tom put up with her until one tragic night when his patience ran out, and he
abandoned his family.
Of course Tom may simply be following in his father's footsteps. Mr. Wingfield deserted his
family years ago, leaving Amanda to raise Tom and his sister Laura in a run-down tenement in
the St. Louis slums. Amanda is used to better. She repeatedly recites stories of gracious young
gentlemen who came to court her on the veranda of her family's plantation. But she married
Mr. Wingfield, and ever since, she copes with life by recalling gentle days in the Old South.
The details often change, however, and her children sometimes suspect Amanda's stories to be
mere fabrication.
Lately, Amanda has begun to notice similarities between Tom and her husband. Tom is bored
with life and very restless. Down at the warehouse he ducks into the washroom during slow
hours and writes poems. Every night, after a dull day of work, he escapes to the movies- for
adventure, he says. Amanda is worried that Tom drinks. She fears that Tom will run away. She
gets him to promise that he won't leave, at least not until his sister has a good man to provide
for her.
Laura, in fact, is Amanda's gravest problem. A childhood disease has left her partly lame. She
is frail and terribly insecure. Although she's older than Tom, she's never held a job. One
attempt to send her to a business school ended dismally. She, like Tom, escapes to an unreal
world, spending most of her time listening to old records and playing with her collection of
glass animals. What the future holds for Laura, Amanda can't even guess.
That's why Amanda hounds Tom to bring home a friend, some eligible young man who will
fall for Laura and marry her. Tom agrees, not because he thinks Amanda's scheme will work,
but because he has pledged himself to help Amanda before he leaves home. Tom invites Jim
O'Connor, an acquaintance from work. Amanda is thrilled, but Laura gets sick with fright.
Jim turns out to be someone Laura knew and admired from a distance back in high school. He
charms Amanda and treats Laura kindly. He advises Laura to feel more sure of herself. To be a
success you need confidence, he tells her. He shows her how to dance, and gently kisses her. In
every respect, Jim seems like Laura's rescuer, the man to save her from a life of dependency
and illusions. While dancing, they accidentally break the horn from Laura's prized glass
unicorn. Now it looks like an ordinary horse. Symbolically, Jim has released Laura from her
dream world.
But Laura's excursion into reality is a short-lived disaster. Jim won't be calling on Laura again.
He's already engaged to be married. When Amanda finds out, she accuses Tom of deliberately
making a fool of her. In her fury, Amanda refuses to hear Tom's denials. For Tom, this is the
last straw. He packs up and leaves. Literally, he escapes.
But he fails to escape completely. As he wanders the earth, searching for some elusive
paradise, the memory of his sister haunts him.
You're left with the thought that happiness, like so much else in Tom's life, is an illusion, too.
[The Glass Menagerie and A Streetcar Named Desire Contents]
THE CHARACTERS
l TOM WINGFIELD
When Tennessee Williams created Tom he pulled a neat trick. He created a character
who exists outside and inside the play's action at the same time. When you see him
standing on the fire escape adjoining the Wingfield apartment, Tom is the narrator. He
is outside the action. He is a seasoned merchant sailor who's traveled on both land and
sea. He's a good talker, too, the kind you might like to spend an evening with over a few
beers. He can be funny, as when he describes his runaway father as a "telephone man
who fell in love with long distances."
One actor's reading of Tom's lines can give you the impression that Tom regrets being a
wanderer. Another actor can create the sense that Tom looks back with relief, pleased
that he broke away, at least from his mother. Regardless of the interpretation you favor,
you know that Laura, Tom's sister, has a firm hold on his affections. "Oh, Laura, Laura,"
he says in the play's final speech, "I tried to leave you behind me, but I am more faithful
than I intended to be!" Evidently, memory is a potent force, one that Tom can't escape.
Or, looking at Tom's character yet another way, you might conclude that he has stepped
beyond the bounds of a brotherly concern for Laura into a more forbidding relationship.
Because the whole play is Tom's memory brought to life on the stage, Tom may be the
most important character. However, you could make a case for Amanda's importance as
well. Either way, Tom sets the sentimental mood of the play and reveals only what he
wants you to know about his family. If Amanda narrated the play, can you imagine how
different it would be?
Tom calls himself a poet. He writes poetry at every opportunity. You hear poetic
speeches pour from his lips. A co-worker at the warehouse calls him "Shakespeare."
Does he deserve the name? Do any of his speeches sound like poetry to you?
In addition, Tom claims a poet's weakness for symbols. In fact, the story bulges with
symbols of all kinds, some obvious (the little glass animals signifying Laura), some
more obscure (frequent references to rainbows, for example). For a full discussion of
symbolism in the play, see the Symbol section of this volume.
You rarely see Tom in a cheerful mood. He complains, groans, sulks, argues, or pokes
fun at others, especially at Amanda. He bristles under her constant nagging. He quarrels
about inviting home a beau for Laura. Most of all, he is repelled by Amanda's repeated
references to her long-ago past. Why do Amanda's stories bother him so? Is his reaction
typical of children listening to parents recount tales of their youth?
Tom's resentful manner leads his mother to accuse him of having a "temperament like a
Metropolitan [Opera] star." Does Amanda have a point? Is Tom preoccupied with
pleasing himself? Or do you sympathize with Tom? Tom's obligations seem to tear him
apart. He's caught between responsibilities to his family and to himself. In short, he
faces a dilemma that's often part of growing up. Which, in your opinion, ought to take
precedence: family responsibility or personal ambition?
To cope with frustration and pain Tom sometimes uses bitter humor. When Amanda
accuses him of leading a shameful life, he knows it's futile to argue. So he jokes with his
mother about his second identity as "Killer Wingfield" and "El Diablo," the prince of
the underworld. Or when Amanda is about to start reminiscing about Blue Mountain, he
comments ironically to Laura, "I know what's coming."
Humor provides only a little relief, however. That's why he rushes off to the movies
whenever he can. Watching someone else's adventures on the movie screen offers Tom
another diversion from his own dreary existence. But since he has to come out of the
dark theater and face life again, escape to the movies solves no problems. At great cost
Tom learns that running away from problems never clears them from your mind. Even
when he flees St. Louis, he takes along his memories as mental baggage. He can't
escape the past, however hard he tries. Escape, he discovers in the end, is an illusion,
too.
What Tom tells you as he stands at the edge of the stage may be more than just the story
of one young man's disillusion. You might think of Tom as a representative of a whole
generation of young people coming of age just as the world is exploding into war. They
have high hopes and rich dreams. But the future they wish for never comes. It is
destroyed by forces beyond their control. "The world is lit by lightning," Tom says.
Tom's story, then, may be both personal and generally symbolic of life at a bleak time in
our history. You can read it either way.
l AMANDA WINGFIELD
In the production notes of The Glass Menagerie, Tennessee Williams tells you that
Amanda is "a little woman of great but confused vitality clinging frantically to another
time and place.... There is much to admire in Amanda, and as much to love and pity as
there is to laugh at." Do you agree? Do you find her as difficult to bear as Tom does?
In contrast to Tom, who sets the mood in the play, Amanda is a mover, the character
who sets the story into motion. Therefore, you might consider her the play's main
character. Throughout the play Tom, Laura and Jim respond to Amanda's stimulating
and complex personality. Even her husband, who has run from her, showed a distinctive
response to Amanda. Tom shares a few tender moments with his mother, but more
typically, he's put off by her scolding and nagging. Laura, unlike her brother, usually
obeys Amanda's wishes and tries to understand her. Jim, during dinner with the
Wingfields, is caught up by Amanda's vibrant cheerfulness.
What are you likely to remember most about Amanda? Is it her irrational and
inappropriate belief in the romantic past? Or might it be her pathetic conviction that her
children are bound to succeed in life because of their "natural endowments?" She
refuses to accept the fact that Tom is a malcontent with a dead-end job. As for Laura,
Amanda denies that her daughter has anything wrong with her that a little charm and a
typing course won't fix. Even Jim O'Connor, quite an ordinary young man, strikes
Amanda as a shining prince destined to rescue and marry Laura. Amanda's wishes for
her children sometimes leave her blind to reality.
To understand Amanda you should decide whether she is really as far gone as she often
appears. Is she unaware of the truth, or does she simply refuse to accept it? Despite her
frequent silliness, she evidently has a practical streak. She thinks seriously about the
future. That's why she presses Tom to bring home a friend for Laura.
Obviously, Amanda acts foolish much of the time. But she nevertheless has admirable
qualities. Amanda tries hard to be a good mother. After her husband runs off, she does
the best she can to provide for her family. Above all, she is strong, stronger than Tom
and stronger than her husband. When all her efforts have failed, she sticks by Laura. She
emerges tender and noble. And you can depend on her never to give up hope. At the end
of the play, with Tom enroute to the seven seas and Laura brokenhearted over Jim,
Amanda shows "dignity and tragic beauty." What, in your opinion, is the source of
Amanda's transformation? Or might she have had dignity and tragic beauty within her
all along?
l LAURA WINGFIELD
It's more than coincidental that the play's title refers to the collection of glass animals
that belongs to Laura. She is so fragile that she can hardly function in the real world.
Not surprisingly, her favorite figure in the menagerie is the unicorn, a creature which
Laura calls "freakish," which is precisely the way Laura has felt much of her life. Can
you think of other qualities of the unicorn that resemble Laura?
Laura frequently escapes to a private, imaginary world occupied by fragile glass
animals. When you consider Laura's personality, can you speculate on why the
menagerie is glass rather than some other material?
Of the three Wingfields, Laura stands in the greatest peril, for she lacks both the
strength of Amanda and the potential to escape, like Tom. Laura creates the impression
that she's forever going to be a misfit. The world is simply too harsh for her. She
confesses to Jim how awkward she felt in high school. She wore a brace on her leg and
believed that everyone in school noticed her "clumping" around. As people grow older
they usually overcome feelings of shyness. Why didn't Laura?
In spite of her fragility, though, Laura is the most serene member of her family. She
leaves the worrying to Amanda and Tom. Sometimes she may remind you of a child
who creates havoc and doesn't know it. In her innocence, Laura doesn't realize how Tom
and Amanda bleed for her.
It's possible to think of Laura as merely a timid, neurotic little girl, totally absorbed in
her own troubles. But can you find more substance in her character? Is she sensitive to
Amanda and to Tom in any way? Does she contribute to the well being of her family?
You may not have to search far to find likeable and sympathetic traits in Laura's
personality.
Laura hides in her make-believe world. Only once, during Jim O'Connor's visit, does
she venture out of it into the world of reality. Jim has given Laura a bit of selfconfidence.
He even convinces her to dance with him. During the dance, they bump the
table, knocking the glass unicorn to the floor and breaking off its single horn. Do you
see the symbolism of this mishap? Laura, for a short time, feels like any other girl who
has been swept off her feet by the boy of her dreams. Unfortunately for Laura, though,
the time of her life lasts no more than a few minutes.
When Tom leaves home for good, why do thoughts of Laura haunt his memory? Is he
plagued by guilt? Does he love her more than a brother should? Does Laura have
charms that have gotten under his skin?
l JIM O'CONNOR
Tom tells you in his opening speech that Jim is an emissary from the world of reality. If
that is so, reality must be a fairly dull place, for Jim is a nice, but rather ordinary, young
man. On the surface, he is well-mannered, hard-working, and responsible. He is a
pleasant guest, and he dutifully entertains Laura after dinner. He does all you'd expect
him to. Why, then, is Jim so disappointing?
Even Jim himself knows that he's a disappointment, although he puts up a smoothtalking
and self-confident front. When you consider his admirable high school record,
he should be racing up the ladder of success by now. Instead, he's still in the pack.
Common wisdom, which Jim believes, says that if you work hard, you'll succeed. Jim
has worked hard, but he hasn't succeeded. So he takes self-improvement courses in
public speaking, thinking that greater "social poise" will help him land the executive
position of his dreams. He's also studying radio engineering in order to get in on the
ground floor of the new television industry. He seems to be doing all the right things
and saying the right things, too, about opportunity and progress in America. But the
ideas sound trite, as though Jim is mouthing someone else's words.
Although he's trying hard, you never know if Jim will make it big. Perhaps he will. On
the other hand, when you recall that illusion dominates the play, you might suspect that
Jim's plans are pure fancy, and that he's placed too much faith in a hollow dream. In the
end, he may just plod along like everyone else.
After dinner at the Wingfields Jim is pleased with himself for winning Laura so easily.
His conquest reminds him of his high school days when he held the world in his hands.
Laura is good for his ego. He's driven to pursue his dream, even if he has to step on
others as he goes. Finally, he dismisses Laura with the news that he's engaged. Dinner at
the Wingfields' turns out to be only a brief stop along the way to elusive success.
Should Jim have revealed his engagement earlier in the evening? Was he under any
obligation to do so? Or was it all right for him to wait until the end of his visit? If he had
told his marriage plans earlier, Laura would have missed a few moments of happiness.
Does that fact by itself justify Jim's action? What would you have done under similar
circumstances?
[The Glass Menagerie and A Streetcar Named Desire Contents]
OTHER ELEMENTS
SETTING
The whole play is set in the Wingfields' apartment, which faces an alley in the downtown slums
of St. Louis. In the stage directions Tennessee Williams draws a vivid picture of the place. It's
cramped and dark, almost like a jail cell. You can't tell it apart from the thousands of other
apartments occupied by people trapped in drab and joyless lives. No one in the family wants to
live there. But poverty forces them to. It shouldn't surprise you that "escape" develops into a
major theme in the play.
The drawing shows you how the apartment might be arranged for a performance. In addition to
the usual rooms, there is an important fire escape off to one side. The characters in the play
sometimes stand on the fire escape. Tom delivers his speeches to the audience from there. The
family uses it to go in and out every day. But it's an "escape" only in name because the people
living here are "fundamentally enslaved" in their lower middle-class lives.
Across the alley you see the Paradise Dance Hall. Much of the music you hear during the play
comes from there. Sometimes the melodies are subtle comments on events taking place in the
Wingfield apartment. Almost every detail of the setting in some manner suggests a theme or
contributes an idea to the play. Consider, for instance, the name "Paradise Dance Hall." The
young people who meet and dance there will soon be going to war. Many will be killed. Could
Williams be implying that this two-bit dance hall is as close to paradise as those boys and girls
will ever get?
Think also of the smiling photo of Mr. Wingfield prominently displayed on the wall. Isn't it
odd that Amanda, who expresses disdain for her husband, keeps it there? Perhaps Amanda
preserves the photograph as a souvenir, a remembrance from the past. Or the photo, which
hangs in the living room, may also be kept there to serve as a daily reminder to the
Wingfieldsespecially
Tom- that escape is possible.
When Tom steps onto the fire escape to introduce you to the play, the 1940's have begun, and
World War II is raging. In his story, he takes you back to the 1930's, a decade of hopeless
depression.
You might ask why Tennessee Williams wants you to know the world situation during the time
of the story. After all, affairs of state don't directly touch Tom and the other characters. Is the
play, then, meant to be more than just a drama of family life? Can you find parallels between
the events in the apartment and events in the world? Would the play be less poignant if you
didn't know about the civil war in Spain, the massive poverty of the Great Depression, and the
growth of Nazism? As you think about the play, these are questions worth considering.
THEMES
The following are themes of The Glass Menagerie.
1. ILLUSION
We all have illusions. You can hardly live without them. Usually, they are harmless
thoughts about, say, last summer's vacation or that very attractive person you just met.
Whenever you hold an opinion based on what you think is true, or should be true, rather
than what actually is true, that's an illusion. Because illusions sometimes help you deal
with painful facts, like good medicine they make you feel better. But when you are
disillusioned, the pain returns.
The characters in The Glass Menagerie are hooked by their illusions. Without illusion,
Amanda would realize the hopelessness of Laura's condition. In fact, it's because of her
illusions that Amanda keeps her hopes alive for that "always expected something" to
rescue Laura from a life of dependency. Initially, Amanda thinks that a good typing
course will help Laura pull herself together. And later in the play, Amanda foolishly
counts on Jim to be Laura's prince charming. Amanda, of course, also has illusions
about herself. Whether she really entertained seventeen gentleman callers one Sunday
afternoon is beside the point. What counts is that she believes it. Illusions, you see, can
be very powerful.
Tom suffers from illusions, too, by expecting to find adventure in the movies. When he
leaves home and joins the merchant navy he anticipates more adventure. Does that fire
escape lead to romance and glamor? Study his final speech for an answer. Note that
Tom is haunted by reminders of Laura. Is escape, in the end, an illusion, too?
The imaginary world of glass animals provides Laura's refuge from reality. But in her
case, illusion may be perilous, for her menagerie serves as a substitute for life. How
long can she go on playing with the glass collection before disillusion strikes?
Jim O'Connor, like the other young people Tom tells you about, is also living in an
illusion. When success eludes him he places faith in the future. But the future he counts
on is an illusion, for there's a terrible war just around the corner that's going to change
the world forever.
2. ESCAPE
The theme of illusion is first cousin to the theme of escape in The Glass Menagerie, for
all the play's characters believe incorrectly that escape from their present situation in life
is possible. Tom tries repeatedly to escape from tedium and responsibility. Amanda
indulges at times in reveries about her girlhood. The glass menagerie serves as Laura's
means of escape from reality, and Jim tries desperately to escape from his dead-end job
by taking public speaking and radio courses.
Observe that no character in the play makes a clean break from this situation.
Correction: only Mr. Wingfield escapes- at the expense of his family's happiness, but
that took place before the play begins.
A fire escape symbolically points the way out of the Wingfield apartment. But when
Laura uses it, she stumbles. When Tom leaves for good he claims to follow in his
father's footsteps, but he is pursued by "something." A powerful love? Guilt? He tried to
leave Laura behind, but couldn't. His closing speech reveals how securely he is bound to
the past.
What conclusion about escape can you draw from the situation in the play? Does the
play advise you to make the best of what you've got, because change is impossible?
Note Mr. Wingfield's smiling portrait. Does the grin tell you anything? 3. FRAGILITY
Can you think of anyone who embodies the idea of fragility better than Laura? Both
physically and psychologically, she is fragile. A childhood disease left her with a slight
limp. Under the everyday stresses of life, her composure shatters, and she can't complete
her typing course. The thought of receiving a gentleman caller makes her sick. How
fitting for Laura to keep a menagerie of delicate glass animals of which the unicorn- the
"freakish" one- is her favorite.
The characters in The Glass Menagerie have built their lives on a fragile foundation of
illusions. Take away their illusions and which of them would not break?
In 1939, the time of the play, world peace is in a fragile state. The lives of the young
lovers who kiss in the alley will soon be shattered by big guns and heavy
bombardments.
4. LIGHT
Because The Glass Menagerie is a memory play, the setting is dimly lighted. Dim lights
keep details from being seen, for details fade from the memory first.
The electric company turns off the Wingfields' power. Then the characters must resort
to candles, which soften the illumination and add the aura of romance to Jim's visit with
Laura.
Light shining through little glass objects often gives off tiny spots of rainbow color. A
rainbow, as you probably know from the old song, is something you chase. And in
biblical myth, the rainbow is the symbol of a promise. But when you get close it
vanishes. It's an illusion, a false promise, like so much else in the play. Tom recognizes
the illusory quality of rainbows. He says the pleasures offered by the Paradise Dance
Hall were "like a chandelier [which] flooded the world with brief deceptive rainbows."
Notice also that the scarf given as a souvenir by Malvolio the Magician is rainbowcolored.
In the end, what is it that keeps Laura embedded in Tom's memory? Shop
windows, "filled with pieces of colored glass... like bits of shattered rainbow."
Tom associates images of Laura with candlelight. To rid himself of the haunting
memories of his sister, he implores Laura to "blow out your candles." At the same time
Tom may be urging Laura out of her dimly lit past. Her world of candlelight and little
glass animals will no longer do, for "nowadays the world is lit by lightning."
5. FAILURE AND THE MYTH OF SUCCESS
Amanda believes in several common myths about money, success, and working hard.
She thinks that money, for example, buys happiness. If she had only married one of
those rich gentlemen callers....
Then, too, she admires sophisticated society, the "horsey set" portrayed in the magazine
stories she sells.
Success, in her view, comes from hard work and from saving your money for the future.
Amanda is convinced that Tom will be successful if he tries hard. Laura will also
succeed if she learns to type. Plan for the future, Amanda advises. Make provisions and
save money. To Tom's dismay, she calculates how much money he could save if he
stopped smoking. With his savings he could enroll in an accounting course at the
university.
Jim O'Connor also chases a dream. He tries to sell Tom "a bill of goods" about success,
for he's already bought one that says if you work hard, take the right courses, show selfassurance,
and believe in the future of capitalism you'll make it big. But Jim has made
little progress since high school, and with the war coming on, the path to success is
likely to be detoured.
The personal failure of all the characters in the play in some ways parallels the larger
social failure of America. The Depression turned millions of American dreams into
nightmares. And the only way out was no better. It took a catastrophic war to release the
country from poverty and fear.
STYLE
Almost from the outset you know that The Glass Menagerie is going to be a poetic play. Your
first clue is Tom's playful use of words. Tom announces, "He gives you illusion that has the
appearance of truth. I give you truth in the pleasant disguise of illusion." He also uses
metaphors ("the middle class of America was matriculating in a school for the blind"), and his
language is often alliterative as in "fingers pressed forcibly down on the fiery Braille...." But in
case you missed all that, Tom declares outright, "I have a poet's weakness for symbols."
It is not only Tom who endows the play with poetry. Amanda also has a gift for words. She's
especially fond of colorful, figurative language. You'll find some in almost all her lengthy
speeches, as in her lecture to Laura about the hopelessness of the future (Scene Two): "-stuck
away in some little mousetrap of a room... like birdlike women without any nest- eating the
crust of humility...."
Because Tennessee Williams had his own mother in mind when he created Amanda, he tried to
make her sound like a dignified Southern lady. (Her lines ought to be spoken with a Southern
drawl.) Nothing tasteless or vulgar passes her lips. She often uses the sort of flowery language
you'd expect to hear on a veranda in the Old South: "liquid refreshment" for drink, "position"
instead of job, and "handsome appearance" rather than good looks.
In addition, Amanda wants to impose her taste in words on her children. She rejects Tom's
books as "filth." Also, because she thinks the word "cripple" is offensive, she won't permit
Laura to use it. Of course Amanda may deny the word because she refuses to allow Laura to
pity herself.
As you study the play some of the symbols, such as Laura's glass menagerie, will virtually
explain themselves. You can't miss the similarity between the delicate glass animals and
Laura's fragility. On the other hand, you'll have to dig a little to find symbolic meaning in, say,
the breaking of the unicorn. At first Jim is a unique hero. But he turns out to be quite ordinary,
after all, just as the broken unicorn resembles an ordinary horse. Similarly, during the evening
of Jim's visit Laura emerges briefly from her make-believe world into the world of real people
leading ordinary lives.
Symbols come in a variety of forms in The Glass Menagerie. You can readily assign symbolic
importance to objects (e.g., candles, rainbows, typewriter chart) and to actions (Laura's tripping
on the fire escape, Tom's moviegoing). Tom describes Jim O'Connor as a symbolic character
who represents deferred hopes for the future. Many of the images projected on the screen
suggest deeper meanings, too. Take, for example, "Jolly Roger" (Tom's desire for adventure)
and "Annunciation" (the news that Jim is coming to dinner). Perhaps the whole play, acted out
behind transparent screens and dimly lit, symbolizes the workings of memory. As you search
through the text for symbols you're not likely to come up empty handed. But guard against
turning everything into a symbol. You need to support your interpretations with solid evidence
from the play.
POINT OF VIEW
Tom is both a character in the play and the play's narrator. At the very beginning and at several
points along the way Tom, as narrator, stands on the fire escape outside the Wingfields'
apartment and addresses you directly. He tells you about a period of time- about three or four
years ago- when he broke away from his mother and sister and became a wanderer. He also
sets the scene, establishes the mood, comments on the world situation, and gives you
background information.
You know how hard it sometimes is to remember details of events that happened only
yesterday? Tom knows, too, that you can't always depend on your memory. So rather than
trying to re-create precisely what took place several years ago, he presents the story
unrealistically. At dinner, for example, the characters don't use real dishes and utensils. They
pretend to be eating. And if the actors are good, the illusion is quite satisfactory.
"Memory," the playwright tells you in his stage directions, "takes a lot of poetic license"
because it is "seated predominantly in the heart." Consider Williams' words a fair warning that
what you see on stage is only approximately what happened in reality. Every event has been
filtered by time and by Tom's feelings. Amanda's nagging is supposed to irritate you, just as it
irritates Tom. If at any time you find Laura particularly lovely or especially helpless, consider
those impressions to be Tom's, too. In short, Tom is your emotional guide through the play.
You may notice that Tom's vision extends even beyond what he actually saw or experienced.
Some scenes include only Laura and Amanda or Jim O'Connor. Since Tom can't know exactly
what happened when he wasn't there, he invents dialogue and action and shows you what might
have occurred. Is that a flaw in the play?
When people look back to the past, do they recall the good things more readily than the bad?
Does Tom? Or do his memories seem more bitter than sweet? Or are his recollections flavored
by both? Tom often speaks ironically. Note how he describes Amanda on the phone in Scene
Three. Is Tom's humor biting? Or do you find it gentle, touched by nostalgia? Tom calls the
play "sentimental," which suggests Tennessee Williams' intentions.
FORM AND STRUCTURE
The play has seven scenes. The first four take place over a few days' time during the winter
season. The remaining scenes occur on two successive evenings during the following spring.
Since the play contains no formal "acts," a director can prescribe an intermission at any time.
How would you divide the play if you were directing a performance? In formulating your
answer take into account the passage of time, climactic moments in the play, and the
development of the characters. Why do you suppose Williams chose not to tell you where to
break the action?
Williams attempted to unify the several episodes by devising a series of projected images and
words on a screen, but most directors don't bother using the technique. The story, they feel, can
stand unaided, despite repeated jumps between present and past.
Tom, the narrator, exists in the present. He talks directly to the audience at the start of the play,
at the openings of Scenes Three and Six, and again at the end. Also, he steps briefly into the
narrator's shoes part way through Scene Five.
The rest of the time Tom is a character in the play. Even at those times, however, your focus is
shifted to the past. Amanda, for example, frequently recalls her life as a young girl, and Laura
and Jim refer to their high school days, which ended six years before.
Because the play comes from Tom's memory, time loses its usual sequence and structure in
The Glass Menagerie. In your memory, thoughts can bounce at will between the recent and
distant past. That may explain the play's flow of events. During most of the play Tom's
memory is fastened to the period just before he leaves home. Each episode in the play helps to
explain why in the end Tom had no choice but to escape. If you examine his closing speech,
however, you'll see whether or not he truly escaped.
THE STORY
THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES
[The Glass Menagerie and A Streetcar Named Desire Contents] [The Study Web
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© Copyright 1985 by Barron's Educational Series, Inc.
Electronically Enhanced Text © Copyright 1993, World Library, Inc.
The Glass Menagerie
Tennessee Williams
THE STORY
SCENE ONE
Tennessee Williams gives you a lengthy set of stage directions at the start. He wants you to see
the run-down tenement where the Wingfield family lives, and he wants to create a mood that
combines dinginess, desperation and depression. After you are familiar with the play, return to
the opening scene and reexamine Williams' choice of details: the fire escape, the alley, the
blown-up photo of smiling Mr. Wingfield, and the typewriter keyboard chart. All, you will see,
play important roles somewhere in The Glass Menagerie.
When Tom steps out on the fire escape to talk to the audience, he tells you the social
background of the play (the 1930's). He introduces himself and the play's other characters,
including his father. Although Mr. Wingfield shows up only in his photograph, he's an
influential character in the play. Later on you'll see why.
By the end of Tom's opening speech you know a great deal about him. From his appearance
you know he is a merchant sailor. You know, too, that he has a way with words and a "poet's
weakness for symbols." His first words- "Yes, I have tricks in my pocket"- alert you to his
playful disposition. He's going to trick you by giving you truth in the guise of illusion. That is,
he's going to tell you a true story but make it seem unreal. Illusions, you'll soon see, pile up one
after the other as the play proceeds.
NOTE: ON ILLUSION
The very nature of theater depends on illusion. When you watch a play you make believe that
the actors on stage are the characters they portray. The better the acting, the more easily you
accept the illusion. Here Tom forewarns you that the play is unreal. The characters, setting,
props, effects, and so on are not meant to be real but rather to serve as metaphors and symbols
of reality.
While illusion is part of any play, it is particularly vital in this one. Illusion, in fact, is a major
theme. The characters survive because their illusions protect them from the painful facts of
their lives. As you continue, keep in mind that illusions can prove to be self-destructive as well
as helpful. Do the Wingfields' illusions create damage, or are they merely harmless aspects of
their personalities?
The very first "trick" Tom has in store is a quick change in identity. In a moment, he leaves his
role as narrator and as a younger man walks into the Wingfield dining room to join his mother
Amanda and sister Laura at supper.
NOTE: Tom shifts between his role as narrator and his role as a character several times
during the play. As narrator Tom moves the story from one episode to the next, informs you
about himself and his family, and describes the social and political context of the play. Try to
compare Tom's personality in his two roles. The narration takes place years after the story's
events occurred. Do you notice differences between the two Toms? Which do you prefer? Think
of what might have happened to him between the time he left his family and the time he comes
back to tell his story.
Tom wishes he hadn't sat down, for no sooner does he start to eat than Amanda begins to
lecture him on the need to chew his food properly. If you've ever been scolded about your table
manners, you know how Tom feels. His mother gives advice kindly, but Tom can't stand it. He
bolts from the table and reaches for a cigarette. But Amanda doesn't like Tom's smoking any
more than his chewing.
NOTE: ON STAGING THE PLAY
Tom's cigarette is probably imagery, just like the knives and forks. Remember, the play is not
supposed to be realistic. Still another unrealistic feature is the use of legends and images
projected on a screen. The legend which preceded this dinner scene reads "Ou sont les neiges,"
a phrase from an old French poem which asks, "Where are the snows of yesteryear?" The
answer, of course, is "gone," just as the past is always gone. This legend lends an element of
nostalgia to your feelings for Amanda. Throughout the play you will find other phrases and
pictures. What, if anything, do they add to the play? Some critics have said they detract from
the drama. Do you agree?
Laura offers to bring in the dessert. Is she being helpful or does she simply want to avoid
listening to her mother nag Tom? Either way, Amanda stops Laura and says she'll play the
"darky," a word that gives you a clue to Amanda's origins. She's from the South.
From the kitchen, Amanda begins to tell her children about the gentlemen callers she had as a
girl in Blue Mountain. You can tell from Tom and Laura's reaction that they've heard the story
before. Laura listens politely. Tom, on the other hand, is skeptical and impatient. Their
reactions are important clues to their personalities and to the roles they play in the family.
Because the facts of the tale change from time to time, Tom teases Amanda and utters sarcastic
comments. He doesn't believe a word she says.
Does Amanda herself believe the story she's fond of telling? Does she really think that
seventeen wealthy young admirers came to call on her one Sunday afternoon in Blue
Mountain? You'll see later in the play that Amanda often twists truths. Does that mean she's a
liar? She doesn't deceive anyone, and she's not out to harm anyone with her inventions. In fact,
her intent is quite admirable, for she wants to help Laura find romance in her life. Many think
that she deserves a pat on the back for her efforts. Tom, however, rejects Amanda's fantasy.
SCENE TWO
Alone in the apartment, Laura washes and polishes her glass collection. At the sound of her
mother's footsteps outside, Laura hurriedly stows her menagerie and pretends to study the
typing chart on the wall. Why doesn't she want to be caught caring for her glass animals? At
the instant of Amanda's entrance, Laura starts to explain that she was just studying the chart.
But as though she sees right through the pretense, Amanda says, "Deception? Deception?" But
it's another deception that Amanda has in mind.
She acts brokenhearted, weeping and lamenting as though a terrible tragedy has occurred. She
makes the most of this opportunity to play the role of betrayed mother. She is so melodramatic
that you can't take her too seriously. She even yanks the typing chart from the wall and tears it
into pieces. Meanwhile, Laura behaves as though she can't possibly imagine what has kindled
Amanda's dismay. Laura may well suspect the origin of the trouble, however. For weeks she's
been skipping her typing classes at Rubicam's Business College.
Sure enough, Amanda has found out. Typing seems like a fairly harmless course, but not for
one as fragile as Laura. The pressure made her so sick that she threw up at the school. Then,
instead of telling her mother, she has wandered the city each day until it was time to come
home. For Laura it was easier to visit the zoo or the park than to reveal the truth and see that
"awful suffering look" of disappointment on her mother's face. Does Laura's story sound
plausible? While it explains her truancy, does it excuse her deception?
NOTE: ON THEMES
Have you noticed that two interrelated themes- deception and illusion- have just appeared?
They will show up repeatedly in numerous variations throughout the play. You should have no
trouble spotting them.
In this scene both Amanda and Laura have practiced deception, pretending to be what they are
not: Laura posed as a student of typing, and Amanda as a mother crushed by her daughter's
betrayal. True, Amanda is wounded by Laura, but not to the extent she claims. Any time
Amanda meets hard unpleasant facts, she's likely to be hurt. Perhaps that's why she often
makes up illusions. Pretending keeps painful truths at arm's length.
For now, Amanda is caught in the illusion that Laura's problems will be solved by a typing
course. Would you agree that learning to type seems like an effective way to solve Laura's
problems? Laura herself doesn't seem to think so. She acts as though it's perfectly okay to play
with her menagerie instead of working. She chooses to walk in the park instead of owning up to
failure. When Laura says "I couldn't face it," she analyzes her condition accurately. She truly
cannot face reality. And when Amanda discovers the truth about Laura, she has the urge to
"find a hole in the ground and hide myself in it forever!"
Laura apparently fails to share her mother's concern about the future. She never talks about it,
and despite Amanda's warnings, she does nothing to prepare for it. Laura seems almost like a
small child in that respect.
Compared to Laura, Amanda is almost a realist. Experience has taught her that unless you earn
a living you will inevitably depend on others all your life, eating the "crust of humility."
Amanda asks Laura, "Is that the future we've mapped out for ourselves?"
The only choice left, of course, is marriage. Perhaps Amanda has considered it and discarded
the notion for Laura. Remember that her own marriage turned out badly. What would Laura do
if she, like Amanda, ended up with a runaway husband? Also, as far as we know, Laura has
never had a date.
Regardless, Amanda's spirits are revived by the thought of Laura's marriage. Since Laura isn't
cut out for a business career, she'll have to marry a nice young man. Laura objects: "I'mcrippled!"
But Amanda won't hear it. She doesn't even want Laura to say the word.
NOTE: Does Laura have a point? Is she truly "crippled"? She limps just slightly. Would you
say that she is more psychologically than physically crippled? What do you know about her
thus far to suggest that she'll always have a hard time functioning in the world?
Amanda cringes at the word "crippled." She told Laura never to use the word. Perhaps
Amanda believes in the power of words. That is, if you tell a lie often enough, after a while you
begin to believe it. In what respects does this saying seem to be valid in The Glass Menagerie?
SCENE THREE
Tom returns as narrator to tell you about Amanda's obsession: finding a nice young man to
marry Laura. If you have ever known someone with a one-track mind you can appreciate what
Amanda must have been like at the time. She even took a part-time job selling magazine
subscriptions by telephone to earn extra money for re-doing both Laura and the apartment.
Amanda is a woman of action as well as words.
While Tom doesn't object to his mother's frantic activities, he doesn't support them either.
Rather, he thinks they are amusing. At least he seems to poke gentle fun at Amanda's efforts.
But do you note an ache in Tom's recollection of Amanda on the telephone with Ida Scott? He
remembers how pathetically Amanda tried to ingratiate herself with a customer who obviously
didn't care. Rather than admit to his pain, Tom recalls the situation with bitter humor. Like
many people who demonstrate a talent for laughter when their emotions are stirred, Tom may
laugh to keep from crying. What does Tom's attitude reveal about his deepest feelings toward
his mother?
NOTE: As you continue with the play you'll have numerous chances to laugh at comical lines
(mostly Tom's) and situations. Some of the humor may be pure, unadulterated fun. But some of
it may strike you as humorous only until you realize that the words or actions grow out of the
characters' desperation. Would Amanda, for instance, find humor in Tom's rendition of her
quest to find Laura a husband?
When Tom steps back into his role in the play, you find him embroiled in a shouting match
with his mother. Evidently, she has interrupted him at his writing and has criticized the books
he reads. "I won't allow such filth brought into my house!" screams Amanda. Tom won't permit
Amanda to claim their apartment as "my house," for his salary pays the rent. Consider Tom's
reasoning. Does the fact that he is the family breadwinner give him the right to disregard his
mother's wishes?
The fury between mother and son intensifies. Tom is about to curse at his mother and rush out
the door. Laura desperately calls out: "Tom!" At the sound of her voice, the shouting
diminishes. Tom, now in control of his passion, talks intensely to Amanda about how he hates
the life he leads.
NOTE: ON LAURA
Do you find yourself taking sides in the fight between Amanda and Tom? You're not given
much choice when the antagonists are a bossy, narrow-minded woman and her selfish,
irresponsible son. Since Tom and Amanda will fight to a draw anyway, pay attention to Laura's
role in the conflict. Isn't she, after all, the reason that Tom and Amanda fight? If there were no
Laura, Tom would probably have moved out of the house long ago, and Amanda would have
no one to worry about but herself. As in all families, each member has a particular function. In
the Wingfield household, Laura serves as peacemaker. You'll see her step between Tom and
Amanda several more times in the play.
Tom's catalog of grievances includes a miserable job at the Continental Shoemakers
warehouse. He also hates living in this wretched little apartment where he has a nagging
mother, no privacy, and nothing to call his own. He feels like a slave to his job and family.
Every morning when Amanda's piercing "Rise and shine!" awakens him, he'd prefer to be dead.
No, he's not selfish, Tom replies to Amanda's accusation. If he were, he'd be like his fathergone!
Does Amanda lack compassion for her own son? It may seem so at times. Perhaps fear of the
future and anxiety for Laura blind her to Tom's problems. All she can think of is that Tom's
erratic and irresponsible behavior jeopardizes her security as well as Laura's. Since both she
and Laura depend on Tom for life's necessities, does she have a good reason to be
apprehensive? How would you feel about depending on Tom for your livelihood?
As Tom starts to leave again, Amanda grabs at him. "Where are you going?"
"I'm going to the movies!" he replies brutally.
She calls him a liar, an accusation which launches him into a semi-tragic, semi-comic list of his
nightly sins. Although you can find humor in Tom's speech, you may also be struck by the
bitterness of his words. Although his speech is one of the funniest moments in the play, its tone
is bitter and sarcastic. Tom concludes by calling Amanda an "ugly- babbling old- witch...."
As he rushes from the apartment, his arm gets caught in the sleeve of his bulky coat.
Impatiently, he hurls the coat away. It strikes the shelf holding Laura's menagerie, shattering
the glass animals. Laura is stunned. When you consider how highly Laura values her
menagerie, its wreckage probably marks a turning point in her life. But how sharply she might
change remains to be seen. Do you think she has the capacity to change very much?
NOTE: You have seen that all the characters feel trapped by the circumstances of their lives.
Since people naturally seek freedom, each has figured out a way to escape, at least
temporarily: Amanda uses her illusions, Laura retires to her glass collection, Tom goes to the
movies. How well each of these escape mechanisms works becomes clear in the next few
scenes. Pay particular heed to Laura. See if the breaking of the glass menagerie sets her free
from her illusory world. On the other hand, the damage to the glass could have the reverse
effect. That is, it could shatter her inner peace.
Deeply hurt, Amanda calls after Tom, "I won't speak to you- until you apologize."
SCENE FOUR
Slightly drunk, Tom returns to the apartment at five in the morning. Laura opens the door for
him. Last night, Tom explains, he went to the movie theater. The stage show featured Malvolio
the Magician. (In those days, when you went to the movies, you were offered a full range of
entertainment. Movies were often accompanied by live performances.) Malvolio performed
tricks of illusion that had the appearance of truth: turning water to wine, then to beer, then to
whiskey. But the best trick was Malvolio's escape from a nailed up coffin. Tom says bitterly,
"There is a trick that would come in handy for me- get me out of this two-by-four situation."
NOTE: Tom's references to magic and illusions should call to mind the opening of Scene One.
You have already observed several examples of deception and illusion in the characters'
actions. Stay alert for more in the scenes ahead.
Tom's allusion to his trap- his "two-by-four situation"- reveals that escape is never far from his
thoughts. Would it have startled you to learn that Tom had taken permanent leave from home
last night after his blow-up with Amanda? He had a tailor-made opportunity to go, but here he
is, back again. Why did he come back? What might it take to drive him off for good?
After you hear the six o'clock church bells, Amanda starts her day. Although she's still angry
about last night, she unleashes a few "rise and shines" in Tom's direction, but she won't talk to
her son. Laura, the peacemaker, tries without luck to get Tom to apologize to Amanda. What
do you suppose prevents him from making up?
Soon Amanda sends Laura on an errand to the deli. Laura objects, however. She is afraid to
face the scowling deli man when she asks for credit. But she goes, and then slips on the fire
escape on her way out.
NOTE: ON SYMBOLISM
It may seem like a trivial incident, but Laura's stumble shouldn't be ignored. Why did the
playwright have her stumble on the fire escape? Symbolically, it could suggest the perils of
entering the real world.
Some readers object to the search for symbolic meaning in every action or word. Be assured,
however, that symbolism in The Glass Menagerie is not accidental. Tennessee Williams stated
at the outset that the play is full of symbols, but ultimately you're the one who must decide
whether to take his statement at face value. You needn't seek symbols in every line of dialogue
and each piece of stage business. But if you uncover symbolic treasures as you continue,
studying the play may be that much richer an experience for you.
In this scene thus far you might consider the potential symbolism in Tom's rainbow-colored
scarf, and the illumination of Mr. Wingfield's photograph. You'll soon be hearing the strains of
"Ave Maria," perhaps reminding you that Amanda resembles a suffering madonna when she is
deeply disappointed by her children.
As soon as Tom apologizes, you see the gradual return of the old Amanda. First she bemoans
her fate and then plays the role of a hurt and troubled mother: "My devotion has made me a
witch and so I make myself hateful to my children." What can Tom possibly say in reply,
especially after he has just apologized?
Amanda doesn't give up easily. She wants to discuss Tom's drinking and moviegoing again,
hoping that Tom will see the connection between his habits and his sister's future. Tom
explains that because he's restless for adventure, he goes to the movies. Amanda asserts that
most men find adventure in their careers. Of all people, though, Amanda knows how
comforting a short flight into illusion can be. So she accepts, somewhat reluctantly, Tom's
reasons for his nightly escape. Instead of trying futilely to restrain him, Amanda makes a deal
with him. She will not hold him back if, in return, he provides a man for Laura.
Tom has been manipulated by Amanda, but he doesn't seem to mind. He probably views the
deal as a small price to pay for freedom. As he goes off to work, he agrees to bring home a
friend from the warehouse.
SCENE V
Winter has surrendered to spring. The legend projected on the screen reads "Annunciation,"
suggesting that in this scene an announcement of some note will be made.
NOTE: The "Annunciation" refers to the biblical account of the angel Gabriel's announcement
to the Virgin Mary that she was to bear the son of God. The annunciation in this scene may not
seem quite as momentous as the original, but to Amanda it is almost as important, as you will
see. Also, the feast of the Annunciation is celebrated on March 25, so the legend on the screen
helps to note the arrival of spring.
The months have not altered Amanda. She still badgers Tom and laments his lack of ambition.
She's still hoping that Tom will settle down, and find contentment as a CPA. Tired of the
nagging, Tom retreats to the fire escape, where, as narrator again, he addresses the audience.
He observes life outside the Wingfield apartment. Every evening, young couples used to come
to the Paradise Dance Hall to while away hours dancing or kissing in the adjacent alley. That,
Tom says, was their form of escape from dull, dreary lives.
Little did these young people know that change was approaching in the form of war. Many of
them would be killed fighting the Nazis. But in their innocence, they danced to the music of
"The World is Waiting for the Sunrise." As Tom comments, the wait was really for
"bombardments."
NOTE: Tom names people and places associated with the coming of World War II.
Berchtesgaden
Hitler's mountain headquarters.
Chamberlain
British prime minister blamed for failing to stop Hitler's march across Europe.
Guernica
a Spanish town destroyed by the fascists in 1937 and which became a symbol for
atrocities against innocent people. Pablo Picasso's "Guernica" painting, depicting the
horrors of war, is world famous.
On this warm spring evening Amanda joins Tom on the fire escape. While talking with Tom,
she sounds much like a young girl flirting with a gentleman caller on the plantation porch. Tom
uses the opportunity to give Amanda the news she's been wanting to hear for many months. He
has invited a young man, Jim O'Connor, to dinner- tomorrow!
Amanda is ecstatic, of course, but also very businesslike, thinking of what has to be done to
prepare for the guest. Her mind races through the list of chores: do the laundry, polish the
silver, put up fresh curtains, plan the menu. She quizzes Tom about Jim's job, background, and
looks. She wants to know especially if he drinks. Jim would not be right for Laura if he were a
drinking man. Although she's just heard of the invitation, Amanda speaks of Jim as Laura's
future husband, as a man with family responsibilities. Amanda has probably imagined this
moment so often, has anticipated every detail of the courtship, that the news merely triggers the
plan into action.
Tom tries to yank Amanda back to reality. He hasn't told Jim about Laura's existence. The
invitation was casual, not couched in terms of "don't you want to meet my sister?"
Furthermore, Tom reminds Amanda, Laura is not one to make an instant good impression.
She's peculiar, living "in a world of her own- a world of little glass ornaments... She plays old
phonograph records and- that's about all."
Tom's accurate description of Laura troubles Amanda. But it's only a temporary setback. She
has too much invested in her illusion to be waylaid by the truth.
SCENE SIX
You're soon to meet Jim O'Connor, the man designated by Amanda to rescue Laura from a life
of dependency. Early in his narration, Tom called Jim a symbolic figure- "the long-delayed but
always expected something that we live for." At the start of this scene Tom tells you about the
real Jim O'Connor:
Tom recalls that Jim was the most revered student at Soldan High School- popular, talented,
athletic- the kind everyone envies. You suspect, too, that Jim is the high school hero Laura
liked years ago. But the real world failed to treat Jim as kindly as the world of school. Six years
after graduation, he holds only a modest job at the Continental Shoemakers warehouse.
Because Tom remembered the days of Jim's triumphs, Jim valued Tom's friendship. He also
nicknamed Tom "Shakespeare" for his habit of writing poetry in the warehouse bathroom
during slow hours.
Jim's arrival approaches. Amanda has brightened up the apartment overnight. Laura wears a
new dress. The stage directions say that a "fragile, unearthly prettiness has come out in Laura:
she is like a piece of translucent glass touched by light, given a momentary radiance, not actual,
not lasting." Do you find the last few phrases of that description ominous? Is Laura's prettiness
an illusion?
Amanda intends to snare the unsuspecting Mr. O'Connor. The final touch is her own
"spectacular appearance." She dons the same party dress that she wore as a girl- the one she
wore the day she met her future husband. The garment is totally out of place in a St. Louis
tenement, but to Amanda, for the time being, the apartment could just as well be a mansion in
Mississippi on the night of the Governor's Ball. Can there be any doubt that Amanda has
attempted to re-create a piece of her own youth? If Laura can't win Mr. O'Connor with her
lovely fragility, Amanda intends to overwhelm him with charm.
Amanda has kept Jim's name from Laura until now, just a few minutes before her prospective
beau is due to arrive. Another little deception, Amanda? Laura is horrified by the revelation.
She's overcome with fright and claims to feel sick. She refuses to open the door when the
knock comes. Instead, she darts to the record player, her safe haven. But Amanda forces her to
let Jim in.
Jim acknowledges Laura, but hardly notices her. He's too involved in telling Tom about a
public speaking course he's taking. Jim is also intent on advising Tom to shape up at the
warehouse. The boss disapproves of Tom's work and has talked about firing him.
The warning doesn't trouble Tom. Rather, he almost welcomes it because he knows that he has
completed his side of the bargain with Amanda. He tells Jim that he's ready to quit the job
anyway. He's even tired of the vicarious thrills he gets in the movies. He wants firsthand
excitement now. Tom shows Jim a Union of Merchant Seamen card, which he bought with
money that he should have used to pay the light bill. Jim, however, dismisses Tom's revelations
as hot air. Could it be that Jim doesn't believe his friend, or that he doesn't understand him?
Presently Amanda, oozing charm, joins the two young men. Her appearance shocks Tom. Even
Jim is taken aback slightly. Amanda must think that talking nonstop is the best way to impress
Jim. She plunges ahead at full throttle, skipping from topic to topic at random. This is Amanda
in her prime, entertaining a flock of gentleman callers in Blue Mountain.
Tom is embarrassed, but Jim, after his initial shock, is won over. He nods and smiles at
Amanda's monologue, and during the remainder of the scene says literally only one single
word.
Meanwhile Laura remains terror stricken in the kitchen. Her illness is not feigned. Fear has
brought on a fever. Amanda explains to Jim that Laura became ill standing over a hot stove.
Tom helps Laura into the living room to lie down.
SCENE SEVEN
Although Laura lies huddled on the couch all through dinner, Amanda remains cheerful. She's
so high spirited that you'd think that Jim was invited to dinner for her and not for Laura.
No sooner does the scene start than the lights go out. Tom, you've heard, has not paid the light
bill, and the electric company has chosen this moment to cut off the power. Can you imagine
what Amanda might say about Tom's failure to pay the bill if Jim weren't present?
NOTE: ON "LIGHT"
You have seen numerous references to lights of all kinds throughout the play: moon, lightbulbs,
match flame, candlelight, torch, lightning. If moonlight conventionally symbolizes romance,
what could lightning represent? Could it be the harsh light of reality? When Tom remarks that
"nowadays the world is lit by lightning" he seems to be referring to war. Since a courtship of
sorts dominates this scene, you'll see many lights usually associated with romance: candles,
moonlight, and so forth. The abrupt loss of electricity, while reminding you that you can't
ignore the reality of paying your bills, also provides a convenient reason for using candles to
illuminate this "love" scene between Jim and Laura. At the same time, though, keep in mind
that the whole play is dimly lit to represent memory.
Amanda manages to remain charming despite the stress she must feel. But even as she banters
with Jim, you'll hear hints of seriousness. In a few sentences of apparently light conversation,
she mentions the "mysterious universe," the "high price for negligence," and "everlasting
darkness." Perhaps these phrases have been included to prepare you for things to come in the
play, although you should guard against reading something too ominous into the words.
Finally, Amanda sends Jim into the living room to keep Laura company. To light his way, she
gives him an old candelabrum, a relic from the burned-down Church of the Heavenly Rest.
NOTE: ON CHRISTIAN REFERENCE
Are you tempted to seek a symbolic meaning in the church candelabrum? This isn't the first
reference to religion in the play, but it comes at a crucial moment. Amanda may view Jim as a
"savior" of sorts as he goes to talk to Laura. Could that be the reason she equips him with a
holy object? Jim as a Christ figure may be hard for you to accept. Nevertheless, he has been
summoned to save Laura. And don't ignore the fact that earlier in the play Amanda plans fish
for dinner because Jim is Irish Catholic. Fish, you may know, is a traditional symbol for
Christ.
We're about to find out if Amanda's carefully laid plan- or would you prefer to call it a trap?will work as she hopes. Jim sits down with Laura and talks with her warmly. Frightened and
breathless as usual, Laura listens.
Jim dominates the conversation. He's friendly and self assured. Maybe he's practicing what he
learned in his courses on how to be successful. His monologue may remind you of Amanda's
behavior earlier in the evening. Is he trying to win Laura's admiration as he was won over by
Amanda?
Jim obviously likes to talk about himself. Laura is just the opposite. As soon as Jim swings the
topic of conversation to Laura's shyness, notice how nimbly Laura tosses the ball back to Jim.
Laura raises the subject of Jim's singing. It's her way of reminding him that they've met before.
As they talk, memories of high school come flooding back. Jim remembers that he called Laura
"Blue Roses," a name that rhymes with pleurosis, an ailment that kept Laura out of school for a
time. The name fits somehow, even six years later, because a blue rose, like Laura, is
"different," set apart from others. If you ever see a blue rose, you can bet it's one of a kind.
Laura steers the conversation to Jim's triumphant high school career. When she hands him their
high school yearbook (notice its name: The Torch!), Jim accepts it "reverently." To Jim, the
book is a precious record of his past glory.
Although he delights in recalling the past, Jim keeps his eye on the present. (Remember, Tom
labelled Jim "an emissary from the world of reality.") He confesses to Laura that he hasn't yet
accomplished all that he once hoped to. Jim's willingness to talk openly emboldens Laura. She
asks about Jim's high school sweetheart. The news that he dropped her long ago sends Laura's
insides into a tumult. Instinctively, she reaches for her glass menagerie, her haven in times of
stress.
Laura wouldn't think of Jim as her "savior" in the religious sense. Yet, he shows the zeal of a
missionary in his effort to redeem Laura from lifelong feelings of inferiority. Notice his long,
sermon-like speeches about the proper way to lead one's Life. Christ taught many moral lessons
through example. In his preaching, Jim cites his own actions to illustrate self-confidence.
Will Jim actually rescue Laura from misery? If you think so, you're seeing Jim through
rosecolored
glasses, the way Amanda and Laura do. On the other hand, if Jim strikes you as just an
ordinary fellow out for a pleasant evening, you're probably more realistic about him. Look
closely at his behavior. Does he truly intend to change Laura? Or does he brag a bit only to
boost his own ego?
His advice to Laura could just as well be delivered to himself. It heightens still more his desire
to keep striving for success. He's even moved to sing the praises of American democracy.
NOTE: Jim's vision of American democracy is cloudy. It's based on his naive belief that a
young person with the right connections and a few night school courses in executive behavior
will zoom to the top of the corporate ladder. But how many young people achieve success that
way? Jim's plan sounds like an obsolete success myth- that is, an illusion. In addition, Jim
ignores the approach of World War II, a real event which postponed or upset virtually every
American's plans for the future.
Jim takes a polite interest in Laura's glass collection. Observe how respectfully Jim accepts
Laura's fantasy about her unicorn. A less sensitive person might ridicule Laura's notion that the
unicorn "loves the light," but not Jim. He's more appreciative than she could wish.
Then he asks Laura to dance. You have to admire him, for who would have thought that
anyone could ever get Laura to dance? While dancing they bump the table. The unicorn falls to
the floor. Its horn has broken off. Now it's like all the other horses.
NOTE: The symbolism of the unicorn's breakage is as transparent as the glass itself. But that
doesn't make it any less poignant or effective. Without its horn, the unicorn is no longer unique.
During the evening Laura has broken out of her world of unreality. She, too, has become less
"freakish." It's a significant moment in the play.
Jim blames himself for the mishap, but Laura seems not to mind at all. How much Laura has
changed! Recall that earlier in the play she had been distraught when Tom knocked the
menagerie shelf to the floor. Jim is struck by Laura's graceful good humor as well as by her
uniqueness. Suddenly, he's overcome by emotions he can't control. He is tongue tied. He can't
think of anything better to do than kiss Laura on the lips.
Jim immediately realizes his mistake. He shouldn't have led her on. Gently, he breaks the news
to Laura that he won't be calling again because he's engaged to Betty. Laura is speechless with
shock. As Tennessee Williams writes, "The holy candles on the altar of Laura's face have been
snuffed out." Jim asks Laura to speak, but she can't. Instead, she gives him the broken glass
unicorn as a souvenir. A souvenir of what? Of a happy evening? Maybe a token of appreciation
for his attempt to help her overcome her problem? Or does she intend to make him feel guilty?
Do you blame Jim for withholding the information about his engagement? Was it wrong for
Jim to lead Laura on under false pretenses? Or is he perfectly justified in doing so because he
had been invited to dinner only for the purpose of meeting Laura? You might sympathize with
him for being a victim of his own conflicting emotions. Perhaps he would like to love Laura,
but he feels compelled to hold back because she doesn't fit the mold of a business executive's
wife.
Amanda chooses this moment to serve lemonade. As bubbly as before, she encounters a tense
and somber situation in the living room. Her gaiety makes the news of Jim's engagement all the
more shocking. In a moment, Jim is out the door. Not only has Jim failed to be Laura's knight
in shining armor, but he hasn't even been an eligible candidate.
While the evening may not have been a disaster for Laura, it has been for Amanda. She casts
about for someone to blame. She won't blame herself, of course, although you might argue that
she should have known the risks of investing so much in one evening. Tom, therefore, has to be
responsible. Amanda's temper rises. She accuses Tom of deliberate deception, of living in a
dream world and manufacturing illusions. Do you see that Amanda could just as easily be
talking about herself? In this instance there may be truth in the old idea that we dislike in others
what we dislike about ourselves.
Tom refuses to take the blame. It was an innocent mistake, he claims, but Amanda refuses to
accept such an excuse. Tom knows his mother well enough to realize he has no hope of
dissuading her, so he immediately sets off for the movies. But, as you'll see, he goes much
farther. He has fulfilled his obligation at home and can do no more. As he leaves, Amanda
shouts after him, "Go to the moon- you selfish dreamer!"
Do you share Amanda's judgment that Tom is a selfish dreamer? You may also appreciate
Tom's desperation and his need to do what every young person must do at some point in life:
break from home and find one's own identity and place in the world.
NOTE: Tom leaves the apartment in a rage, but he doesn't leave St. Louis until he is fired from
his job. If you could look into Tom's head you might find considerable confusion. He wants to
leave home, but it's difficult to do so. He also may realize that he could fail to find his dream
out in the world. To guard against assuming total responsibility for possible failure, he waits
until he is fired. As a result, he can blame his boss instead of himself in case things turn out
badly. Tom, like his mother, needs a scapegoat.
Tom's closing speech reviews his wanderings since he left St. Louis. Does he believe that he
made the right choice to follow his father's footsteps? Did he find the adventure he sought in
the merchant navy? Tom declares that "cities swept about me like dead leaves... torn from the
branches." Does the statement suggest that world travel suited him?
Why did Tom apparently fail to find the romance he craved? Has life so embittered him that he
can't ever be saved from self-pity and sullenness? Or is he guilt ridden over deserting his
mother and sister? Still another possibility is that Tom was doomed to chase rainbows.
Adventure, romance, excitement- that's what you see in the movies. To pursue them in real life
amounts to self-deception, for they are often as elusive as illusions.
Tom can't shake loose his memories of the past. Images of Laura haunt him. His emotional ties
to the past may stretch, but they never break. Do you think we are all held captive by our past
or is Tom a special case? In the last moment of the play Laura blows out her candles, casting
the stage into total darkness. Williams has devised a dramatic ending to the play, but the action
also suggests that Tom has finally rid himself of Laura's memory. Why he should suddenly be
able to do so, however, is not totally clear. Perhaps the war, symbolized by lightning, has
changed everything, including the way men think.
A STEP BEYOND
THE PLAY
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The Glass Menagerie
Tennessee Williams
A STEP BEYOND
TESTS AND ANSWERS
TEST
_____ 1. Amanda frequently talks about her husband because she
A. still loves him in spite of the fact that he deserted her
B. fears that Tom will turn out to be like him
C. wants her children to know their family heritage
_____ 2. The setting of The Glass Menagerie is unrealistic because
I. it exists only in Tom's imagination
II. it is intended to be symbolic
III. Tom's memory of the details has faded
A. I, II, and III
B. I and III only
C. II and III only
_____ 3. Amanda recalls the gentlemen callers of the past whenever
A. the present becomes too painful to bear
B. she wants to impress others with her social background
C. Tom insults her
_____ 4. Laura usually listens to her mother's stories of Blue Mountain because she
A. enjoys hearing them
B. wants Amanda to enjoy recalling her girlhood
C. expects to learn how to be popular
_____ 5. Tom goes to the movies to
I. get away from Amanda
II. find adventure
III. compensate for the boredom of his life
A. I, II and III
B. I and II only
C. II and III only
_____ 6. Amanda and Tom get into an argument over
A. Tom's reading habits
B. money
C. Tom's indifference to Laura
_____ 7. Tom chooses to invite Jim O'Connor to meet Laura because
A. Jim and Laura knew each other in high school
B. he can't think of anyone else
C. he owes Jim a favor
_____ 8. The Paradise Dance Hall contributes to the play as a
I. symbol for temporary and illusory happiness
II. sign of the neighborhood's run-down condition
III. source of background music
A. I and III only
B. II and III only
C. I, II, and III
_____ 9. Laura gives Jim the broken unicorn because
A. she doesn't want him to forget her
B. she's grateful for his kindness
C. she wants him to have a wedding gift
_____ 10. Tom refers to cities as "dead leaves" because
A. they have no meaning to him
B. they have been destroyed by World War II
C. Laura is not with him
11. Why is The Glass Menagerie an appropriate title for this play?
12. Does this play have a villain? Explain.
13. To what extent is Tom responsible for his "two-by-four situation"?
14. Laura recalls how self-conscious she felt in high school while "clumping up the aisle." How
would you explain Jim's response that he "never even noticed"?
15. Which characters, if any, are better off at the end of the play than they were at the
beginning?
ANSWERS
1. B
2. C
3. A
4. B
5. A
6. A
7. B
8. C
9. B
10. A
11. Begin by assuming that the title is appropriate. The menagerie itself belongs to Laura and
symbolizes her fragility. But since the collection gives the play its title, Laura's animals
probably signify more. Think about the menagerie's other qualities. The animals are not real,
for example; they are copies. One piece, the unicorn, doesn't even represent a real animal.
Remember that the menagerie is not made of window glass. When you look through the little
glass figures, everything appears distorted.
Additional qualities of the glass menagerie may occur to you: For instance, think of what glass
does to light (makes rainbows), where the collection is located (on a shelf), and how it helps
Laura escape from reality.
Can you describe Amanda and her family in similar terms? Are the Wingfields hardy, realistic
people or are they apt to break easily? Do they view the world clearly and rationally? Do they
lead "unreal" lives?
You might review the parts of this Book Notes which discuss character, setting and themes. In
those sections you'll find more similarities between the glass menagerie and other aspects of
the play. The more examples you cite, the more firmly you can assert that the title fits the play
very snugly.
12. Not every work of literature has a villain, so start by defining the term. The definition will
shape your answer.
The usual concept of a villain is someone (or something) whose deliberate actions bring harm
to others. Most literary villains may have redeeming qualities, but readers ordinarily
disapprove of villains. Using this definition, you may decide everyone in The Glass Menagerie
has some villainous qualities. Tom, Laura, and Jim cause Amanda grief and worry. Amanda
makes Tom suffer. Jim raises Laura's hopes and then dashes them. Tom selfishly abandons his
family.
You might search beyond the characters to find your villain. Look to the circumstances of their
lives. You could reasonably blame the social context for the plight of the Wingfields and Jim
O'Connor. To support this position, read the numerous accounts of the time (the 1930's) and the
place (St. Louis tenement) in the stage directions and in Tom's narration.
13. If you believe that Tom ought to bear responsibility for his own situation, try to show that
he has deliberately chosen a dull, dead-end job. Also show that he purposely provokes Amanda
and that he's too unimaginative and lazy to leave his rut. For example, you could argue that if
Tom seriously aimed to be a poet, he should stay home and write rather than go to the movies
every night.
Of course, Tom wouldn't be Tom if he did that, so you might conclude that Tom is partly a
victim of circumstances. He thinks he can get himself out of his two-by-four situation, but he
won't make the move- not until the end of the play. Family responsibility keeps him from
breaking away. Also, his vision is limited. Another person might change his life without
leaving home. But Tom thinks that the only way to change is by cutting his ties to Amanda and
Laura.
A third choice- that Tom is trapped through no fault of his own- invites you to analyze Tom's
personality and conditions of his family life. Tom has no choice about working. He's been
stuck as the family breadwinner since his father left. During the Depression, people rarely quit
jobs because new ones were hard to get. Also, Tom's conscience keeps him from walking out
on his family. And regardless of his caged-in feeling, he loves Laura too much to leave her in
the lurch.
14. This question calls for an exploration of Jim's past and present personality. How do you
interpret Jim's response to Laura? Yes, Jim is polite. He takes pains to avoid wounding her.
Further, his effort to boost her self-confidence will fail if he allows her to feel self-pity. So
even if he had noticed her "clumping," is he likely to acknowledge it? Certainly he can be
forgiven his little white lie.
Perhaps more to the point, though, is that he may be telling Laura the truth. Perhaps he didn't
notice her clumping. Think of the sort of person Jim was in high school. He was blinded by his
own glitter. Surrounded by admirers and absorbed by self-importance, would he have noticed
Laura? Perhaps he is destined always to be saying, "I never even noticed."
Another interpretation: Laura's was a relatively mild defect and, like a roaring in one's ears,
was really noticeable only to Laura. She made too much of it while others, even if they were
aware of it at first, were ready to overlook it.
15. To some extent the four characters remain unchanged at the end of the play. Amanda
continues to relive her youth, Laura still has no prospects for an independent future, Jim keeps
pursuing elusive success, and Tom remains unfulfilled in his quest for adventure. In fact, you
might argue that some characters are worse off. Laura, for one, after tasting a few moments of
happiness may feel more hopeless than before.
On the other hand, if any character has realized something about life or about himself, that
person has grown in some way. Consider Amanda. In the final scene she has "dignity and
tragic beauty." You couldn't have described her that way at the start of the play. What has
happened to her in the interim?
While Laura still has no suitor when the play ends, she has had a modest social triumph,
however short-lived. Might the experience propel her out of her shell?
Tom could never be happy at home. Although he hasn't found the adventure he yearned for, is
he better off for having tried?
Finally, Jim. There's little evidence to show that he was better off after his visit than before.
However, his ego may have been boosted by Laura's admiration. Perhaps he has also become
more sensitive to other people's feelings.
[The Glass Menagerie and A Streetcar Named Desire Contents]
TERM PAPER IDEAS AND OTHER TOPICS FOR WRITING
l CHARACTER STUDIES
1. What gives Tom the sense that he's in a "two-by-four" situation?
2. What are the apparent causes of Laura's removal from reality? What are the
probable hidden causes?
3. If Tom were to write home after he leaves, what would he say to Amanda? To
Laura?
4. If the play were in the memory of a character other than Tom, how would the
play be different?
5. Who is the hero of the play? What evidence can you offer to support your
opinion?
6. What are Amanda's strengths and failings as a mother?
l SYMBOLISM IN THE PLAY
1. Are the symbols for each character appropriate?
2. How do the play's symbols relate to its themes?
3. Compare and contrast symbolism in The Glass Menagerie with that in A
Streetcar Named Desire.
l THE PLAY AND ITS MEANINGS
1. How do the unconventional, anti-realistic production techniques contribute to the
play's meanings?
2. In which ways does "memory" contribute to the mood of the play?
3. Is the ending of the play optimistic or pessimistic? Explain.
4. Discuss whether Tom's predicament is common or extraordinary.
5. What are the uses of illusion in everyday life? Do the play's characters use
illusions in an unusual way?
6. To what degree is the play autobiographical?
REFERENCE
THE STORY
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A Streetcar Named Desire
Tennessee Williams
THE STORY
SCENE ONE
At the start of A Streetcar Named Desire, Tennessee Williams paints a loving portrait of New
Orleans.
NOTE: Williams spent several months in the city before writing the play. He lived in a flat
overlooking the streetcar tracks where one car named Desire and another called Cemetery ran
back and forth every day. Somehow the names of the streetcars and their ceaseless comings
and goings struck his poetic mind with "having some symbolic bearing of a broad nature on the
life in the [French Quarter]- and everywhere else, for that matter...."
Like April in Paris, May in New Orleans is one of those legendary times of year. The air is
warm but not yet thick with summer heat. Brilliant flowers sprout on sills and terraces. Open
doors and windows blur the distinctions between sidewalk and living room. You walk down
the street in the French Quarter and hear the sounds of a jazz piano and the voices of the
people. The smells are sweet from cargoes of coffee and bananas in freighters along the river.
Williams' affection for the place extends even to the run-down section of town between the
railroad tracks and the waterfront. There, you find a street named Elysian Fields.
NOTE: The name comes from Greek myth. Elysium was a happy land, a paradise free from
rain, snow, cold or misfortune of any kind. When you get further into the play you'll doubtlessly
recognize the irony in Williams' choices of names.
Stanley Kowalski comes on stage first, walking with his friend Mitch. He is a hulk of a man
carrying a package of bloody meat, which he heaves to his wife Stella, standing on the first
floor landing. Williams probably wants you to imagine Stanley as a modern caveman, returning
to his mate with the kill for the day. Instead of wearing a leopard skin, however, he's carrying a
bowling jacket. Stanley tells Stella that he's on his way to bowl and she, his faithful mate,
follows him to the alley.
Shortly after Stella leaves, Blanche DuBois, carrying a suitcase, hesitantly walks down Elysian
Fields. From her gestures and her clothing you can tell instantly that she is a stranger. She
Looks as though she ought to be headed for a summer tea party in the garden district instead of
searching for the rickety, two-story building occupied by the Kowalskis.
As soon as she speaks- to ask directions from Eunice Hubbell, the Kowalskis' upstairs
neighbor- you can be sure that Blanche is used to more refined surroundings. Despite Blanche's
doubts that Stella really lives in such a place, Eunice assures her that she's found the right
address. When Blanche discloses she is Stella's sister, Eunice escorts Blanche into the
apartment. Eunice wants to chat, but Blanche asks to be left alone, claiming to be tired from
her trip. As she leaves, Eunice offers to tell Stella of Blanche's arrival.
Until now you have no reason to doubt that Blanche is anything other than what you've
observed and heard: a worn-out traveler from Mississippi where she teaches school and owns
her family's ancestral home, Belle Reve, a large plantation with a white-columned mansion.
As soon as Eunice goes out, however, you watch Blanche, apparently upset and nervous about
something, find whiskey in a closet and quickly swallow half a glassful. Then she mutters to
herself, "I've got to keep hold of myself!"
Whatever has caused Blanche's agitation begins to unfold soon after Stella returns. Blanche
chatters at a feverish pace. As she speaks, she reveals her unsettled emotional state. In just a
brief dialogue with her sister, Blanche expresses affection, shock, modesty, concern for Stella,
vanity, resentment, and uncertainty about herself. While almost every sentence reveals another
dimension of Blanche's inner turbulence, the dialogue also illustrates the relationship between
the sisters.
Blanche explains that she has suffered a nervous breakdown and has therefore taken a leave
from her teaching job in the middle of the term. Blanche then disparages Stella's messy
apartment and reproaches Stella for gaining so much weight. (Blanche does not know that
Stella is pregnant.)
Stella almost apologizes for the size of her apartment. She also starts to prepare Blanche for
meeting Stanley and his friends. They're not exactly the type of men Blanche is accustomed to.
Perhaps Stella already realizes that Stanley and Blanche are not going to get along. They come
from two different worlds. Since Stella came originally from the same landed gentry as
Blanche, she somehow must have leapt across a social chasm, for now Stella worships Stanley
despite his rough cut. She admits that much of his appeal is sexual.
Blanche finally turns the conversation to news of home. She fears telling it, just as anyone
might shrink, say, from bearing the grievous news of a loved one's death. Blanche announces
that Belle Reve has been lost. Before Stella can ask why, Blanche launches into a passionate
and morbid apology which assigns blame for the loss on a parade of sickness and death that
marched through the family. Every death had to be paid for with a little piece of Belle Reve,
and gradually the place just slipped away through Blanche's fingers.
More shocked than angry, Stella says nothing. Blanche thinks that Stella doubts the story and
cruelly lashes out at her sister: "Yes, accuse me! Sit there and stare at me, thinking I let the
place go! I let the place go? Where were you! In bed with your- Polack!"
Blanche's attack on Stella suggests the intensity of her feelings about the loss. On the other
hand, she could be covering up the facts, possibly to protect herself, possibly because she can't
face the truth. Unable to accept responsibility, she may be casting blame on the dead people in
her family and ultimately on her little sister, all characters, take note, without the capacity to
defend themselves.
NOTE: It takes a particularly skillful actress to play Blanche. She possesses many villainous
qualities. In this scene you have observed her being cruel, bossy, hypocritical and dishonest.
Yet, the actress who portrays her must preserve the goodwill of the audience. If you didn't like
Blanche at least a little, her struggle with Stanley, which is about to begin, would be far less
compelling than it is.
When Stella runs to the bathroom in tears, Stanley and friends, Steve and Mitch, return from
bowling and plan a poker game for the following evening. You see that Stanley easily lives up
to Stella's description. He is crude and animal like, but he knows his sexual attractiveness and
uses it unsparingly.
Notice how Stanley treats Blanche during their first encounter. Is there any apparent reason for
him to be nasty to her? Does he simply lack grace? Or has he just taken an instant dislike to
Blanche? Perhaps her airs annoy him. Perhaps he can't tolerate Blanche's prattling about
looking fresh and powdering her face. Because Stella has told him about her sister, Stanley
may long ago have made up his mind to dislike her. It's also possible that Stanley, like an
animal smelling danger, senses that Blanche may come between him and his mate in their
small living quarters.
Finally, when Stanley asks about her marriage, Blanche cannot talk about it with him. Is the
subject too painful? Or does she have something to hide? You'll find out later, but for the
moment, she feels too sick to continue.
SCENE TWO
It's poker night at the Kowalskis. Stella plans to take Blanche on the town to get her out of the
house while Stanley and his cronies drink beer and play for modest stakes.
While Blanche soaks in the tub Stella urges Stanley to be kind to Blanche. Stanley ignores
Stella's pleas. He wants to know more about the loss of Belle Reve. He can't understand that
the place is just- gone! He wants to see a bill of sale or papers of some kind to confirm
Blanche's story. He cites the Napoleonic Code that says what belongs to the wife also belongs
to the husband and vice versa. If Belle Reve is gone, it's his loss as well as Stella's.
NOTE: Stanley is right. Because the Louisiana Territory was owned by France before
President Thomas Jefferson bought it for the United States, French civil law, the so-called
Code Napoleon, was used for a long time to govern Louisiana's civil affairs. In the Code you
find rules about inheritance and property. In recent years, however, the Code has gradually
been superseded by new laws and court decisions.
Stanley suspects that Blanche used the money from Belle Reve to deck herself in furs and
jewels and costly dresses. In defense of Blanche, Stella tells him that the furs are cheap and the
jewelry is fake, but Stanley refuses to let the matter rest.
Taking Blanche's side could not be easy for Stella, yet she stands up for her sister. She may
believe Blanche's story. Or perhaps Blanche's nervous condition has aroused Stella's sympathy.
In either case, Stella is caught in the middle. Before Blanche emerges from the bathroom,
Stella escapes to the porch, leaving Stanley to face Blanche alone.
Not suspecting what is in store, Blanche comes out of the bathroom and banters cheerfully with
Stanley. She plays the role of coquette, flaunting her helplessness and fishing for compliments.
But he is wise to her flirtatious antics, and she is not impressed with his brutishness.
Considering his sexual power, he may also be testing the water. Does she have the strength to
resist him? He probably would like to find out.
Blanche could probably go on all day, but Stanley grows impatient with the chatter. Suddenly
he booms out "Now let's cut the re-bop!" He wants to know the truth about Belle Reve. When
he cites the Napoleonic Code to Blanche, she taunts him, "My, but you have an impressive
judicial air!" She sprays him with perfume, teasing him some more. Her seductive manner
drives him to say that he'd get the wrong ideas about her if she wasn't Stella's sister. The
remark sobers her a little. She grants that while she may fib a little, she wouldn't lie about
something as important as Belle Reve. She'll show the papers to Stanley if he wants to see
them.
Impatient for the papers, Stanley grabs for them inside Blanche's trunk. What he finds is a
packet of love letters and poems written by Blanche's late husband, Allan. Blanche refers to her
husband as a "boy." It's a curious usage. Blanche and he were married when both were very
young. Allan died before he reached manhood. In another sense, Allan lacked the qualities to
be considered a man in the fullest sense of the term. You'll find out why further in the play. In
any event, Blanche treasures his letters and vows to burn them now that Stanley's hands have
touched them.
Finally, she hands Stanley a towering pack of legal papers that span the history of Belle Reve.
This time, Blanche attributes the loss of the plantation not to the numerous deaths that occurred
there, but to the "epic fornications" of generations of DuBois men. Stanley is befuddled by the
mass of papers. Perhaps Blanche was telling the truth after all. He explains his interest in
Stella's welfare, especially now that she's going to have a baby.
The news of Stella's baby stirs Blanche. She rushes out to find Stella and to tell her that she and
Stanley have settled their differences. Blanche brags that she conquered Stanley with wit and a
bit of flirting. But you'll notice that her triumph over Stanley is mostly wishful thinking. If he
were to retell what happened during this scene, the story would probably be a lot different.
NOTE: You might think of A Streetcar Named Desire as a modern equivalent of a classic
tragedy, in which you follow the suffering and gradual defeat of a person who probably doesn't
deserve it. As the hero fights to survive he cannot keep from sinking further into hopelessness
and despair. It seems as though his fate has been predetermined. As you continue the play, try
to discern other similarities between Blanche and a typical tragic hero.
SCENE THREE
The poker game is still underway when Blanche and Stella return from their night out. Stanley,
on a losing streak, lashes out at Mitch for wanting to go home. He also snaps at Blanche,
whacks Stella on the thigh, and orders the two women to leave the men to their game.
Alone with Stella in the other room, Blanche observes that Mitch had seemed noticeably more
courteous and sensitive than the other men. When Blanche and Stella laugh aloud, Stanley
shouts, "You hens cut out that conversation in there." But Stella protests. In her house she'll do
as she pleases.
Does it seem as though a row is about to begin? When Blanche turns on the radio, Stanley
demands that it be turned off. When she refuses, he does it himself. The poker players, like
nervous animals before a storm, become restless with Stanley's antics. When Mitch drops out
of the game, Blanche seizes the chance to talk with him. Observe Blanche in conversation with
Mitch. She's a study in deception. She knows just how to charm him. She talks of the beauty of
sick people. (Stella has told her that Mitch is devoted to his sick mother.) She playfully slurs
some words, pretending to be slightly drunk. She tells him that Stella is her older sister (a lie),
and that Stella's need for help has brought her to town (another lie).
Blanche asks Mitch to cover a naked light bulb with a colored paper lantern, bought earlier that
evening. Mitch obliges, unaware of Blanche's intention to hide her real age and, when you
consider her other deceptions, perhaps a lot more than that. At any rate, Blanche's wiles work
on Mitch. He is won over instantly, hypnotized by her charm.
Blanche clicks on the radio. You hear a beautiful waltz. Caught up in the music, Blanche
dances gracefully. Mitch imitates her awkwardly, like a dancing bear.
NOTE: The waltz, Wien, Wien, nur du allein, is a sentimental expression of love for old-time
Vienna, the city of dreams. The song conjures up images of elegance and splendor that contrast
with the run-down apartment of the Kowalskis. Ironically, at the time A Streetcar Named
Desire was written the beauty of Vienna existed only as a memory. The city lay in ruins from
heavy bombing during the war. Watch for other discrepancies between reality and illusion in
the play. - 10}
Stanley, in a rage, stalks into the room, grabs the radio and throws it out the window. Then he
charges Stella and strikes her. Before he can land another blow, the other men rush forward and
pin his arms behind him. He suddenly becomes limp, as though exhausted by his tantrum. To
sober him up, his friends drag him to the shower.
Meanwhile, Blanche, distraught and frightened, has organized a hasty escape upstairs to
Eunice's with Stella in tow.
Soon Stanley emerges dripping. Somehow his meanness has vanished. Now he's like a
vulnerable little boy almost in tears, crying for his baby, his Stella. Half dressed, he stumbles
outside to the front pavement and howls again and again, "Stella! Stella!" Eunice warns him to
leave her alone, but after a time Stella comes out the door and slips down the stairs to Stanley.
The two embrace. Stanley then lifts her and carries her into the dark flat.
Does it surprise you to see Stella return to Stanley so soon after he abused her? Obviously, she
loves him desperately. Perhaps she is aroused by Stanley's bestiality.
NOTE: Williams learned a good deal about uninhibited sexuality from the writings of the
English novelist D. H. Lawrence (1885-1930). An artist-rebel, Lawrence scorned conventional
sexual behavior. Williams, himself a sexual nonconformist, admired both Lawrence and his
work. One of Williams' plays, I Rise in Flame, Cried the Phoenix, is based on the last days of
Lawrence's life.
Blanche seems shaken by Stanley's outburst. Mitch returns and tries to comfort her. Together,
they smoke a cigarette. Apparently still dazed and confused by what she had witnessed,
Blanche thanks Mitch for his kindness.
SCENE FOUR
The next morning Stella, tired but evidently content after a night of love, lies peacefully in bed.
Blanche expresses dismay over last night's brawl, but Stella objects. It's scarcely worth
speaking of. Anyway, all is forgiven because Stanley felt ashamed afterwards.
Stella admits to her sister that Stanley's brutish manner appeals to her. In fact, it's rather
thrilling. Stella recounts the excitement of her wedding night when Stanley charged around the
apartment breaking lightbulbs with the heel of her shoe. How might Blanche have reacted in a
like situation?
You've already seen Blanche treating Stella tactlessly. But now she becomes downright cruel.
Stanley is a madman, she says, and if Stella had any sense, she'd leave him immediately.
To understand Stella, you might ask why she chooses to stay with her ill-tempered husband. Is
she a model of broad-mindedness? Or is she a weakling? Or has she become a fatalist, that is,
someone who just accepts her lot in life? As you'll see later, Stella's personality and values will
help to seal Blanche's fate.
Blanche urges Stella to come away with her. She proposes opening a shop of some kind with
money provided by Shep Huntleigh, a rich acquaintance. Although Shep may be only a figment
of her imagination, Blanche starts to write him a telegram: "Sister and I in desperate
situation...." In truth, of course, the despair is all Blanche's.
For Stella most of life's anxieties and troubles are made trivial by what she calls the "things that
happen between a man and a woman in the dark." Stella calls it love, but Blanche terms it
"brutal desire" and begins to address Stella on the subject of Stanley's bestiality. Blanche, as
though a spokesman for civilization, talks of man's noble accomplishments in art and poetry.
All that, she says, has passed Stanley by. Blanche ends with a passionate plea: "Don't- don't
hang back with the brutes!"
NOTE: Blanche's speech illustrates one of the play's major conflicts, a symbolic clash between
civilization and barbarism. By the end of the scene, you'll be able to chalk up a victory for one
of them.
After Blanche finishes, Stanley reveals that he'd overheard the whole conversation. Stella's
moment of decision has come. Will she be swayed by Blanche's eloquence? Stanley's grin of
triumph, flashed at Blanche over Stella's shoulder, suggests that it was really no contest.
SCENE FIVE
To keep her hope alive, or at least to keep up the pretense of hope, Blanche composes a letter to
Shep Huntleigh, informing him that she intends to make room in her crowded social life to visit
him in Dallas.
NOTE: Regardless of whether Shep is imaginary or real, to Blanche he represents a chance to
be rescued from her plight. He's a savior, a symbol of a vanishing breed- the gallant, romantic,
and wealthy Southern gentleman. More than likely, such a man is Blanche's mirage. Earlier
you heard her rage against the real Southern gentlemen she knew.
While Blanche reads a piece of the letter to Stella, you hear angry shouts and curses from
upstairs. Steve and Eunice are embroiled in one of their periodic arguments. Later they make
up and, like Stella and Stanley after the poker game, clasp each other fiercely. Have you
noticed the characters' fluctuating emotions? Rapidly, their joy may turn to anger or anger to
joy. They hit emotional peaks and valleys in swift succession. Could these fluctuations signify
the characters' instability? Or do they suggest, as some critics have noted, the rhythms of sexual
passion?
Some time after, Stanley startles Blanche by mentioning a certain man named Shaw from
Laurel. Shaw claims to have met a woman named Blanche at Laurel's Hotel Flamingo, a seedy
place frequented by the town's lowlife. Stanley stops short of calling Blanche a whore, but he
strongly implies that Blanche is something other than an English teacher. Blanche denies it, of
course, but nervousness gives her away.
While Blanche might like Stella as a confidante, someone to whom she can unburden herself,
it's not a role Stella savors. However, Blanche asks Stella for advice about Mitch, soon to arrive
for another evening out. Like a young girl just starting to date, Blanche asks how freely she can
grant sexual favors and still retain her beau's respect. For a teenager the question is a
puzzlement. For a grown woman, whose career includes a spell as town whore, the problem is
both comic and tragic, but important nevertheless.
NOTE: The further you explore the play, the more psychological turns and byways you'll
discover. By now the play has turned almost into a psychological drama, recalling works by
Chekhov, the Russian playwright, who let characters unveil their mental processes without
help from a narrator or from the remarks of other characters. You understand the inner being
of characters almost solely from the words they say. In his later years Tennessee Williams
often acknowledged Chekhov's influence on his work.
Soon after Stella and Stanley leave for the evening, a boy of about high school age comes to
collect for the newspaper. Blanche makes advances. She flirts with him, and finally, to the
boy's astonishment, plants a kiss on his mouth. Afterwards she mutters, "It would be nice to
keep you, but I've got to be good- and keep my hands off children." Blanche says the words as
though she's recalling her past, suggesting perhaps that she's had encounters with children
before.
Why does she kiss the young man? Is she a sexual deviant? Does the encounter make her feel
young? Is she testing her seductive powers? Later, after you learn more about Blanche's past,
you might develop additional theories. Similarly, you might ponder the boy's response. Was he
stunned with surprise? Did he submit out of courtesy?
Blanche's brush with the boy has buoyed her morale. Moments later, Mitch arrives bearing a
bouquet of roses. Coquettishly she presses the flowers to her lips and calls Mitch her
"Rosenkavalier."
NOTE: The central moment in the Richard Strauss opera Der Rosenkavalier is the presentation
of a silver rose to a beautiful young woman. The allusion certainly goes way over Mitch's head,
but he catches the spirit of Blanche's words and smiles appreciatively.
SCENE SIX
It's two a.m., and Blanche and Mitch are returning from an evening out. The streets are empty.
Even the streetcars have stopped. However, Blanche asks Mitch whether "Desire" is still
running. She's teasing him, inquiring about the state of his desire- presumably for her. You may
understand Blanche's subtle joke, but Mitch doesn't.
NOTE: "Desire" carried Blanche to Elysian Fields. The other streetcar was "Cemetery." Such
names may allude remotely to the excessive desire and string of deaths that led to the loss of
Belle Reve. In another sense, Blanche desires to find beauty in life. If she loses the desire, she
might as well be dead. By the end of the play, other explanations may become apparent.
Blanche and Mitch sit on the steps outside the building. Would he be a suitable mate for
Blanche? Probably not, but Blanche can't be particular at this point in life. Mitch is a man, and
that's what she wants. Now you see Blanche deftly baiting a trap. Mitch is easy prey for her.
But she has to make him believe that he's caught her, not vice versa.
Blanche seems to enjoy toying with Mitch. At one point overconfidence almost gives her away.
She laughs cynically at Mitch's sincerely meant, but prosaic, declaration, "I have never known
anyone like you."
Inside the apartment, Blanche lights a candle instead of turning on the light. Whimsically, she
suggests they pretend to be Parisian artists. In French, Blanche says, "I am the Lady of the
Camellias, and you are Armand."
NOTE: Blanche, speaking in French, surely knows that Mitch has no idea what she's talking
about. The Lady of the Camellias is a courtesan in a 19th-Century novel by Alexandre Dumas
fils. Her lover Armand reforms her, but before long she dies of consumption. Giuseppe Verdi's
famous opera La Traviata is based on the story.
Also in French, Blanche asks, "Will you sleep with me tonight?" Poor Mitch! He doesn't
understand that Blanche is making a fool of him. But is she being unkind to him? Or is she just
having a bit of innocent fun?
Blanche feigns interest as he describes gym workouts and the firmness of his stomach muscles.
Mocking him, Blanche says that his bodyweight is "awe-inspiring." You might feel sorry for
Mitch. After all, he's not at fault for being something of a buffoon. Although he's a grown man,
he's still under his mother's wing. When Mitch reveals that his mother asked to know Blanche's
age, you can be sure that marriage is on his mind.
Before she accepts a proposal, Blanche needs to be sure that Mitch knows nothing about Shaw
and about her soiled reputation. If Stanley were to tell him... well, you can see why she
ominously calls Stanley her "executioner."
Possibly to win Mitch's sympathy, Blanche relates the story of her marriage. It's a tragic tale of
love, homosexuality, and violence. It's hard not to feel moved by it. All of a sudden you
understand Blanche far better than before. She's tortured by guilt about her husband's death.
The story brings Mitch close to tears. Realizing that Blanche is as lonely as he, Mitch takes her
in his arms and kisses her. Blanche sobs in relief. She's worked hard to land Mitch, and in
triumph, declares "Sometimes- there's God- so quickly!"
SCENE SEVEN
After four months Blanche and Stanley are still at odds. Is there any doubt which of them will
win in the end?
Stella is setting up for Blanche's birthday celebration when Stanley comes home elated. "I've
got th' dope on your big sister, Stella," he says. A supply man who's been driving through
Laurel for years has told him the X-rated story of Blanche DuBois. Her daintiness and
squeamish ways are nothing but a big act.
Stella refuses to believe the outrageous story, but Stanley insists that Blanche had been told to
leave town for being a hotel whore and for seducing one of the seventeen-year-old boys in her
class.
As Stanley tells the story, Blanche soaks in the tub and cheerfully sings "Paper Moon," a pop
tune about a world that's "as phony as it can be."
NOTE: The stage directions often prescribe playing background music that relates to the
action. In Scene Six, as Blanche recalled her husband's suicide, you heard "The Varsouviana"
a polka that was played at the Moon Lake Casino on the night Allan shot himself. You'll soon
hear it again.
Stella urges Stanley to be kind to Blanche, who needs understanding because of her tragic
marriage. But Stanley won't relent. Moreover, he's already informed Mitch about Blanche's
sordid past. Stanley claims that he felt obliged to warn Mitch that Blanche is a fraud, but you
might suspect other reasons for his action.
Blanche's marriage to Mitch is now out of the question. To compound the injury, Stanley has
bought Blanche a bus ticket back to Laurel. What's to become of Blanche, Stella wonders.
Stanley's answer shows how little he cares.
Emerging from the bathroom, Blanche reads distress on Stella's face, but Stella won't disclose
the reason. That task belongs to Stanley.
SCENE EIGHT
Naturally, Mitch doesn't show up for the birthday dinner. Blanche tries vainly to keep up her
spirits and tells a joke. Stella laughs weakly, but Stanley remains stone faced. As he reaches
across the table for another chop, Stella calls him a "pig." She orders him to wash his greasy
face and fingers and to help her clear the table.
Stanley throws his plate and cup on the floor. "That's how I'll clear the table!" he bellows.
NOTE: Audiences watching Streetcar often laugh at Stanley's table-clearing technique. While
Stanley's action contains humor, it also has its frightening aspect. When he allows himself to be
dominated by violence, he has the potential to do unspeakable damage.
Stanley berates Stella. Since Blanche arrived, he's been a second-class member of his own
household. As you watch Stanley reclaim his position as "king" of the roost, he reveals that he's
embittered by the wedge that Blanche has placed between him and Stella. Perhaps you can
sympathize with him on that score.
After Stanley stalks out, Blanche tries to phone Mitch to find out why he stood her up.
Meanwhile, Stella goes to Stanley on the porch and starts to weep. Stanley embraces and
comforts her. He assures her that Blanche's departure will set things right once more. They'll
make love using the colored lights again, and they'll make all the noise they want.
Suddenly, you hear Steve and Eunice's shrieking laughter upstairs. It serves as a reminder that
Elysian Fields is a type of jungle, where primitive impulses and instincts prevail.
To bring the so-called party to an end, Stanley presents Blanche with a birthday gift. Blanche
perks up in surprise, but when she sees that it's a bus ticket to Laurel, she gags in anguish. Can
you find any justification for Stanley's cruelty? However you view Stanley, he seems
determined to drag Blanche's life to a tragic conclusion.
As the scene ends, Stella's labor begins, and Stanley rushes her to the hospital.
SCENE NINE
Later that evening Blanche is drinking alone. "The Varsouviana" in the background suggests
that she is thinking about her past.
Mitch arrives, unshaven and dressed in work clothes. This is a Mitch you haven't seen before.
Blanche quickly hides the bottle. You can tell that he's ready to accuse Blanche of deceiving
him. Why he needs to do so is puzzling.
Gruffly, he ignores her offer of a kiss and turns down a drink. Although Blanche is slightly
drunk, she's not unaware that Mitch is troubled. As her tension mounts, the music playing in
her mind intensifies. Mitch can't hear it, of course, and thinks only that Blanche has drunk too
much.
Mitch accuses her of "lapping up [liquor] all summer." Then he startles her by forcing her to
turn on a bright light. "I don't think I ever seen you in the light," he says. To get a good look at
her, Mitch tears the paper lantern off the light bulb. If you recall that he mounted the lantern on
the night they met, what does its removal probably symbolize?
Mitch charges Blanche with deceit. She protests vigorously, preferring to call her
misrepresentations "magic." She says, "I don't tell truth, I tell what ought to be truth." Clearly,
Blanche and Mitch view the world differently. To Blanche illusions are harmless fabrications
that make her feel young and alluring. However, Mitch, like Stanley, can't distinguish between
illusion and deceit.
NOTE: If Blanche is a tragic figure, she needs a tragic flaw, a quality of personality that leads
to her destruction. Ordinarily the flaw may be rather harmless; it might even be admirable. But
because of the circumstances in which the tragic figure finds himself, the flaw is lethal. With
this in mind, you can probably infer Blanche's tragic flaw from her dialogue with Mitch.
Blanche tries to defend against Mitch's charges by lying. Earlier Blanche won his sympathy
with the woeful tale of her marriage. Now she tries to sway him with the next chapter of her
heartbreaking story. She explains why she had become intimate with strangers.
Suddenly, they are interrupted by the calls of a blind Mexican vendor, selling funeral flowers
made of tin. Frightened, Blanche tells the uncomprehending Mexican that death led to loss of
Belle Reve and to the decline of her happiness and love. She begins to repeat confusing
fragments of conversations from her past. The opposite of death, she says, is desire. To prove
that she had not been warped by death, she gave herself to young soldiers stationed near Belle
Reve. Some might call her action degrading and immoral. Blanche saw it as an affirmation of
life.
NOTE: Some critics think that Blanche seems too delicate to have been the whore for a
company of soldiers. On the contrary, say other critics. Because Blanche is loving and
sensitive, she reacted vehemently to her husband's death. It took a monstrous act to fill her vast
emptiness. Her nightly intimacies with soldiers, therefore, are fully understandable.
Unmoved or possibly bewildered by Blanche's tale, Mitch declares that he wants Blanche to
give what she's denied him all summer- her body. Only if he'll marry her, she protests.
Disgusted, Mitch says that Blanche isn't clean enough to bring into the same house as his
mother. He advances, intent on raping her. To scare him off Blanche rushes to the window
shouting, "Fire! Fire! Fire!" as Mitch runs off.
SCENE TEN
Blanche is left alone and without hope. A weaker person might do away with herself. But
Blanche is likely to find a way out, perhaps in her fantasy world. When this scene opens you
find Blanche talking aloud to herself about a moonlight swim in a rock quarry. Is she drunk?
Or has her mind become unhinged? You can't be sure until Stanley comes in.
First she asks about Stella. The baby hasn't come yet, so Stanley will spend the night at home.
Blanche suddenly becomes wary, alarmed at the thought of being alone in the apartment with
him.
He asks about her fine attire. Blanche explains that Shep Huntleigh has invited her on a
Caribbean yacht cruise. Stanley plays along with Blanche's fantasy, asking questions and
implying that Shep may want more than just Blanche's companionship. She objects and starts
to lecture him on the transitory nature of physical things. What lasts, she says is "beauty of the
mind and richness of the spirit and tenderness of the heart." To some extent these words may
define a philosophy of life that Blanche has unsuccessfully tried to live by. On second thought,
perhaps you can find evidence that supports Blanche's partial success.
She stops short, realizing that she's casting pearls before swine- wasting her words on someone
who can't appreciate them. Stanley bristles at the word "swine," but holds his tongue. Not for
long, however, for when Blanche tells how she has put Mitch in his place for being cruel to her,
Stanley explodes in anger. As Stanley's temper builds, Blanche senses danger. To emphasize
her terror, stage lighting suddenly engulfs the room in long dancing shadows and lurid
reflections. Blanche rushes to the phone to call Shep for help. Meanwhile Stanley retreats to the
bathroom to don his special silk pajamas.
He comes out barechested, and grinning. His threatening words cause Blanche to smash a
bottle on the table edge and use the jagged top to fend him off. Stanley is excited by the
prospect of rough-housing with Blanche. He approaches her cautiously. When she swings at
him, he catches her wrist and forces her to drop the weapon. She collapses at his feet. Then he
picks up her limp form and carries her into the bedroom.
Is there any reason for Stanley to rape Blanche? Is he a savage or a rapist at heart? Or does he
only want to cap his victory over Blanche with this ultimate act of degradation? Rape is such a
complex and violent crime that it's usually not easy to identify the motives, although they are
worth thinking about.
You might ask who is the winner in the end? And the answer might well be both- Stanley
because he achieved gratification: sex, even though it was rape; and Blanche, because she did
not submit to her baser instincts and had to be raped.
SCENE ELEVEN
Blanche, of course, has told Stella about the rape. As a new mother, Stella looks to the future
with hope and refuses to believe Blanche's story. At the start of this scene Stella tells Eunice, "I
couldn't believe her story and go on living with Stanley." Eunice concurs: "Don't ever believe
it. Life has got to go on. No matter what happens, you've got to keep on going."
Even if Stella and Eunice secretly believe Blanche's story- you can't tell whether they do or
don't- they've chosen to deny its validity. Stella has probably convinced herself that Blanche
invented the rape to avoid going back to Laurel. Also, after Mitch threw her off, Blanche lost
touch with reality, so Stella has arranged a "rest" for Blanche at an insane asylum in the
country. Some critics have observed that Stella sends Blanche away as an act of revenge for all
the abuse she's taken from her older sister. On the other hand, Stella may have Blanche's best
interests in mind.
Blanche has confused her trip to the country with the cruise on Shep's yacht, and as this scene
opens, Blanche is preparing her wardrobe. Stella caters to Blanche's every wish, hoping to keep
her sister calm before she leaves. She's also feeling remorseful about having committed
Blanche to an asylum. When the time comes for Blanche to be taken away, Stella cries out in
despair. Perhaps she still harbors doubts about the alleged rape.
During this scene Stanley and his friends are back at the poker table. This time Stanley is
winning. It seems fitting that he should be ahead. This is the day he resumes his position as
king of his castle.
Blanche's voice diverts Mitch's attention from the game. You can't be sure what Mitch is
thinking, but his gaze is preoccupied, as though he's pondering what might have been.
Soon the car from the asylum arrives. When Blanche sees that the doctor is not Shep
Huntleigh, she returns to the apartment, pretending to have forgotten something. The matron
follows and prepares a straitjacket in case Blanche balks or grows violent. Distressed, Blanche
begins to hear voices as reverberating echoes. Then you hear the polka playing in the distance.
The same lurid reflections you saw on the night of the rape begin to dance on the apartment
walls.
NOTE: All through the play Williams has used sound and light to focus attention on something
he wants you to remember. It is a technique you'll find in the works of other American
playwrights, like Eugene O'Neill and Thornton Wilder. The montage of images sweeping
across the stage in this scene of Streetcar demonstrates how vividly the technique can portray
characters' emotions.
Stanley and the matron approach Blanche, who becomes increasingly panic-stricken. Stanley
tells her cruelly that she hasn't forgotten anything of value unless she means the paper lantern,
which he tears off the lightbulb and hands to her. Blanche cries out as if the lantern were
herself. She tries to run, but the matron grabs her. Outside, Stella moans, "Oh, God, what have
I done to my sister?"
Finally the doctor speaks kindly. Blanche responds with relief and takes his arm. While being
escorted to the waiting car, she tells the doctor, "Whoever you are- I have always depended on
the kindness of strangers."
Stella is distraught. Stanley comes to her aid. As Blanche is driven away, Stanley puts his hand
inside Stella's blouse. It appears that life will soon return to normal for the Kowalskis and for
the other residents of Elysian Fields.
A STEP BEYOND
THE PLAY
[The Glass Menagerie and A Streetcar Named Desire Contents] [The Study Web
Home Page]
© Copyright 1985 by Barron's Educational Series, Inc.
Electronically Enhanced Text © Copyright 1993, World Library, Inc.
A Streetcar Named Desire
Tennessee Williams
A STEP BEYOND
TESTS AND ANSWERS
TEST
_____ 1. Blanche proposes that Stella and she escape from Elysian Fields because Blanche
A. feels threatened by the lifestyle of the place
B. knows that her younger sister feels trapped by the circumstances of life
C. wants company when she leaves New Orleans
_____ 2. When Blanche calls Mitch her "Rosenkavalier," she is
A. trying to impress him with her knowledge of opera
B. poking fun at his awkwardness
C. having a bit of harmless fun
_____ 3. Mitch asks Blanche why she attempted to enjoy their date even though she didn't feel
like it. His question
I. shows that Mitch is naive
II. reveals that Mitch does not understand Blanche's values
III. illustrates the clash of cultures you find in the play
A. I and III only
B. II and III only
C. I, II, and III
_____ 4. Stanley feels obliged to tell Mitch about Blanche's degenerate past because he
A. wants to destroy Blanche's chance to marry Mitch
B. doesn't want his old army buddy to be fooled
C. will feel guilty if he doesn't
_____ 5. In addition to being the name of a streetcar, "Desire"
A. refers to the love between Mitch and Blanche
B. symbolizes the life force in Blanche and other characters
C. stands for Blanche's self-destructive personality
_____ 6. Blanche tells the truth about
A. the loss of Belle Reve
B. her activities in the hotel called Tarantula Arms
C. Shep Huntleigh
_____ 7. Stanley can't abide Blanche because
I. she interferes with his sex life
II. she considers herself superior to him
III. of her numerous pretenses
A. I and II only
B. II and III only
C. I, II, and III
_____ 8. Elysian Fields is often called a jungle and its residents described in animal terms
largely because
A. the play is full of violence
B. the language of the play reflects Blanche's point of view
C. it's a dangerous place to be
_____ 9. Mitch and Blanche are attracted to each other because both
I. have been in love with people who died
II. feel out of place in the brutal world around them
III. are lonely and in need of love
A. I and III only
B. II and III only
C. I, II, and III
_____ 10. Blanche is committed to an asylum at the end of the play
A. to symbolize the victory of brutality over gentility
B. as poetic justice for her sinful life
C. to keep her safe from further harm
11. In which ways is the conflict between Stanley and Blanche more than a mere disagreement
between two incompatible people?
12. How does Tennessee Williams create the mood for Streetcar?
13. How does Stella try to bridge the gap between Blanche and Stanley?
ANSWERS
1. A
2. C
3. C
4. A
5. B
6. A
7. C
8. B
9. A
10. A
11. The question implies that Stanley and Blanche are symbolic figures. Your task is to
determine what each stands for.
You know that Stanley is lusty and animalistic. He rages and grunts, but isn't he more than just
an uncaged ape? Outside the house, he holds a responsible job at a factory. He travels a good
deal and apparently earns enough money to provide for Stella and even to feed and support
Blanche for several months. What does Stanley like to do? He bowls, plays cards, and drinks.
If television had been in use in the 1940s, he probably would watch ballgames and sitcoms.
Except for his violent streak, he's probably not very much different from millions of other
middle-class urban men.
Does Williams mean to imply that Stanley symbolizes middle-class America? Or do Stanley's
actions merely suggest that life in that level of society brings out men's basest, most animallike
instincts?
Stanley's adversary, Blanche, represents another stratum of society altogether. Her people used
to be wealthy landowners. In the early days, the DuBois family probably owned slaves.
Blanche herself is well-educated and appreciates poetry and music. During much of the play
she tries to maintain the illusion that traditional values are alive and well. In the end, she is
destroyed.
What conclusion might be drawn? That Stanley's world now dominates Blanche's? That
Blanche stands for a faded and useless way of life? That man's bestial instincts, repressed by
civilization, will again reign supreme? Obviously, the conflict between Stanley and Blanche
may be interpreted in many ways. Regardless of how you see it, you can feel certain that it is
more than just a misunderstanding between two people who don't see eye to eye.
12. Before you tackle this question, decide what moods you found in the play. "Mood" is an
elusive term. A piece of literature as complex as Streetcar might contain several moods
simultaneously.
Here are some possibilities: (1) violent, angry, and tense; (2) sad and sentimental; (3) sexual
and animalistic; (4) morbid and tragic; (5) grotesquely comical. Williams creates such moods
using characters' words and actions as well as music, lighting and stage directions. The
"Characters" section of this Book Notes provides numerous examples of how dialogue and
action shape the mood of the play. For example, Stanley's bellowing into the night for Stella to
return to him creates a sense of savagery that hangs in the air throughout the play.
If you examine Williams' stage directions, you'll discover prescriptions for mood-enhancing
sound effects (trains, voices in the background, gunshots) and music (a waltz for romance, a
faint polka to convey the feeling of lost happiness). Similarly, the stage lighting, from the dim
glow of Blanche's lanterns to the oppressive glare around the poker table, helps to set the mood
of each scene. Williams leaves little to chance. He knows how to create moods and gives play
directors plenty of help.
13. It takes skill to mediate between two people who detest each other. If you've ever tried, you
can appreciate the problem Stella faces throughout the play. She employs various tactics to
force Stanley and Blanche into peaceful coexistence. None of her methods work, however.
From the beginning she pleads for understanding. To keep Blanche from being shocked, Stella
prepares her sister to meet Stanley. She explains that Stanley may be different from the sort of
men Blanche may be accustomed to. Later, Stella points out Stanley's attractiveness, especially
in bed, but her words fall on deaf ears.
Similarly, Stella can't convince Stanley to accept Blanche. He is unmoved by Blanche's
delicate condition and the tragic loss of her husband. He distrusts Blanche the moment he
meets her. Once he's made up his mind, nothing can sway him.
During most of the play Stella acts as a buffer between the adversaries. Gradually, she drifts
toward Blanche's side. Her sister needs help. But if Stella isn't careful, she stands to antagonize
Stanley.
Ultimately she sends her sister away. Why Stella sides with Stanley in the end is worth
exploring. What has Stella realized about her sister, about Stanley, and about herself? Why
can't she simply continue to serve as intermediary? What might Williams be saying by having
Stella and Stanley reunited at the end of the play?
[The Glass Menagerie and A Streetcar Named Desire Contents]
TERM PAPER IDEAS AND OTHER TOPICS FOR WRITING
l CHARACTERS
1. How real are the play's characters? To what degree are they grotesques or
caricatures of real people?
2. What are the sources of conflict between Stanley and Blanche? In what ways
does the nature of their conflict change as the play progresses?
3. In what ways are Stanley and Blanche symbolic figures?
4. How does each character contribute to Blanche's breakdown? What does
Blanche contribute herself?
5. Regardless of her past, why is Blanche a generally sympathetic figure? Explain.
l THE MEANING OF THE PLAY
1. Do the themes in the play have contemporary relevance? In what ways?
2. Is Williams' portrayal of the world totally pessimistic, or does he leave room for
at least a little optimism? Defend your answer.
3. Does Williams prefer Blanche's world of traditional Southern gentility or
Stanley's of modern hedonism? What is your evidence?
l THE PLAY AS DRAMA
1. How does the setting contribute to the mood and meaning of the play?
2. What kinds of symbols does Williams insert in his play, and what does
symbolism add to the play's mood or meaning?
3. In which ways does the use of sound contribute to the mood of the play?
4. How does Streetcar compare to a classical Greek tragedy?
REFERENCE
THE STORY
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The Glass Menagerie
and
A Streetcar Named Desire
Tennessee Williams
REFERENCE
THE CRITICS
ON SYMBOLISM IN THE GLASS MENAGERIE
Roger B. Stein thinks that Williams wanted his play to be more than a social and personal
tragedy. To suggest the story's deeper meaning, he crowded The Glass Menagerie with
Christian symbols.
Amanda, who condemns instinct and urges Tom to think in terms of the mind and spirit, as
"Christian adults" do, is often characterized in Christian terms. Her music... is "Ave Maria." As
a girl, she could only cook angel food cake. She urges Laura, "Possess your soul in patience,"
and then speaks of her dress for the dinner scene as "resurrected" from a trunk. Her constant
refrain to Tom is "Rise an' Shine," and she sells subscriptions to her friends by waking them
early in the morning and then sympathizing with them as "Christian martyrs."
...In a very small sense both Amanda and Laura are searching for a Savior who will come to
help them, to save them, to give their drab lives meaning.
"The Glass Menagerie Revisited: Catastrophe without Violence," 1964
ON THE USE OF TIME IN THE GLASS MENAGERIE
The lives of the characters are touched by the past, present, and future. But as critic Frank
Durham points out, time is used in a poetic way, too:
Tom stands with us in the immediate present.... But through his consciousness we are carried
back in time to his life in the drab apartment before his escape.... Within this train of memory
there are two types of time, the generalized and the specific, and through the use of these two
we are given a deeper insight into the lives and relationships of the Wingfields. The first scene
in the apartment, the dinner scene, is an example of generalized time. It is not any one
particular dinner but a kind of abstraction of all the dinners shared by the trio in their life of
entrapment....
"Tennessee Williams, Theater Poet in Prose," 1971
ON A STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE
Some early theatergoers were attracted to A Streetcar Named Desire by its sensationalism.
Others objected to its sordidness. Here is part of theater critic Brooks Atkinson explanation of
the artistry of the play:
As a matter of fact, people do appreciate it thoroughly. They come away from it profoundly
moved and also in some curious way elated. For they have been sitting all evening in the
presence of truth, and that is a rare and wonderful experience. Out of nothing more esoteric
than interest in human beings, Mr. Williams has looked steadily and wholly into the private
agony of one lost person. He supplies dramatic conflict by introducing Blanche to an alien
environment that brutally wears on her nerves. But he takes no sides in the conflict. He knows
how right all the characters are- how right she is in trying to protect herself against the disaster
that is overtaking her, and how right the other characters are in protecting their independence,
for her terrible needs cannot be fulfilled. There is no solution except the painful one Mr.
Williams provides in his last scene.
"'Streetcar' Tragedy Mr. Williams' Report on Life in New Orleans," The New York Times, 1947
George Jean Nathan, another respected theater critic, found less to admire in Streetcar:
The borderline between the unpleasant and the disgusting is... a shadowy one, as inferior
playwrights have at times found out to their surprise and grief. Williams has managed to keep
his play wholly in hand. But there is, too, a much more shadowy borderline between the
unpleasant and the enlightening, and Williams has tripped over it, badly. While he has
succeeded in making realistically dramatic such elements as sexual abnormality, harlotry,
perversion, seduction and lunacy, he has scarcely contrived to distil from them any elevation
and purge. His play as a consequence remains largely a theatrical shocker which, while it may
shock the emotions of its audience, doesn't in the slightest shock them into any spiritual
education.
"The Streetcar Isn't Drawn by Pegasus," The New York Journal-American, 1947
IMAGERY IN A STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE
Much of the verbal and theatrical imagery that constitutes the drama is drawn from games,
chance and luck.... Indeed, the tactics and ceremonial games. in general, and poker in
particular, may be seen as constituting the informing structural principle of the play as a whole.
Pitting Stanley Kowalski, the powerful master of Elysian Fields against Blanche DuBois, the
ineffectual ex-mistress of Belle Reve, Williams makes the former the inevitable winner of the
game whose stakes are survival in the kind of world the play posits.
Leonard Quirino, "The Cards Indicate a Voyage on A Streetcar Named Desire," Tennessee
Williams: Thirteen Essays, 1980.
[The Glass Menagerie and A Streetcar Named Desire Contents]
ADVISORY BOARD
We wish to thank the following educators who helped us focus our Book Notes series to meet
student needs and critiqued our manuscripts to provide quality materials.
Sandra Dunn, English Teacher
Hempstead High School, Hempstead, New York
Lawrence J. Epstein, Associate Professor of English
Suffolk County Community College, Selden, New York
Leonard Gardner, Lecturer, English Department
State University of New York at Stony Brook
Beverly A. Haley, Member, Advisory Committee
National Council of Teachers of English Student Guide Series
Fort Morgan, Colorado
Elaine C. Johnson, English Teacher
Tamalpais Union High School District
Mill Valley, California
Marvin J. LaHood, Professor of English
State University of New York College at Buffalo
Robert Lecker, Associate Professor of English
McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
David E. Manly, Professor of Educational Studies
State University of New York College at Geneseo
Bruce Miller, Associate Professor of Education
State University of New York at Buffalo
Frank O'Hare, Professor of English and Director of Writing
Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
Faith Z. Schullstrom, Member of Executive Committee
National Council of Teachers of English
Director of Curriculum and Instruction
Guilderland Central School District, New York
Mattie C. Williams, Director, Bureau of Language Arts
Chicago Public Schools, Chicago, Illinois [The Glass Menagerie and A Streetcar Named
Desire Contents]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FURTHER READING
CRITICAL WORKS
Durham, Frank. "Tennessee Williams, Theater Poet in Prose." In Parker, Twentieth Century
Interpretations of The Glass Menagerie, pp. 121-34. A discussion of the play as a type of poem.
Jackson, Esther M. The Broken World of Tennessee Williams. Madison: University of
Wisconsin Press, 1965. A study of Williams' use of non-realism.
Miller, Jordan Y., editor. Twentieth Century Interpretations of A Streetcar Named Desire.
Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1971. A rich selection of essays about Streetcar as a movie, as
a Broadway production, and as a work of dramatic art.
Nelson, Benjamin. "The Play is Memory." In Tennessee Williams, the Man and his Work. New
York: Ivan Obolensky, Inc., 1961, pp. 98-112. Insightful discussion of characters and themes in
The Glass Menagerie.
Parker, R. B., editor. Twentieth Century Interpretations of The Glass Menagerie. Englewood
Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1983. A collection of writings about the play, including reviews of the
original production.
Rader, Dotson. Tennessee: Cry of the Heart. Garden City: Doubleday, 1985. A personal
memoir of Williams.
Spoto, Donald. The Kindness of Strangers. Boston: Little, Brown, 1985. Deals with Williams'
life and art.
Stanton, Stephen, S., editor. Tennessee Williams: A Collection of Critical Essays. Englewood
Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1977. Several essays about Williams, the man, and his plays. One
interpretive essay specifically on The Glass Menagerie.
Stein, Roger B. "The Glass Menagerie Revisited: Catastrophe without Violence." In Stanton,
Stephen S., editor, Tennessee Williams: A Collection of Critical Essays, pp. 36-44. Fascinating
study of the Christian symbolism in the play.
Tharpe, Jac. Tennessee Williams: Thirteen Essays. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi,
1980. Critical essays on Williams' work.
Williams, Tennessee. Memoirs. New York: Doubleday and Co., 1975. To know the man you
must read this autobiography.
AUTHOR'S MAJOR WORKS
1940 Battle of Angels
1944 The Glass Menagerie
1947 A Streetcar Named Desire
1948 Summer and Smoke
1950 The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone
1951 The Rose Tattoo
1953 Camino Real
1955 Cat on a Hot Tin Roof
1957 Orpheus Descending
1959 Suddenly Last Summer (screenplay)
1959 Sweet Bird of Youth
1960 The Fugitive Kind (screenplay)
1960 Period of Adjustment
1961 The Night of the Iguana
1963 The Milk Train Doesn't Stop Here Anymore
1973 Small Craft Warnings
A STEP BEYOND (The Glass Menagerie)
A STEP BEYOND (A Streetcar Named Desire)
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© Copyright 1985 by Barron's Educational Series, Inc.
Electronically Enhanced Text © Copyright 1993, World Library, Inc.
Doctor Faustus
Christopher Marlowe
1590
by Jane Rosner
Download Entire Booknote to Disk (250k)
SERIES COORDINATOR
Murray Bromberg, Principal,
Wang High School of Queens, Holliswood, New York
Past President, High School Principals Association of New York City
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Our thanks to Milton Katz and Julius Liebb for their contribution to the Book Notes series.
Loreto Todd, Senior Lecturer in English, University of Leeds, England, prepared the chapter on
Elizabethan English in this book.
CONTENTS
l THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES
l THE PLAY
m The Plot
m The Characters
m Other Elements
l THE STORY
l THE STORY, continued
l A STEP BEYOND
m Tests and Answers
m Term Paper Ideas and other Topics for Writing
l REFERENCE
m The Critics
m Advisory Board
m Bibliography
[List of Barron's Booknotes] [The Study Web Home Page]
© Copyright 1985 by Barron's Educational Series, Inc.
Electronically Enhanced Text © Copyright 1993, World Library, Inc.
BARRON'S BOOK NOTES (tm) on CD-ROM Windows (tm) Ver. 2.0
Doctor Faustus Christopher Marlowe
--------------------------------------------------------1590
CHRISTOPHER
MARLOWE'S
DOCTOR
FAUSTUS
by Jane
Rosner
SERIES
COORDINATOR
Murray Bromberg,
Principal,
Wang High School of Queens, Holliswood, New
York
Past President, High School Principals Association of New York
City
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Our thanks to Milton Katz and Julius Liebb for their
contribution to
the Book Notes
series.
Loreto Todd, Senior Lecturer in English, University of Leeds,
England,
prepared the chapter on Elizabethan English in this
book.
(C) Copyright 1985 by Barron's Educational Series,
Inc.
Electronically Enhanced Text (C) Copyright 1993, World Library,
Inc.
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
SECTION............................ SEARCH
ON
THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES.............................
MDRFAUTH
THE
PLAY
The Plot.............................................
MDRFPLOT
The Characters.......................................
MDRFCHAR
Other
Elements
Setting.........................................
MDRFSETT
Themes..........................................
MDRFTHEM
Style...........................................
MDRFSTYL
Elizabethan English.............................
MDRFELIZ
The Faust Legend and Marlowe....................
MDRFLEGE
Form and Structure..............................
MDRFFORM
THE STORY............................................
MDRFSTOR
A STEP
BEYOND
Tests and Answers....................................
MDRFTEST
Term Paper Ideas and other Topics for Writing........
MDRFTERM
The Critics..........................................
MDRFCRIT
Advisory Board.......................................
MDRFADVB
Bibliography.........................................
MDRFBIBL
AUTHOR_AND_HIS_TIMES
THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES
(MDRFAUTH)
If you met Christopher Marlowe, you might not like him. But
you
would probably be fascinated by him. Marlowe was a fiery
genius
whose brief career resembled the trail of a meteor across the
night
sky.
Marlowe was not just a writer. A hot-headed swordsman, he
was
arrested twice for street fighting and spent some weeks in
prison
for his role in a fatal duel. He was also a spy, involved in
a
dangerous, though not fully understood, ring of secret
agents.
At one extreme, Marlowe was a social climber who hobnobbed
with
the rich and powerful of his day. He was friend to Sir
Francis
Walsingham, head of the government's secret service. And he knew
Sir
Walter Raleigh, Queen Elizabeth's favorite at court. At the
other
extreme, Marlowe had a taste for London low life. He haunted
the
taverns till dawn in the company of thieves and confidence
men.
Marlowe combined a thirst for adventure with wildly
speculative
opinions. In Elizabethan times, when church attendance was
strictly
enforced by law, Marlowe was an atheist. Like Faustus, he
scoffed
openly at established beliefs. He called the biblical Moses
"a
juggler," or second-rate magician, and referred to Christ as
a
not-so-pious
fraud.
Not surprisingly, when Marlowe died at 29- stabbed through the
eye
in a tavern brawl- many people saw in his fate the hand of an
angry
God. But let's start at the
beginning.
Marlowe was born in 1564, two months before William
Shakespeare,
in the cathedral town of Canterbury. He was a shoemaker's son
and,
in the normal course of events, would have taken up his
father's
trade. Destiny intervened, however, in the form of a
college
scholarship. In the sixteenth century, even more than in the
present
day, college was a way out of a laborer's life. It opened up
the
path of advancement, presumably within the
church.
Today, we think of education as a universal right. But in
those
days, it was a privilege. The ability to read- which meant the
ability
to read Latin- was still a rare accomplishment. In fact, under
English
common law, any man who could read was considered a priest and
could
claim, if arrested, a right called "benefit of clergy." That meant,
if
you killed a man and could read, you might go free with a warning.
But
if you killed a man and couldn't read, you were sure to swing from
the
gallows.
In the sixteenth century, as you will see in Doctor Faustus,
there
was still something magical about books and people who could
read
them. That's why, when Marlowe was offered a scholarship by
the
Archbishop of Canterbury, he probably jumped at the chance. In
1581
the promising youth left home to attend Cambridge
University.
Cambridge fed Marlowe's hungry mind, even while it vexed his
spirit.
The university library was one of the world's finest. Good
books
were still scarce and expensive. The shoemaker's household
would
have had its Bible and some collections of sermons. But
the
Cambridge library shelves were lined with leather-bound
classics,
those works of ancient Greece and Rome that the Renaissance found
so
illuminating. Aristotle's studies of Nature, Homer's
magnificent
epics, the Roman poet Ovid's frank celebrations of love- they were
all
there, and Marlowe read them avidly along with maps that showed
him
the exotic places of the
world.
The books and the library were part of the luxury offered
by
Cambridge. But there was an oppressive side, too, to
university
life. Cambridge in those years was a training ground for the
ministry,
its graduates destined to be clergymen or schoolmasters. Piety
and
sobriety were the virtues promoted in its cold stone
halls.
Cambridge scholars slept in communal dormitories, took their
bread
at the buttery (a sort of feudal cafeteria), and wore,
by
regulation, simple wool caps and gowns. Innocent pastimes
like
swimming were forbidden and subject to severe punishment. In
short,
despite occasional high-jinks, the lives of the students were not
so
different from those of medieval
monks.
There was a basic contradiction in all this, a contradiction
that
lies at the heart of Doctor Faustus. The classics which these
young
men were reading beckoned them toward the world and the pleasures
of
the senses. But to stay at Cambridge and to study these books,
the
young men had to appear to be devout ministers-in-training. As
Faustus
puts it, they were "divines in
show."
A whole generation broke under the strain. They fled the
Cambridge
cloister and descended on London to earn a precarious living
by
writing. These were the so-called University Wits. And Marlowe
would
soon join them, for he, too, was in rebellion against the
religious
demands of
Cambridge.
While studying for his master's degree, Marlowe wrote plays
in
secret (plays were viewed as the devil's work by the church), and
he
became involved in some colorful espionage activities. In a
flagrant
breach of the rules, Marlowe stayed absent for months at a
time,
traveling on the Continent on some deep business of the
Privy
Council's. (The Privy Council was a body of advisors to the queen,
a
sort of unofficial
Cabinet.)
The Cambridge authorities moved to expel Marlowe, but a
grateful
government intervened. The university dons, their arms
gently
twisted by the Privy Council, awarded Marlowe the highly
respected
Master of Arts degree in 1587. With two university degrees
(a
bachelor's and a master's) under his belt, the shoemaker's son
was
entitled to style himself Christopher Marlowe, gentleman. No
small
matter in class-conscious England, then or
now.
His studies behind him, Marlowe left for London, where he joined
the
circle of bright and ambitious university renegades: Thomas
Nashe,
John Lyly, Robert Greene. Marlowe and the rest headed for
the
theater with a sense of exhilaration. In London of the 1580s,
the
drama was just springing to
life.
The first theaters were being built- the Curtain, the
Roselegitimate
places for plays that had previously been performed
in
innyards. The first acting companies were being formed- the
Lord
Admiral's Men, the Lord Chamberlain's Men- as the players,
frowned
upon by the church, sought the service and protection of the
great
lords.
Marlowe, an innovator, thrived in this stimulating environment.
He
threw himself into the new theater with enthusiasm. He took
lodgings
in Shoreditch, the theatrical district on the outskirts of town,
and
roomed for a while with Thomas Kyd, the author of the
popular
Spanish Tragedy. Marlowe worked for the hard-headed theater
owner,
Philip Henslowe, and wrote plays for the Lord Admiral's Men
and
their great star, Edward Alleyn. In the process, Marlowe's
fertile
brain and fiery spirit helped give shape and form to what we
now
call Elizabethan
drama.
The main gift Marlowe gave to the theater was its language. As
you
probably know from your study of Shakespeare,
Elizabethan
playwrights wrote in blank verse or iambic pentameter.
(Iambic
pentameter meant that the verse line had five feet, each composed of
a
weak and a strong syllable.) Marlowe didn't invent blank verse, but
he
took a form that had been stilted and dull and he breathed
fresh
life and energy into it. It was Marlowe who made blank verse
a
supple and expressive dramatic
instrument.
When Marlowe arrived in London, he took the theatrical world
by
storm. He was new to the stage, but within months, he was
its
master. He was admired, imitated, and envied, as only the
wildly
successful can
be.
His first play was Tamburlaine (1587), the tale of a
Scythian
shepherd who took to the sword and carved out a vast empire.
Audiences
held their breath as Tamburlaine rolled across stage in a
chariot
drawn by kings he had beaten in battle. Tamburlaine cracked his
whip
and cried, "Hola, ye pampered jades of Asia!" (Jades meant
both
worn-out horses and luxury-satiated monarchs.) This was
electrifying
stuff which packed the theaters and made ruthless conquerors
the
rage of
London.
Marlowe had a terrific box-office sense, and he kept on writing
hits
as fast as his company could stage them. In 1588 came Tamburlaine
II
and then, probably in 1591, The Jew of Malta, the story of
a
merchant as greedy for riches as Tamburlaine was for crowns.
Gold
wasn't good enough for the Jew of Malta. That merchant longed
for
priceless gems and unimaginable wealth. No warrior, the Jew of
Malta's
weapons in his battle with life were policy and guile. He set a
new
style in dramatic characters, the Machiavellian villain.
(These
villains were named for Nicholas Machiavelli, the Italian author
of
a cynical guide for
princes.)
Faustus was either Marlowe's second or last tragic hero.
Some
scholars believe Doctor Faustus was written in 1590, before The Jew
of
Malta. Others date the play from 1592, the last year of
Marlowe's
life. In either case, Faustus completed the circle of heroes
with
superhuman aspirations. Where Tamburlaine sought endless rule, and
the
Jew of Malta fabulous wealth, Faustus pursued limitless
knowledge.
Like Tamburlaine, Faustus had a powerful impact on
Elizabethan
theatergoers. For audiences who flocked to see him, Marlowe's
black
magician combined the incredible powers of Merlin with
the
spine-chilling evil of Dracula. We know the thrill of horror
that
swept through spectators of Doctor Faustus since there are
records
of performances called to a halt, when the startled citizens of
London
thought they saw a real devil on
stage.
Marlowe's tragic heroes share a sense of high destiny,
an
exuberant optimism, and a fierce unscrupulousness in gaining
their
ends. They've been called "overreachers" because of their refusal
to
accept human limitations. Humbly born, all of Marlowe's
tragic
heroes climb to lofty heights before they die or are humbled by
the
Wheel of
Fortune.
Did Marlowe share the vaulting ambitions of his characters,
their
lust for power, riches, and knowledge? In dealing with a dramatist
who
wears a mask, it's always dangerous to make assumptions. But
the
slim facts and plentiful rumors that survive about Marlowe suggest
a
fire-eating rebel who was not about to let tradition stand in his
way.
All his life, Marlowe thumbed his nose at convention. Expected to
be
first a cobbler, then a clergyman, he defied expectations and
chose
instead the glamorous world of the theater. Lacking wealth and
a
title- the passports to high society- he nevertheless moved
in
brilliant, aristocratic circles. In the shedding of humble origins,
in
the upward thrust of his life, Marlowe was very much a
Renaissance
man.
Free of the restraints of Cambridge, Marlowe emerged in London
as
a religious subversive. There are hints of forbidden pleasures
("All
that love not tobacco and boys were fools," he quipped) and
more
than hints of iconoclasm. Marlowe is said to have joined a circle
of
free-thinkers known as the School of Night. This group, which
revolved
around Sir Walter Raleigh, indulged in indiscreet
philosophic
discussion and allegedly in blasphemies concerning the name of
God.
Marlowe was blasted from the pulpit, and eventually
his
unorthodoxy landed him in trouble with the secular authorities.
In
1593 he was summoned before the Privy Council, presumably on
charges
of atheism. (In Elizabethan times, atheism was a state offense
with
treasonous overtones.) Though Marlowe's death forestalled the
inquiry,
the furor was just
beginning.
Two days after Marlowe was killed, an informer named
Richard
Baines submitted to the authorities a document concerning
Marlowe's
"damnable judgment of religion." Baines attributed eighteen
statements
to Marlowe, some attacking Jesus, others the Bible and the church.
A
sample comment of Marlowe's was that "if the Jews, among whom
Christ
was born, crucified him, they knew him best." By implication,
they
knew what he deserved. The document ends with Baines' charge
that
Marlowe failed to keep his outrageous opinions to himself,
touting
them all over London. In addition, Marlowe's sometime roommate,
Thomas
Kyd, who was also arrested and tortured, accused Marlowe of
having
written atheistic tracts that were found in Kyd's possession, when
his
house was
searched.
The evidence against Marlowe is suspect or hearsay. But with so
much
smoke, there may have been fire. Some scholars think that
Marlowe
leapt at the Faustus story because it gave him a chance to vent
his
godless beliefs under cover of a play with a safe moral ending.
Yet
other scholars point to the damnation of Faustus as evidence
that
Marlowe was moving away from atheism- indeed, that he was
moving
toward Christianity, even though he never quite arrived there.
Was
Marlowe beginning to be frightened by his audacity? Was he
mellowing
with the approach of middle age? Or was God-defiance and a
youthful
faith in glorious human possibility simply his life-long
credo?
These questions have no answers, for Marlowe's life and
writing
career were cut short in May 1593. After spending a day
closeted
with secret agents in a Deptford tavern, Marlowe quarreled with one
of
them- Ingram Friser- over the bill. Marlowe pulled out a dagger
and
hit Friser over the head with its flat end. In the ensuing
scuffle,
Friser got hold of the dagger and thrust its point deep into
Marlowe's
eye. The playwright died of brain injuries three days later,
"died
swearing" according to the gratified London
preachers.
We can only speculate as to what heights Marlowe might
have
climbed as a dramatist, had he lived. He spent six
astonishingly
productive years in London. Had Shakespeare, his contemporary, died
at
the same age, he would have written very few of the plays for which
he
is loved
today.
PLOT
THE
PLAY
THE PLOT
(MDRFPLOT)
If you are interested in the world of the occult, you'll like
this
play. Doctor Faustus is a drama about a famous scholar who sells
his
soul to the devil in exchange for magical powers. It is a play
which
has come down to us over the centuries in two different
versions
(see the beginning of the section on The Story). Events found in
the
1616 text, but missing from the 1604, are marked here with an
asterisk
(*).
In Doctor Faustus, as in many Elizabethan plays, the main
plot
centers on the tragic hero, while a subplot offers comic
relief.
Dr. John Faustus, the renowned scholar of Wittenberg, has
closeted
himself in his study to decide his future career. Law,
medicine,
theology- he has mastered them all. And he finds them
all
dissatisfying.
Faustus wants a career to match the scope of his ambition, a
subject
to challenge his enormous intellect. So he turns to necromancy,
or
black magic, which seems to offer him godlike powers. He
knows,
however, that it involves forbidden traffic with
demons.
Faustus summons Valdes and Cornelius, two accomplished magicians,
to
instruct him in the art of conjuring. That night, in the midst of
a
crashing thunderstorm, Faustus raises up the demon
spirit,
Mephistophilis. Faustus proposes a bargain. He will give
his
immortal soul to the devil in exchange for twenty-four years
of
magic and merrymaking.
Mephistophilis procrastinates. Reconsider, he advises Faustus.
You
really don't know what you are getting into. Besides,
Mephistophilis
does not have the power to conclude such an agreement. He is only
a
servant to Lucifer, the prince of hell. Faustus orders him to
speak
with Lucifer, so Mephistophilis quickly flies off to the
nether
regions.
While waiting for the spirit to return, Faustus has second
thoughts.
Is it too late to pull back from the abyss? Never too late,
counsels
the Good Angel, who suddenly appears before Faustus' eyes. Too
late,
whispers the Evil Angel, who advises Faustus to think of fame
and
wealth. Wealth! The very word makes Faustus catch fire.
Hesitation
flies out the window as Mephistophilis flies in with Lucifer's
reply.
The prince of hell will grant Faustus' wish, provided that
Faustus
sign over his soul in a deed of gift. Lucifer wants a contract to
make
sure he isn't cheated. The contract must be written in Faustus'
own
blood.
In compliance with Lucifer's demand, Faustus stabs his arm,
only
to find that his blood has mysteriously frozen in his
veins.
Mephistophilis comes running with hot coals to warm Faustus'
blood,
and it starts flowing again. The contract is completed, and the
moment
of crisis past. Mephistophilis provides a show to divert
Faustus'
thoughts. He calls for devils who enter with a crown and
royal
robes. They dance around Faustus, delighting him with the thought
that
he can summon such spirits at any
time.
Now that the bargain is sealed, Faustus is eager to satisfy
his
passionate curiosity and appetites. He wants answers to questions
that
surge in his brain about the stars and the heavenly spheres. He
also
wants a wife to share his
bed.
Faustus' demands are met in typically hellish
fashion.
Mephistophilis' revelations about the stars turn out to be no
more
than elementary assumptions of medieval astronomy. And the
wife
provided Faustus by the spirit is a female demon who bursts onto
the
stage in a hot spray of
fireworks.
Faustus becomes wary. He suspects he has sold his soul for a
cheap
bag of tricks. The disillusioned scholar falls into bitterness
and
despair. He curses Mephistophilis and ponders
suicide.
Faustus makes a futile stab at repentance. He prays desperately
to
God, only to have Lucifer appear before him. As a confirmation
of
Faustus' bondage to hell, they watch a parade of the Seven
Deadly
Sins. Pride leads Avarice, Gluttony, and the rest, as
each
brandishes his own special weakness of the soul or
flesh.
Casting aside all further thoughts of repentance, Faustus
gives
himself up to the distractions that Mephistophilis puts in his
way.
Through travel and visits to foreign courts, Faustus seeks to
enjoy
himself in the time he has left on
earth.
Mephistophilis takes Faustus to Rome and to the private
chambers
of the Pope. The two become invisible and play practical jokes until
a
planned papal banquet breaks up in disarray. Then it's on to
the
German Emperor's court, where they entertain his majesty by
raising
the ghost of Alexander the
Great.
* At the Emperor's court, a skeptical knight voices his doubts
about
Faustus' magic powers. The magician takes revenge by making a
pair
of stag horns grow on the knight's head. Faustus follows this
prank
with another. He sells a crafty horse-dealer a demon horse
which
vanishes when it is ridden into
water.
In the meantime, Faustus' experiments with magic are
being
imitated by his household staff. Faustus' servant, Wagner, tries
his
own hand at conjuring by summoning two comic devils who force
the
clown, Robin, into Wagner's
service.
Not to be outdone, Robin steals one of Faustus' conjuring
books.
In his dimwitted way, he tries to puzzle out the spells. The
real
magic is that Robin's spell works! A weary Mephistophilis,
summoned
from Constantinople, rises up before the startled clown. In anger,
the
spirit turns Robin into an ape and his sidekick, Dick, into a
dog.
* The transformed clowns and the horse-dealer meet in a
nearby
tavern, where they swap stories about the injuries they
have
suffered at Faustus' hand. Tipsy with ale, they descend on
the
castle of Vanholt, where Faustus is busy entertaining the Duke
and
Duchess with his fabulous magic tricks. The magician produces
for
the pregnant Duchess an out-of-season delicacy she
craveswintertime
grapes.
* Faustus wins an easy victory over the rowdy crew from
the
tavern, striking each of them dumb in turn. He then returns
to
Wittenberg, in a more sober frame of mind, to keep his rendezvous
with
fate.
Faustus' mind has turned toward death. He has made a will,
leaving
his estate to Wagner. Yet he still holds feverishly onto life.
He
drinks and feasts far into the night with the dissolute scholars
of
Wittenberg. And, in a last magnificent conjuring trick, he
raises
the shade (spirit) of the most beautiful woman in history, Helen
of
Troy.
At the end of his career, poised between life and death,
Faustus
undergoes a last crisis of conscience. An Old Man appears to
plead
with Faustus to give up his magic art. God is merciful, the Old
Man
promises. He will yet pardon Faustus and fill his heart with
grace.
The magician hesitates, visibly moved by the Old Man's
chastening
words. But Mephistophilis is too quick for him. The spirit
threatens
Faustus with torture, if he reneges on his contract with Lucifer.
At
the same time, Mephistophilis promises to reward Faustus with Helen
of
Troy, if he keeps faith with hell. Faustus collapses under
the
pressure. He orders Mephistophilis to torture the Old Man.
(Anyone,
anyone but himself.) And he takes the insubstantial shade of Helen
for
his lover. In doing so, he is
lost.
The final hour approaches. As the minutes tick away, Faustus
tries
frantically to stop the clock. Give him one more month, one more
week,
one more day to repent, he cries. But the hours chime away.
Midnight
strikes. The devil arrives through billowing smoke and fire,
and
Faustus is led away to
hell.
* In the morning, the scholars of Wittenberg find Faustus'
body.
They deplore his evil fate, but honor him for his learning. For
the
black magician who might have been a light unto the world, they plan
a
stately
funeral.
CHARACTERS
THE CHARACTERS
(MDRFCHAR)
-
FAUSTUS
It is no accident that Faustus compares himself to a colossus
(IV,
VII). Marlowe's hero looms out of the play like some huge,
jagged
statue. There is far too much of him to take in at a
glance.
Make any simple statement about Faustus, and you'll find you
are
only talking about part of the man. Faustus lends himself less
than
most characters to easy
generalization.
Say, for instance, that Faustus is a scholar. Books are his
trade,
philosophy his strength. Yet what an unscholarly scholar he is!
At
times during the play, he kicks up his heels and romps about the
stage
just like a comedian who has never heard of philosophy in his
life.
Or say that Faustus is an atheist. He scoffs at religion
and
denies the existence of God. But, at one of the play's most
dramatic
moments, you see Faustus fall to his knees in a fervent prayer
of
contrition to
Christ.
Perhaps we should take our cue from such contradictory
behavior
and seek the key to Faustus in contradiction. Clearly he's a man
of
many inner conflicts. Here are three for you to think
about:
1. Some people sense an age-old conflict in Faustus between his
body
and his mind. To these readers, Faustus is a noble
intellect,
destroyed by his grosser appetites. In this interpretation,
Faustus'
tragedy is that he exchanges the worthwhile pursuit of knowledge
for
wine, women, and song. Faustus not only burns in hell for his
carnal
ways, he pays a stiffer price: loss of his tragic
dignity.
2. Other readers see Faustus' conflict in historical
terms.
Faustus lives in a time of the Middle Ages and the start of
the
Renaissance. These were two very different historical eras
with
quite different values, and Faustus is caught in the grip
of
changing times. On the one hand, he is very aware of the
admonitions
of the medieval church- don't seek to know too much, learn
contempt
for this world, and put your energy into saving your soul. On
the
other hand, Faustus hears Renaissance voices which tell him just
the
opposite. Extend the boundaries of human knowledge. Seek wealth
and
power. Live this life to the full because tomorrow you'll be
dead.
(This theme of "eat, drink, and be merry for tomorrow we die" is
known
as carpe diem or seize the day. It was a popular theme in
the
Renaissance.)
3. Still other readers see Faustus torn between
superhuman
aspirations and very human limitations. Faustus dreams that magic
will
make him a god. In his early dealing with Mephistophilis, he
talks
about himself as if he were a king. He gives commands, dictates
terms,
and fancies himself on a par with Lucifer, the dreaded regent of
hell.
Faustus is willing to sign a contract which will free him from
human
restraints for twenty-four years. During that time, he will have
a
spirit's body that can soar free of the earth, a body immune
from
the ravages of old age and time. Yet, even as he signs the
contract,
Faustus somehow knows that he is only human. His body warns him
to
flee and addresses him, in no uncertain terms, as
"man."
The contrast between Faustus' hopes and his realities is
very
great indeed. The man who was to have been a king grovels like a
slave
before Lucifer. The "god" who was to have escaped from time
watches
powerless as the last hour of his life ticks away. Because of
the
great distance between Faustus' dreams and achievements, he
strikes
some readers as a wretch, an immature egotist who cries like a
child
when the universe won't let him have his
way.
Indeed, all three interpretations of Faustus present you with
a
challenge and a question. Which emerges most strongly from the
play:
Faustus' noble mind, his soaring Renaissance aspirations,
his
superhuman dreams? Or Faustus' gross appetites, his sins
against
God, his very human terrors? Somewhere between the super-hero
and
the lowly wretch, you will find your own truth about
Faustus.
MEPHISTOPHILIS
There are two sides to Mephistophilis. One of these spirits is
an
evil, malevolent tempter. He wants Faustus' soul and stops
at
nothing to get it. This Mephistophilis lies to Faustus,
manipulates
him with threats of torture, and jeers at him when his final
hour
has
come:
What, weepst thou? 'tis too late: despair.
Farewell.
Fools that will laugh on earth must weep in
hell.
The second spirit has a sweeter nature. He's a reluctant demon
who
would spare Faustus if he could. This Mephistophilis offers
no
enticements. He watches, in quiet distress, while Faustus
damns
himself. When summoned during the night by Faustus'
blasphemous
conjurings, the spirit does not seize the soul that is offered to
him.
Instead, he urges Faustus away from his contemplated deal with
hell:
O Faustus, leave these frivolous
demands
Which strike a terror to my fainting
soul.
Which is the real Mephistophilis? It isn't easy to say. You
can
put your trust in Mephistophilis' better nature and see him as
a
kind of guardian spirit. You'll find evidence in the play
that
Mephistophilis cares for Faustus and feels a strong attraction
to
the man. He calls his charge "My Faustus," and flies to his
side
with eagerness. He is a companion in Faustus' adventures and is
also
Faustus' comforter. The spirit sympathizes when Faustus is sick
with
longing for heaven. And he goes out of his way to console
the
scholar with the thought that heaven isn't such a great loss
after
all.
Mephistophilis understands Faustus in ways that suggest they are
two
of a kind. He's been called Faustus' alter ego. And you get
the
feeling that he sees himself in Faustus as he was eons before- a
proud
young angel who marched with Lucifer against God, only to see
his
hopes of glory dashed when Lucifer's rebellion
failed.
It's possible that, when Mephistophilis threatens Faustus, he
is
merely doing his job. The spirit isn't free to do what he likes. He
is
Lucifer's man. Mephistophilis has counseled Faustus against making
a
deal with hell. But once that deal is made, the spirit has no
choice
but to hold Faustus to
it.
On the other hand, you may feel that Mephistophilis shows
more
enthusiasm than the job requires. In that case, you can see the
spirit
as Faustus' evil genius. And Mephistophilis' understanding
of
Faustus becomes a potent weapon in his
hands.
The spirit, for instance, knows just what cleverly worded
promises
to make to get Faustus' signature on the dotted line. He
tells
Faustus, "I will... wait on thee, and give thee more than thou has
wit
to ask." That promise turns out to be true, but not in the way
that
Faustus has reason to expect. What Mephistophilis gives Faustus
is
an eternity of torment, not the limitless power that Faustus
imagines.
Mephistophilis is a trickster. When Faustus asks for a wife,
the
spirit provides one- a demon too hot to touch. When Faustus asks
for
information about the stars, Mephistophilis gives him facts
which
the scholar already knows. In his own hellish
fashion,
Mephistophilis abides by the letter, not the spirit, of
the
contract. He obeys Faustus' commands without fulfilling his
wishes.
The spirit makes sure that Faustus pays full price for
relatively
shoddy
goods.
Is Mephistophilis a brilliant schemer who plots the damning
of
Faustus? Or is he a reluctant actor in the tragedy? It's up to
you
to
decide.
WAGNER
Wagner is not happy in his role as a servant. He's
sufficiently
educated to regard himself as a scholar, and he's eager to prove
his
prowess in logical dispute. If you read between the lines, you
begin
to suspect that Wagner has a secret yen to wear a professor's
robes
and sit as king of the roost in Faustus'
study.
Yet there is a more faithful side to Wagner. He serves his
master
loyally. He shields his master from the prying eyes of tattletale
clerics. And he takes the trouble to track Faustus down on the
road
with an invitation to the castle of Vanholt. (Wagner knows very
well
that his master likes to preen in front of the nobility.) What's
more,
Wagner is Faustus' heir. Faustus probably wouldn't leave his
money
to Wagner except as a "thank you" for years of good
service.
Some readers think Wagner is foolish. But there's every
indication
he's really rather clever. He dabbles in magic and conjures
demons
without going to hell. Wagner watches carefully as his master
gets
snared by the devil. He manages to skirt by the same trap
without
getting
caught.
VALDES AND
CORNELIUS
Valdes and Cornelius usher in the era of wizardry at
Wittenberg.
By introducing magic to the university, they, play a minor role
in
tempting Faustus. Valdes seems the bolder of the pair. He dreams
of
a glorious association with Faustus and has himself overcome
the
scruples of conscience that await the would-be magician.
Cornelius
is more timid, content to dabble in magic rather than practice it
in
earnest. "The spirits tell me they can dry the sea," Cornelius
says,
never having ventured to try the
experiment.
ROBIN
With his stirrings of ambition and his hapless attempts
at
conjuring, Robin, the clown, is a sort of minor Wagner. He's
yet
another servant who follows his master into devilry. Like most
of
the characters in the play, Robin is an upstart. He regards himself
as
destined for higher things than service in an innyard.
In
particular, magic turns his head. Intoxicated with the thought
of
commanding demons, Robin turns impudent. He gets drunk on the
job
and boasts of seducing his master's
wife.
THE OLD
MAN
The Old Man is a true believer in God and is the one human
being
in the play with a profound religious faith. He walks across the
stage
with his eyes fixed on heaven, which is why he sees angels
visible
to no one else. With his singleness of purpose, the Old Man is
an
abstraction, rather than a flesh-and-blood
character.
(Appropriately, he has no name.) His role is to serve as a foil
for
Faustus. His saintly path is the road not taken by Marlowe's
hero.
LUCIFER
There's something compelling about the prince of hell, a
fallen
angel who once dared to revolt against God. Formerly bright
as
sunlight, Lucifer's now a dark lord who holds sway over a
mighty
kingdom. Yet there's something coarse about him, too.
Lucifer's
regal image is tarnished by association with creatures like
the
Seven Deadly Sins and that jokester, Belzebub. The grandeur
of
ambition, the grossness of sin- these two aspects of Lucifer
are
reflected in his
servants.
BENVOLIO
A courtier, Benvolio takes the world with a blase yawn and
a
skeptical sneer. You can't fool him, but he can outwit himself.
He
does so by rashly challenging the powers of hell on two
occasions.
THE HORSE
COURSER
Horse coursers or traders were the Elizabethan equivalents of
our
used-car salesmen. That is, they were known for being
cheats.
Marlowe's horse courser is no exception. A sharp bargainer, he
beats
down the price of Faustus' horse. And when the horse proves to be
a
spirit, he demands his money back. This hardy peasant is a
survivor.
THE
POPE
The Pope is the most worldly of priests, luxury-loving
and
power-hungry. The character seems tailored to the Elizabethan image
of
the churchmen of Rome, and his defeat at Faustus' hands
was
undoubtedly the occasion for roars of approval from
a
Catholic-hating
crowd.
SETTING
OTHER
ELEMENTS
SETTING
(MDRFSETT)
Doctor Faustus stands on the threshold of two erasthe
Renaissance and the Middle
Ages.
Some aspects of the setting are distinctly medieval. The world
of
Doctor Faustus, for example, includes heaven and hell, as did
the
religious dramas of the medieval period. The play is lined
with
supernatural beings, angels and demons, who might have stepped
onstage
right out of a cathedral. Some of the background characters
in
Doctor Faustus are in fervent pursuit of salvation, to which
the
Middle Ages gave top
priority.
But the setting of Doctor Faustus is also a Renaissance setting.
The
time of the play is the Age of Discovery, when word has just
reached
Europe of the existence of exotic places in the New World.
The
atmosphere of Doctor Faustus is speculative. People are
asking
questions never dreamed of in the Middle Ages, questions like,
"Is
there a hell?" Faustus himself is seized by worldly, rather
than
otherworldly ambitions. He's far more concerned with luxurious
silk
gowns and powerful war-machines than with saving his
soul.
It's easy for us to talk as if there were a neat dividing
line
between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. But of course
there
isn't. People lived through a long period of transition in which
old
and new ways of thinking existed side by
side.
Transition is a key to the setting in Doctor
Faustus.
Specifically, the scene is Wittenberg, a German university town in
the
grip of change. For almost a century before Faustus'
time,
Wittenberg was a bastion of the Protestant faith. But now,
religious
certainties are being challenged by new ideas. The students are
more
interested in Homer than in the Bible. The younger men press
forward
toward forbidden knowledge, while the old men shake their heads
in
dismay.
The tensions of the university are reflected in Faustus'
study,
where much of the play takes place. The study is an uneasy room.
At
its center, on a great stand, lies the Bible. It is there to
remind
Faustus of God. But the bookshelves contain works of ancient
Greek
writers which suggest a more practical approach to life (Galen's
guide
to medicine, for example). The study also contains maps which
show
Faustus exotic lands with their promise of new sensations. And
the
scholar has recently added occult books, with their short cut
to
Nature's
secrets.
The room gives off conflicting signals about a man on the verge of
a
great decision. Theology? Science? A life of unabashed pleasure?
Which
shall it be? In this uncertain atmosphere, Faustus struggles and
fails
to find his way. Even as he entertains bright Renaissance dreams,
he
gets caught in the door that history is closing on the medieval age
of
faith.
THEMES
THEMES
(MDRFTHEM)
The following are major themes of Doctor
Faustus.
1.
AMBITION
Doctor Faustus is a study in ambition. Its hero is an
"overreacher,"
a man who strives against human limitations. Faustus tries to
do
more than is humanly possible. He seeks to know, possess,
and
experience everything under the sun. There are two ways to read
Doctor
Faustus: (1) The play glorifies ambition. Though Faustus is
finally
undone, his dreams emerge larger than the forces that defeat
him.
(2) The play criticizes ambition. Faustus falls to great depths
from
lofty heights. What's more, his larger-than-life dreams are cut
down
to size by the pointed ironies of
Mephistophilis.
2. CONCEPTS OF
HELL
There are three different concepts of hell in this play.
Faustus
claims there is no hell. Mephistophilis defines hell as the absence
of
God. The church says that hell is a pit of fire, and that's
where
Faustus goes in the end. Why are there three hells instead of
just
one? Perhaps Marlowe is exploring his own uncertain ideas.
Or
perhaps everyone finds a hell of his
own.
3. CHRISTIANS vs. CLASSIC
IDEALS
Despite its pantheon of gods, the classical world believed
in
humanity. The ancient Greeks extolled the perfection of the human
body
and the clarity of human thought. The medieval church held
almost
the opposite view. In the eyes of the church, reason was suspect
and
flesh was the devil's snare. Christian and classical beliefs
clash
in Doctor Faustus. The classical ideals focus on beauty, which
is
exemplified in the play by Helen of Troy. The Christian ideals
are
more severe and are personified by the Old Man. Helen's beauty
is
not to be trusted, but the Old Man's counsel is sound, even if
grim.
4. FREE WILL vs.
DETERMINISM
A sense of doom hangs over Doctor Faustus, a sense that
Faustus'
damnation is inevitable and has been decided in advance.
Faustus
struggles to repent, but he is browbeaten by devils and barred
from
salvation by all the forces of hell. Nonetheless, it is of his
own
volition that Faustus takes the first step toward evil. He makes
a
pact with the devil to satisfy his lust for power. And in
that
sense, Faustus chooses his
fate.
5. AN ATHEIST OR A CHRISTIAN
PLAY?
On the surface, Doctor Faustus has a Christian moral.
Faustus
commits a mortal sin and goes to hell for it. He denies God and
is
therefore denied God's mercy. Faustus is a scoffer who gets
a
scoffer's comeuppance. No fire-and-brimstone preacher could have
put
it better than Marlowe. If the surface moral is the true moral
of
the
play....
There are reasons to be suspicious. Marlowe was known to be
an
atheist. Moreover, he included a lot of blasphemy in the play.
He
seems to have taken an unholy glee in anti-religious ceremony.
There
is some powerful sacrilege in Doctor Faustus, half buried in
the
Latin.
Was Marlowe trying to slip a subversive message past the censors?
Or
was he honestly coming to grips with doubts about his own
atheistic
beliefs? If Marlowe knew the truth, it died with
him.
6.
DIVERSIONS
Hell has a lot of interesting gimmicks to keep Faustus from
thinking
about death and damnation. Devils provide distracting
shows,
fireworks, and pageants for his entertainment. Soon Faustus catches
on
to the idea. He learns to preoccupy his own mind by
feasting,
drinking, and playing pranks. All these diversions keep Faustus
from
turning his attention to God and to the salvation of his soul.
But
is Faustus so different from the rest of us? Perhaps Marlowe is
saying
that diversions are not only the pastimes of hell. They are also
the
everyday business of life
itself.
STYLE
STYLE
(MDRFSTYL)
Whenever you read a critical work on Marlowe, you are almost
certain
to find the writer referring to "Marlowe's mighty line."
That
much-quoted phrase was coined by Ben Jonson, an
Elizabethan
playwright, in a poetic tribute he wrote, not to Marlowe, but
to
Shakespeare. The poem was a send-off to the first complete
edition
of Shakespeare's plays, published in 1623. Here is what Ben Jonson
had
to
say:
How far thou [Shakespeare] didst our Lyly
outshine,
Or sporting Kyd, or Marlowe's mighty
line.
And there Marlowe has stood through the ages, his
name
unflatteringly bracketed with Shakespeare's. Marlowe the loudvoiced
trumpet to Shakespeare's mellow
violin.
Ben Jonson's left-handed compliment was fair enough in its
way.
Marlowe earned his reputation as a loud-mouth. His heroes
are
boasters, not only in their aspirations, but also through
their
language, which defies all
limits.
You can see the mighty line at work in Doctor Faustus.
When
Faustus speaks of power, for instance, he boasts of command
over
"all things that move between the quiet poles," dominion
that
stretcheth as far as doth the mind of man." The literary term
for
extravagant, exaggerated language like this is "hyperbole."
And
Marlowe exaggerates in many interesting ways. For example, he
likes
exotic adjectives. "Pearl" alone won't do. He wants to convey the
soft
luster of a rarer gem. So he reaches for a phrase that has an air
of
Eastern mystery to it. He writes of the "orient pearl."
Marlowe's
giants are not merely large, they are "Lapland giants,"
huge,
furclad creatures from the frozen North who come running, with
smoke
on their breath, to obey a magician's
commands.
Marlowe has a fondness for dazzling heights and far-off vistas.
In
Doctor Faustus, he speaks of the "topless towers" of Troy, towers
so
dizzyingly high they can't be climbed or assaulted. He
imagines
spirits who will "ransack the ocean" floor and "search all
corners
of the new-found world" for delicacies and treasure. This
outward
thrust of the language suggests space without limits, space that
gives
his restless, searching heroes worlds to conquer and room
to
maneuver
in.
Marlowe likes the sound of large, round numbers. In
Doctor
Faustus, the figures tend to be moderate: "A thousand ships,"
"a
thousand stars." But elsewhere, the playwright deals cavalierly
in
halfmillions.
In addition, Marlowe makes impossible comparisons. Faustus
is
promised spirit-lovers more beautiful than Venus, the queen of
love.
In fact, he is given Helen, who is brighter and more luminous than
a
starlit
sky.
The very use of Helen as a character suggests another of
Marlowe's
stylistic devices. He raids the pantheon of classic gods and
heroes
for comparisons that reflect favorably on his own
protagonists.
Helen steps out of the pages of the world's most famous
epic
straight into Faustus' arms. And Alexander the Great appears at
the
snap of the magician's fingertips. Marlowe's heroes don't seek
to
emulate famous figures. The ancient gods and warriors come to
them.
Marlowe's use of hyperbole has a profound effect on
your
perception of Faustus, though you may not be aware of it.
Without
the real magic of the language, Faustus would be a secondrate
magician. But with the poetry spinning its silken web, Faustus
becomes
a dreamer of real magnitude. The language makes him a force to
be
reckoned with and gives him heroic
stature.
ELIZABETHAN_ENGLISH
ELIZABETHAN ENGLISH
(MDRFELIZ)
The term "Elizabethan English" is often applied to the English
of
the period 1560-1620. It was a time when English began to be used
with
vigor and growing confidence. Before Elizabeth I's
reign
(1558-1603), Latin was the language of the Church, of education,
of
law, science, scholarship, and international debate. English
was
regarded by many as an inferior language. It had no fixed spelling,
no
officially sanctioned grammar, and no dictionaries. In the words
of
one scholar, writing in 1561, "Our learned men hold opinion that
to
have the sciences in the mother-tongue hurteth memory and
hindereth
learning."
During Elizabeth's reign, poetry, drama, and criticism in
English
flourished. Writers like Edmund Spenser, Christopher Marlowe,
and
William Shakespeare helped to forge English into a flexible
medium
capable of being used not only for the expression of local culture
but
also for a translation of the
Bible.
Language differences can occur even today between parents
and
their children. It is only to be expected, therefore, that the
English
used some four hundred years ago will diverge markedly from
the
English used today. The following information on Marlowe's
language
will help you to understand Doctor
Faustus.
MOBILITY OF WORD
CLASSES
Adjectives, nouns and verbs were less rigidly confined to
particular
classes in Marlowe's day. For example, nouns could be used as
verbs.
In the first lines of the Prologue, the Chorus
says:
Not marching in the fields of
Trasimene
Where Mars did mate the warlike
Carthagens
using "mate" to mean "befriend." Nouns could also be used
as
adjectives as in Act I, Scene I, when "orient" is used to
mean
"shining":
Ransack the ocean for orient
pearl.
Adjectives could be used as adverbs. In Act II, Scene II,
Faustus
says to Lucifer, "This will I keep as chary as my life," using
"chary"
where a modern speaker would require "charily" or
"carefully."
CHANGES IN WORD
MEANING
The meaning of words undergoes changes, a process that can
be
illustrated by the fact that "silly" used to mean "holy" and
"villain"
referred to a "peasant." Many of the words in Doctor Faustus are
still
an active part of our language today but their meanings
have
changed. The change may be small as in the case of "dispute,"
which
meant "debate, discuss," as
in:
Is to dispute well logic's chiefest
end?
and "wit," which meant
"understanding":
A greater subject fitteth Faustus'
wit
The change could be more fundamental, so that "artisan"
implied
"student"; "cunning" was the equivalent of "knowledgeable";
and
"boots" meant "is worth"
in:
What boots it then to think of God or
heaven?
(Act II, Scene
I)
VOCABULARY
LOSS
Words not only change their meanings but sometimes disappear
from
common usage. In the past, "earm" meant "wretched" and "leod"
meant
"people." The following words found in Doctor Faustus are no
longer
current in English, but their meaning can usually be gauged from
the
context in which they
occur.
AMAIN at top
speed
AND
if
ANON immediately,
soon
BELIKE it would appear,
probably
BESEEMS suits,
fits
BOTTLE
bundle
BREVIATED cut short,
abbreviated
BRIGHT-SPLENDENT
magnificent
CAITIFF miserable person,
wretch
COIL turmoil, noisy
row
COSMOGRAPHY
geography
COZENING
cheating
ELL 45 inches (103
centimeters)
ETERNIZED made famous
forever
FAIN willingly,
gladly
FAMILIARS spirits. Old women's cats were often thought to
be
"familiars," devils in
disguise.
FOOTMANSHIP skill in
running
GET create,
beget
GLUT
satisfy
GRAMERCIES great
thanks
GRATULATE express pleasure
at
GRAVELLED
confounded
HEST
command
LIST wish,
please
LOLLARDS
heretics
LUBBERS clumsy
men
MALMSEY sweet
wine
MUSCADINE muscatel
wine
PICKEDEVANTS pointed
beards
PROPER
own
PRITHEE pray
thee
PROPER
own
QUICK
alive
QUITTANCE payment
for
RAZE cut,
scratch
ROUSE carousal, drinking
bout
'SBLOOD by God's
blood
SIGNORY lord,
lordship
SITH
since
'SNAILS by God's
nails
STAVESACRE
insecticide
TERMINE end,
terminate
TESTER small
coin
THEREFOR for
this
THOROUGH
through
VARLETS
rascals
WELKIN sky,
heavens
WHATSO whatever,
whatsoever
WHIPPINCRUST hippocras, cordial
wine
'ZOUNDS by God's
wounds
In addition, Marlowe could have assumed much of his audience
was
familiar with Latin and the Bible. This is why he could make use
of
such Latin tags as "Stipendium peccati mors est," meaning "The
wages
of sin are
death."
VERBS
Elizabethan verb forms differ from modern usage in three main
ways:
1. Questions and negatives could be formed without using "do/
did,"
as when Faustus
asks:
Why waverest
thou?
(II,
I)
where today we would say: "Why do you hesitate?" Marlowe had
the
option of using forms a and b whereas contemporary usage
permits
only the a
forms:
a
b
What do you see? What see
you?
What did you see? What saw
you?
You do not look well. You look not
well.
You did not look well. You looked not
well.
2. A number of past participles and past tense forms are used
that
would be ungrammatical today. Among these
are:
"writ" for
"written":
...here's nothing
writ.
(II,
I)
"beholding" for
"beholden":
...I am
beholding
To the Bishop of
Milan.
(III,
II)
"cursen" for "accursed" and "eat" for
"eaten":
...as I am a cursen man, he never left eating till
he
had eat up all my load of
hay.
(IV,
VI)
3. Archaic verb forms sometimes
occur:
No Faustus, they be but
fables.
(II,
II)
Thou art
damned
(II,
II)
Thou needest not do that, for my mistress hath done
it.
(II,
III)
PRONOUNS
Marlowe and his contemporaries had the extra pronoun "thou,"
which
could be used in addressing equals or social inferiors. "You"
was
obligatory if more than one person was
addressed:
Come, German Valdes, and
Cornelius
And make me blest with your sage
conference.
(I,
I)
-
It could also be used to indicate respect, as when Faustus tells
the
Emperor:
My gracious Lord, you do forget
yourself.
(IV,
I)
Frequently, a person in power used "thou" to a subordinate but
was
addressed "you" in return, as when the Clown agrees to serve Wagner
at
the end of Act I, Scene
IV.
Clown: I will, sir. But hark you, master, will you teach me
this
conjuring
occupation?
Wagner: Ay, sirrah, I'll teach thee to turn thyself to a
dog.
Relative pronouns such as "which" or "that" could be
omitted:
...'twas thy
temptation
Hath robbed me of eternal
happiness.
(V,
II)
The royal plural "we" is used by the Pope, the Emperor,
and
Lucifer when they wish to stress their
power:
We will despise the Emperor for that
deed.
(III,
I)
Thrice-learned Faustus, welcome to our
court.
(IV,
II)
Thus from infernal Dis do we
ascend.
(V,
II)
PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions were less standardized in Elizabethan English than
they
are today and so we find several uses in Doctor Faustus that
would
have to be modified in contemporary speech. Among these
are:
"of" for "by"
in:
Till, swollen with cunning of a selfconceit
(Prologue)
"of" for "from"
in:
Resolve me of all
ambiguities
(I,
I)
"on" for "of"
in:
Ay, take it, and the devil give thee good
on't.
(II,
I)
"of" for "on"
in:
They put forth questions of
astrology.
(IV, The
Chorus)
"unto" for "into"
in:
...and I be
changed
Unto some brutish
beast.
(V,
II)
MULTIPLE
NEGATION
Contemporary English requires only one negative per statement
and
regards such utterances as "I haven't none" as nonstandard.
Marlowe
often used two or more negatives for emphasis. For instance,
in
Why, thou canst not tell ne'er a word on
it.
(II,
III)
LEGEND
THE FAUST LEGEND AND MARLOWE
(MDRFLEGE)
There really was a Faust, casting his magic spells about fifty
years
before Christopher Marlowe wrote his play. Johannes Faustus,
a
German scholar of dubious reputation, flourished between 1480
and
1540. Some of his contemporaries spoke of him as a faker who
lived
by his wits, a medieval swindler. Others, more impressed,
thought
him a sorcerer in league with evil spirits. Whatever else he
may
have been, he was certainly notorious. A drunken vagabond, he
was
reported to have studied magic in the Polish city of Cracow.
While
some regarded him as a fool and a mountebank, others claimed that
he
traveled about with a dog and a performing horse- both of which
were
really
devils.
Soon after his death the "real" Dr. Faustus disappeared into
the
realm of legend, and every story popularly told about wicked
magicians
was told about him. Faustus became the scholar who sold his soul
to
the devil in exchange for universal knowledge and magical power,
and
so was damned
forever.
Stories like these weren't new- they had been popular for
centuries.
There was a legend about Simon Magus, a wizard of early
Christian
times, who was said to have found death and damnation, when
he
attempted to fly. Pope Sylvester II (314-335) was also suspect.
He
knew so much that his contemporaries thought he must have sold
his
soul to the devil to gain such
knowledge.
During the Renaissance, the Faustus tales had a powerful
impact.
They dramatized the tug-of-war between the admonitions of the
church
and the exciting possibilities of knowledge suggested by the
advance
of science and the revival of classical learning. All over
Europe,
inquisitive spirits found themselves in trouble with
the
conservative clergy. In Italy, for instance, Galileo was accused
of
heresy for challenging the Roman Catholic view of the heavens.
In
England, the free-thinking Sir Walter Raleigh was investigated
for
atheism. And in Germany, adventurous scholars found themselves at
odds
with the zealous spirit of the Protestant Reformation.
Protestant
theologians thought that mankind's energies should be focused
on
God, the Bible, and salvation by
faith.
By 1587, the German Faustbuch (Faustbook) had appeared, a
collection
of tales about the wicked magician. The Protestant author makes
it
clear that Faustus got exactly what he deserved for preferring
human
to "divine" knowledge. But theological considerations aside,
these
were marvelous stories. The book was enormously popular and
was
rapidly translated into other languages, including English.
However,
the English Faustbook wasn't published until 1592, a fact that
creates
some mystery for scholars who believe that Doctor Faustus
was
written in
1590.
Christopher Marlowe saw the dramatic potential of the story.
He
promptly used it as the plot of his play, the first Faust drama,
and
possibly the best. Every incident in the play seems taken from
the
Faustbuch, even the slapstick comedy scenes. The attacks on
the
Roman Catholic church had also become part of the Protestant
orthodoxy
of the tale. The poetry, however, is
Marlowe's.
Since then, the story has been used many times, both comically
and
seriously. The German poet Goethe turned Faust into a hero
whose
thirst for knowledge leads to salvation. In the nineteenth
century,
Charles Gounod and Hector Berlioz wrote operas about Faust.
Shortly
after World War II, the novelist Thomas Mann used the Faust story
as
the basis of an allegory about the German people. More recently,
the
story was transformed into the musical comedy Damn Yankees, in
which
the hero sells his soul to help his hometown baseball team win
the
pennant.
FORM
FORM AND STRUCTURE
(MDRFFORM)
Allowances must be made for the shattered form in which
Doctor
Faustus survives. Originally, the play may have had the loose fiveact
structure suggested by the 1616 text. Or it may simply have been
a
collection of scenes or movements, as in the shorter version
of
1604. In fact, the act divisions in Doctor Faustus are the
additions
of later editors. Scholars have made their own decisions about
the
play's probable cut-off points. That's why no two editions of
Doctor
Faustus have identical act and scene
numbers.
The genre of Doctor Faustus is the subject of critical
debate.
Some readers view the play as an heroic tragedy where the hero
is
destroyed by a flaw in his character but retains his
tragic
grandeur. Others believe Doctor Faustus is more of a morality
play
in which the central character forfeits his claim to greatness
through
a deliberate choice of
evil.
Doctor Faustus most closely resembles the type of drama known in
the
Renaissance as an atheist's tragedy. The atheist's tragedy had for
its
hero a hardened sinner, a scoffer who boldly denied the existence
of
God. In such a play, the hero's cynical disbelief brought about
his
downfall. His tragedy wasn't just death. It was also damnation.
For
the edification of the audience, the hero died unrepentant, often
with
a curse on his last breath, and one had the distinct impression
that
repentance would have saved
him.
It is technically possible to diagram Doctor Faustus in a
manner
similar to Shakespearean
tragedy:
(See illustration: Plot Structure of Doctor
Faustus)
ACT I: EXPOSITION. Faustus' ambitions are explored. He turns
to
magic to fulfill
them.
ACT II: RISING ACTION. Faustus summons Mephistophilis and signs
a
contract with hell. He begins to regret his
bargain.
ACT III: CLIMAX. Faustus repents, but Lucifer holds him to
his
agreement. Faustus reaffirms his bondage to
hell.
ACT IV: FALLING ACTION. Faustus wins fame and fortune
through
magical evocations. His inner doubts
remain.
ACT V. CATASTROPHE. Faustus damns himself irrevocably by
choosing
Helen over heaven. His final hour comes, and he is carried off
by
devils.
STORY
THE STORY
(MDRFSTOR)
There is no standard edition of Doctor Faustus. The play survives
in
two widely read versions, one dating from 1604, the other from
1616.
The 1616 text is longer by about 600 lines and contains
incidents
and characters missing from the 1604 text. There is great
critical
debate as to which is the "real" Doctor Faustus. Some
scholars
attribute the additional material in the 1616 text not to Marlowe,
but
to a collaborator named Samuel Rowley. Check the introduction
to
your copy of Doctor Faustus. It will tell you which version of
the
play you are reading. This guide is based on the version of
Doctor
Faustus printed in The Norton Anthology of English Literature
(New
York: Norton, 1979), edited by M. H. Abrams and others. The version
in
that anthology is based on W. W. Gregg's composite of the 1604
and
1616 texts of Marlowe's
play.
ACT_I|
CHORUS
ACT
I
THE
CHORUS
The play opens with a speech by the Chorus, a voice outside
the
action that prepares you for the story of Doctor Faustus. The
Chorus
was used in Greek and Roman plays as a way of commenting on
the
dramatic action. Here, the Chorus might also be called
the
"Commentator" since it consists of only one actor. He tells us
that
Faustus grew up in the German town of Rhodes, had lower-class
parents,
and went on to study theology in Wittenberg. After earning
his
doctorate, Faustus soon realized that he preferred magic to
religion.
The Chorus calls this magic "cursed necromancy." Does
he
disapprove of Faustus? Or does he privately admire him? Your answer
is
important because the Chorus' feelings influence the
audience's
reaction to Faustus, even before Faustus himself appears on
stage.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: THE CHORUS The first business of the Chorus is to speak
the
prologue. The Elizabethan prologue usually contains a
brief
introduction to the story and is delivered before the play
begins.
If the plot is complicated, the prologue gives the audience a
thread
to hold on to. And just as important, when there is little
scenery
on the stage, the prologue often tells an audience when and
where
the play will take
place.
--------------------------------------------------------------------The Chorus informs you that this isn't a play about
warlike
conquests or love. The hero of this play is a scholar, a
university
man, a peasant's son, who has pulled himself up by his bootstraps
to
become a Doctor of
Divinity.
What the Chorus is announcing in these opening lines is
a
departure from the usual subject matter of tragedy.
Traditionally,
tragedy was the province of noblemen and kings. But Faustus occupies
a
lower rung of the social ladder, hailing from a poor and
humble
family. Brains, energy, and talent have lifted him from obscurity to
a
position of honor in Wittenberg. Despite his achievements,
Faustus
is not a nobleman. He is a self-made man, with a strong
skepticism
toward much of the establishment around
him.
The Chorus' speech contains an abbreviated biography of Faustus,
but
it also parallels events in Marlowe's life. It is the story of
a
town laborer's son, sent by generous relatives to college so that
he
might get ahead in life. For a while, Faustus, like
Marlowe,
flourished at the university. He followed the usual clerical path
of
study and excelled in disputes (the academic exercises of the
time,
similar to our exams) concerning "heavenly matters of
theology."
Then something happened to Faustus. Theology lost its attraction.
From
heavenly matters, he fell to the "devilish exercise" of
necromancy
(black
magic).
To mark this shift in the man, the Chorus uses the image
of
appetites gone awry. At one point in his life, Faustus relished
the
healthful fruits of learning. Now he craves unwholesome
delicacies.
Magic comes to Faustus like a rich dessert at the end of a heavy
meal,
sweet to his taste, yet destructive of his wellbeing.
With such an introduction, the Chorus sweeps aside the curtain
to
reveal the inner stage. Faustus is seated in his study, a
small
monkish cell that is both a library and a
laboratory.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: THE IMAGE OF ICARUS In the Chorus' reference to
Faustus'
"waxen wings," you have an implied comparison of Faustus to
Icarus.
Icarus was a figure of Greek mythology who flew too near the sun
on
wings of wax and feathers, made for him by his father,
Daedalus.
When the wax melted, Icarus fell into the sea and drowned. There
is
something heroic about this foolish boy, consumed by the
oldest
dream of man, who challenged the heavens in his desire for flight.
The
image of Icarus qualifies the negative feelings toward
Faustus,
aroused in you by all the Chorus' words ("swollen, glutted,
surfeits")
that suggest a monstrous
appetite.
As Marlowe will remind you throughout the play, there are
two
faces to scholarly ambition. One is of greed and ruthlessness, but
the
other is of courage and ambition. If Doctor Faustus is an
ambiguous
play- that is, a play capable of more than one interpretationthen
the ambiguity begins here in the opening
speech.
--------------------------------------------------------------------ACT_I|
SCENE_I
ACT I, SCENE
I
-
You come upon Faustus at a critical moment in his life. He
is
obsessed with the course of his future, and speaks in a
formidable,
scholarly fashion, sprinkling his sentences with quotations in
Latin
and Greek. Try reading it first for the English sense. Then read
it
again for insights into the man. Who is this Faustus? What kind
of
choice is he about to
make?
The first thing that may strike you about Faustus is the
sheer
breadth of his knowledge. He has mastered every advanced course
of
study offered by the university. Divinity, logic (we would
say
philosophy), medicine, and law are all at his finger-tips.
Whatever
the scholarly life can teach- the liberal arts, the professions,
the
sciences- Faustus has already learned. In our age of
specialization,
it is hard to grasp the scope of his achievement. What Faustus
knows
is just about everything there was to know in the world of his
time.
Unless such a man is content to rest on his laurels, he has
a
problem. Where does he go from here? Perhaps more deeply into one
of
the various disciplines. Watch Faustus as he grapples with his
inner
conflicts.
Trained in philosophy, he asks the very basic question: "What is
the
end, or the purpose, of every art?" The end of law is to
settle
petty legacies, and this is a waste of such considerable gifts as
his.
Medicine strives to preserve the body's health. Faustus has
done
more than his share of this already. His prescriptions alone
have
saved whole cities from the
plague.
The aim of logic is to dispute well. Yet this won't do much good
for
the star debater of Wittenberg. Disputation is for boys in
the
schoolroom. Faustus has advanced far beyond that
stage.
In the reasons for Faustus' rejections, you gain insight into
his
dreams. The practice of law may serve society, but that doesn't
mean
one should become a lawyer. Medicine may prolong life, but it
cannot
make life eternal. Logic offers a tool and a method of thought, but
it
does not even begin to approach life's ultimate truths. None
of
these disciplines offers a supreme purpose. All leave him still
"but
Faustus and a
man."
Perhaps, after all, religion will best serve his ends.
Having
dismissed the secular disciplines one by one, Faustus returns for
a
moment to his first love, theology. Laying aside the books he's
been
leafing through, the works of Aristotle and Galen, he picks up
the
Bible and reads from St. Paul: "The reward of sin is
death."
Flipping a little further, he comes upon a text which seems to
him
an ominous contradiction. It says all men are sinners. Thus,
all
must die. But sinning is human. The two passages, taken
together,
bring Faustus up short. Mortality is what he came to the Bible
to
avoid. And here it is again, staring him in the face. Faustus
takes
refuge in fatalism- what will be, will be, he says with a shrug of
the
shoulders. Tossing the Bible aside, he turns with evident relish
to
the books (already in his library) on the forbidden art of
necromancy.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: THE BIBLE ACCORDING TO FAUSTUS Faustus, of course, is
quoting
the Bible out of context. The passage from St. Paul reads: "The
reward
of sin is death, but the gift of God is eternal life." Faustus
notes
only the first part of the text, the part that seems to doom
him
from the beginning. He ignores the message of hope at the end of
the
same chapter and verse. This seems an oversight for a learned
Doctor
of
Divinity.
The question is why does Faustus read the Bible in such
a
selective manner? Here are some possible
answers:
1. Faustus finds in the Bible exactly what he is looking foran
excuse to plunge headlong into magic. Since he is eager to take up
the
"damned" art of necromancy, it is convenient for him to believe
he
is damned, no matter what he
does.
2. Another hand than Faustus' is at work, turning the leaves
of
the Bible and directing his eyes. In Act V, you will see
the
suggestion that, for all his sense of power, Faustus may not be
in
charge of his own
life.
3. Marlowe believes religion to be a closed door. Faustus finds
no
hope in the Bible because Marlowe finds no hope there. From
the
author's point of view, Faustus' reading of the Bible,
however
incomplete, may be essentially
right.
Do you see other possibilities? Try to figure out why Faustus
quotes
so selectively from the
Bible.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Faustus is instantly charmed by his books on black magic. For
one
thing, they still hold secrets for him. Here's the ideal subject for
a
man who wants to know everything. All those strange lines
and
circles are so wonderfully
mysterious.
Faustus dreams of power and imagines that magic will give
him
mastery over the elements, dominion over the winds and the
clouds.
What is a king, after all, compared to a mighty magician?
With
magic, Faustus thinks it possible to become a
god.
Faustus' ambition may seem less far fetched if you compare his
hopes
of magic with our own expectations of science. We look to science
to
carry us to the stars, to control disasters like famine and
flood,
to cure disease and to prolong human life. Faustus looks to
magic
for the power of flight and for freedom from death and old age. So
our
own dreams are pretty close to Faustus'. The real difference lies
in
our method. We try to make our dreams come true with the cool,
factual
discipline of science, whereas Renaissance scholars like
Faustus
turned, instead, to a curious blend of science and
superstition.
The sixteenth century made no clear distinction
between
astronomers (people who studied the stars through the newlydiscovered
telescopes) and astrologers (people who used the stars to
predict
human destiny). The word "astrologer" applied to both. In a
similar
manner, early Renaissance chemistry included alchemy,
the
pseudo-science of turning base metals into
gold.
Faustus, as you've seen, knows the experimental sciences. His
room
is, in part, a laboratory. But he does not find it unusual to
have
in his office both test tubes and necromantic books. For
Faustus,
magic and science merge into a deep, dark area which was feared
and
largely prohibited by the
church.
As Faustus reaches out for this forbidden knowledge, two
angels
suddenly appear before his eyes. The Good Angel urges him to
"lay
his damned book aside" and return to God and the scriptures.
The
Evil Angel tells Faustus to continue on the path he has chosen
since
this will enable him to rival God in
power.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: THE GOOD AND THE EVIL ANGELS The Good and Evil Angels
are
hold-overs from medieval morality plays. In this form of
drama,
popular during the Middle Ages, they did battle for the soul of
a
character known as Everyman. (The characters in medieval drama
were
abstractions. Everyman, as his name implies, stood for
all
humanity.) Marlowe has borrowed the device of the angels
to
dramatize Faustus' inner struggle. The Good Angel is the voice
of
his conscience; the Evil Angel, that of his appetites.
Throughout
the play, the angels will appear on stage whenever a moral crisis
is
at hand. And they will vanish as soon as Faustus has chosen
his
course.
--------------------------------------------------------------------You'll notice that the Good Angel doesn't put up much of a
fight.
Magic has taken too deep a hold on Faustus. "How am I glutted
with
conceit of this!" indicates that he is wildly excited about magic.
His
thoughts take wing. They fly all over the place. To India for gold
and
to the New World for exotic fruits, then back again to the
lecture
halls of Germany, where he will clothe the scholars in
silk.
But wait. Faustus seeks knowledge and power, yet now he sets
his
goals on luxury and wealth. Are Faustus' desires sensual
or
intellectual? Does he want wisdom- or material comforts? You
might
keep this question in mind as you read the play. Faustus is
first
and foremost a scholar. But he's no professor in an ivory tower.
As
the Chorus has pointed out, Faustus is a man of appetite. He
may
love books as few men love them, but he also has a strong taste
for
good food, rare gems, and rich
clothing.
Some readers are disturbed by the sensual side of Faustus.
While
they admire his quest for knowledge, they're dismayed by his
bent
for luxury. If Faustus would stick to pure research into
the
workings of Nature, he might be a noble hero in their eyes. But
his
craving for lush fruits and silk garments make him seem
undignified.
Other readers regard Faustus' sensuality as an heroic quality.
His
hunger for beauty and lust for life are part of the
great
Renaissance adventure. The medieval church was unnatural in
its
efforts to suppress bodily desires. Such readers conclude that
Faustus
is right in giving full play to his
senses.
What do you think of Faustus' desires? Do they enhance or
diminish
him in your eyes? If offered unlimited power, in what
direction
would your thoughts
travel?
As Faustus embarks on his career in magic, he summons to his
home
Valdes and Cornelius, two practitioners of black magic from
Wittenberg
University. They have been in the neighborhood, if not in
the
lecture halls, distracting students' minds with their
conjuring
tricks. They also have called on Faustus
before.
Faustus' greeting to Valdes and Cornelius suggests that they
are
responsible for luring him into magic. Last time you came
for
dinner, you talked me into it, Faustus implies. But no, he
quickly
retracts his words. Magic is his own idea. He has reached the
point
where he simply cannot concentrate on anything
else.
Valdes is delighted with Faustus' news. He imagines a trio
of
magicians- Cornelius, Valdes, and Faustus- who will take the
world
by storm. With Faustus' brains and the experience of Cornelius
and
Valdes, they'll all be rich and famous. But that's not what
happens.
Valdes and Cornelius instruct Faustus in the basics of conjuring
and
then send him off to practice on his
own.
The student magician quickly becomes a master who has no need
of
partners for his act. This will isolate Faustus since he will
now
practice magic without a human
tie.
ACT_I|
SCENE_II
ACT I, SCENE
II
Faustus has been missing from the university. The
disputations,
which he was accustomed to win with his persuasive arguments (his
"sic
probos," Latin for "thus, I prove") just aren't the same any more.
Two
Wittenberg scholars, as they pass Faustus' house, wonder what
has
happened to
him.
The scholars make the mistake of stopping and questioning
Wagner,
Faustus' half-servant, half-disciple. (The Renaissance called such
a
person a "famulus.") Wagner considers himself superior to
servants,
but obviously the scholars see him as a servant. They address
him
contemptuously as "sirrah," a term appropriate for a menial
worker,
and they quickly irritate him. For the rest of this scene,
Wagner
takes his revenge by matching wits with the scholars and
proving
that he is just as sound a logician as either one of them. This is
all
part of a comic subplot, and to reinforce the difference in
tone,
Marlowe has Wagner speak in
prose.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: PROSE FOR THE LOWER CLASSES Elizabethan dramatists
reserved
poetry for their upperclass characters. Kings, nobles, and
Doctors
of Divinity like Faustus generally spoke a formal,
dignified
language appropriate to their station in life. Lowerclass
characters
didn't usually merit the verse line. Servants and clowns like
Wagner
and Robin could be expected to speak prose, the language of the
London
streets.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Wagner is also speaking nonsense. When asked where his master is,
he
answers that "God in heaven knows." Don't you know? the scholars
ask
him. Ah, that doesn't necessarily follow, Wagner replies,
wagging
his finger in their faces and reminding them severely that, after
all,
he isn't God. No, Wagner isn't God. But he finds it necessary to
say
so. In Wagner's insolence, there are echoes of Faustus'
aspiring
pride. In fact, these scenes in the comic subplot are often
called
"echo scenes" since servants follow in their masters'
footsteps.
After Wagner answers insult for insult, he finally gives
the
scholars the information they want. Faustus is having dinner
inside
with Valdes and Cornelius. The scholars, shuddering at the
mere
names of these two demon-traffickers, wring their hands and fear
the
worst.
ACT_I|
SCENE_III
ACT I, SCENE
III
In the pitch black of night, with an ominous thunderstorm
brewing,
Faustus goes off to a grove to conjure spirits. As the thunder
roars
and the lightning flashes, he draws a charmed circle on the
ground.
The circle marks the spot where the spirits will rise. Inside
the
circle, Faustus writes anagrams (or twisted versions) of the name
of
God, spelling Jehovah forward and backward, as one might
change
"God" to "dog." Faustus celebrates the blasphemous Black Mass
and,
by so doing, demonstrates his growing commitment to
necromancy.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: THE BLACK MASS The Black Mass was a travesty of the
Roman
Catholic service, and was conducted over the centuries by
the
worshippers of Satan. The Black Mass mimicked the language of
the
Catholic mass (Latin, in those days) and used some of the
sacred
gestures in a way that perverted their meaning. For example,
Faustus
sprinkles holy water and makes the sign of the cross. This
mockery
of a holy rite contained a message for Satan: I denounce God, and
I
serve only you. In the 1590s, it was an act of daring to
perform
this sacrilege on the stage. Though Henry VIII had pulled England
away
from the Roman Catholic Church in 1533, there were still
English
people alive who remembered attending mass every Sunday during
the
reign of the late Queen Mary. Even if Rome and all its works
were
detested in England now, Satan was quite another
story.
--------------------------------------------------------------------The climax of Faustus' ceremony is his farewell to God and
his
hail to the devils Lucifer, Demi-gorgon, and Belzebub. In the
name
of the three princes of hell, Faustus calls upon the demon
spirits
to rise. (Don't worry if you don't understand Faustus' speeches
in
this scene. The convoluted Latin sentences were no more
intelligible
to most of Marlowe's audience than they are to you. The
playwright's
intent is to mystify and appall you with these Latin
incantations.)
In response to Faustus' summons, Mephistophilis appears in
the
hideous shape of a dragon. Faustus takes one look at
the
fire-breathing monster, then tells it to go away and change
its
appearance. You're too ugly for me, he says. And, in a
satiric
thrust at a Roman Catholic monastic order, he orders the demon to
come
back as a Franciscan friar. After a short delay, the spirit
returns,
his dragon's scales exchanged for a friar's sedate hooded
gown.
Why does Mephistophilis first appear as a monster, only to
vanish
and reappear as a monk? Readers of Doctor Faustus disagree on
the
meaning of this bit of quick-change artistry. Some think that
the
devil is giving Faustus fair warning by portraying hell
honestly.
Mephistophilis arises in the horrifying form of a dragon
because
hell is a place of horror and damnation. It is Faustus,
the
self-deceiver, who wants evil prettied
up.
Other readers claim that it is all just good theater. The
dragon
zooms on stage to scare the audience, and the friar follows to
relieve
terror with laughter. It's open to interpretation and your
opinion
is as good as
any.
Faustus is delighted with his demon spirit's obedience
and
compliance. Faustus thinks, like Aladdin, that he has rubbed a
genie
out of a lamp. (The genie's business, you recall, was to
fulfill
Aladdin's every wish.) Faustus is ready with some pretty tall
orders
for his
spirit.
Now that you're here, Faustus says to Mephistophilis, of
course,
you'll do everything I say. If I command it, you'll make the moon
drop
out of the sky or cause the oceans to flood the
Earth.
Can't do it, says Mephistophilis. Sorry, Faustus, but I work
for
Lucifer, not you. My master has to approve every step I take. It
turns
out that Faustus has been flattering himself. Magic hasn't brought
him
half the power he thought. In fact, strictly speaking, he
hasn't
summoned Mephistophilis at all. The spirit has come of his
own
accord because he has heard Faustus "racking" (torturing
with
anagrams) the name of
God.
Mephistophilis explains in scholastic terms that
Faustus'
conjuring speech is only the incidental cause ("the cause
per
accidens") of his showing up. The real reason he has come is
that
spirits always fly to souls who are in imminent danger of
being
damned.
I'm not afraid of damnation, Faustus replies with bravado.
Heaven
and hell, they are all the same to me. ("I confound hell
with
Elysium," is what he says, dangerously equating the Christian
hell
of flame with the blessed underworld of the dead in Greek
mythology.)
What does Faustus think about hell? He says hell holds no
terrors
for him. He implies (he'll later make it explicit) that he
doesn't
even believe in it. But if, in one breath, Faustus belittles the
whole
idea of hell, in the next breath, he is eager to hear more about
it.
Just who is this Lucifer you keep talking about? Faustus demands
of
Mephistophilis.
Mephistophilis tells Faustus the story of Lucifer, the
bright
angel (his name in Latin means light-bearer) who rebelled
against
God and was thrown out of heaven. Lucifer's sins were
"aspiring
pride and insolence," sins Faustus has reason to be all too
familiar
with.
You are moving in a world which believed profoundly in order,
in
knowing one's place and staying in it. The Renaissance
inherited
from the Middle Ages a belief in a great chain of being that
descended
from God all the way down to the sticks and stones. In this
great
chain, every link, from the lowliest pebble to the angels on high,
had
a divine purpose. If a link was broken because somebody
reached
above his station, then chaos
ensued.
In heaven, as on earth, order was strictly enforced. God
reigned
in glory there over nine different levels of angels. Angels,
being
without sin, were presumably without envy. They rejoiced in
God's
order and sought only to uphold it. Lucifer was the exception,
being
ambitious. Not content to serve God, he tried to rival
Him.
In the eyes of the medieval church, Lucifer's aspiring pride was
the
first- and worst- sin. Lucifer's rebellion and consequent fall
created
hell and brought evil into the world. Is Marlowe endorsing
the
church's view that ambition is a deadly sin? Does he imply
that
ambition is a great virtue? These are important questions in
Doctor
Faustus and are open to
interpretation.
So far, ambition has made Faustus jeopardize his soul
through
contact with demons and through his denial of God. But ambition
has
also made Faustus a first-class scholar. Without inner drive, he
would
have remained the illiterate peasant he was born. Ambition has
given
Faustus magnificent dreams- dreams like expanding the boundaries
of
human knowledge- on which all progress
depends.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: LUCIFER AND ICARUS The image of Lucifer falling
from
heaven, dark against a flaming sky, recalls the image of Icarus in
the
prologue. Both Lucifer and Icarus flew too high, sought the sources
of
light, and got burned in the process. Lucifer and Icarus are
emblems
for Faustus. They tell you about the precedents and penalties
for
soaring ambition. Their fate suggests that limitless aspiration
is
ill-advised. But is it also wrong? At what point do you know
whether
your ambition is too
great?
--------------------------------------------------------------------Faustus' next question to Mephistophilis concerns the nature
of
hell. If you're damned, you're in hell, right? he challenges
the
spirit. But if Mephistophilis is in hell, then why is he here? But
I
am in hell, the spirit replies. Hell isn't a spot Mephistophilis
can
point out on a cosmic map. It's a state of being that one
carries
around inside. "Why, this is hell, nor am I out of it."
For
Mephistophilis, hell is a real, if unlocalized place. It's
where
Mephistophilis dwells and is an immeasurable distance from
God.
Mephistophilis is a fallen angel. And for a moment, he acts
like
one. Perhaps he remembers the higher things and this gets the
better
of him, for he doesn't egg Faustus on. Instead, he tries to hold
him
back and issues a
warning:
O Faustus, leave these frivolous
demands
Which strike a terror to my fainting
soul!
The words are powerful. They show you a Mephistophilis afraid
for
Faustus. The spirit knows what is to come for this foolish,
arrogant
man. And he suffers for him in advance. Faustus, however,
takes
Mephistophilis' pain for weakness. Can't you be more manly
about
things? he asks
contemptuously.
Faustus sends him to Lucifer with the message that he would
like
to strike a bargain with the fallen angel: Faustus' soul in
exchange
for twenty-four years of luxury, with Mephistophilis as a
servant
who will cater to his every whim. Notice that Faustus refers
to
himself in the third person, like a king. Why do you think
Marlowe
does
that?
Mephistophilis agrees and returns to the nether regions with
no
further
comment.
ACT_I|
SCENE_IV
ACT I, SCENE
IV
We return to the comic subplot and the high-handed doings of
Wagner.
Wagner's pride has been hurt by his encounter with the scholars
in
Scene II. As a result, he is looking for someone to humiliate in
turn.
Wagner hails the clown, Robin, with the same demeaning terms,
"Sirrah,
boy" that he himself objected to from the scholars. Robin doesn't
care
for this sort of treatment, either. Boy! he mutters indignantly.
I'm
sure you've seen many "boys" with beards on their faces like
mine.
Wagner tries another approach. He accuses the unemployed Robin
of
being so down-at-the-heels that he'll sell his soul to the devil for
a
piece of raw mutton. No dice, says the clown. Not unless the mutton
is
well roasted and sauced. Like Faustus, Robin is willing to sell
his
soul, but only if the price is
right.
This exchange between Wagner and Robin is a bawdy pun on the
word
"mutton." Mutton is sheep's flesh, but in Elizabethan English
mutton
also referred to the human sexual organs. Robin is thinking less
about
food than about the kitchen
maid.
Wagner, who is Faustus' servant and disciple, has a hankering
for
a servant-disciple of his own. And who better, he reasons, than
this
out-of-work clown. Wagner makes Robin an imperious offer:
"Sirrah,
wilt thou... wait on
me?"
Faced with resistance, Wagner tries to buy Robin into his service
by
offering the poor clown money. It's a trick which Robin fails to
catch
in time. By taking Wagner's money, Robin is accepting wages.
He's
offering himself as Wagner's man. Of course, there's a
condition
attached to that money. He is to present himself, at an hour's
notice,
at a place Wagner will name. And there he is to be carried off by
a
devil. When Robin hears what the condition is, he drops the coins
like
a hot
potato.
Oh no! cries the clown. Oh yes, says Wagner, who conjures up
two
devils to come to his aid. (Notice that Wagner is Faustus' disciple
in
more ways than one. He's been practicing to good effect his
master's
magic tricks.) The devils, Banio and Belcher, appear on stage in
a
spray of fireworks. They chase the poor clown until, frightened out
of
his wits, he agrees to Wagner's
terms.
Robin will serve Wagner, call him master, and walk after him in
a
manner that Wagner describes pedantically in Latin as
Quasi
vestigiis nostris insistere (a high-flown way of saying "follow
in
my
footsteps").
ACT_II|
SCENE_I
ACT II, SCENE
I
With Mephistophilis gone, Faustus begins to have doubts about
this
deal with hell. Must he go through with it and be damned? Or can
he
still change his mind and be
saved?
Faustus is seized with a sudden impulse to give up the game
and
throw himself on God's mercy. It's an impulse that he
fiercely
subdues. How can he, a denier of God, go crawling to God
now?
Faustus tells himself to despair of God and trust in the devil.
Yet
still he wavers: "Now go not backward, no, be
resolute!"
You may be surprised by this hint of uncertainty in Faustus.
What
happened to all his proud boasts of manly resolution? That's
what
Faustus also wonders. He's disgusted by these signs of
human
weakness in
himself.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: MARLOWE'S POETRY OF HESITATION In this speech, Marlowe
has
altered the verse line to convey Faustus' feelings of uncertainty.
The
meter is wildly uneven. The number of stresses varies with
almost
every line. Within the lines themselves, there are many
abrupt
pauses to break the flow of the verse. This poetry reflects
the
nervous pacing of Faustus' thoughts. The speech starts off in
one
direction, turns back on itself, and comes crashing down on the
one
point of
assurance:
To God? He loves thee
not.
The God thou servest is thine own
appetite,
Wherein is fixed the love of
Belzebub.
--------------------------------------------------------------------In the midst of such candid self-assessment, Faustus sees the
angels
again. This time, he does more than passively listen to
their
advice. He actively questions them. "Contrition, prayer,
repentancewhat
of them?" Faustus doubtfully ticks off this list of
virtues
like a man who has heard that such things work, but who's never
had
the leisure to try
them.
They're illusions, the "fruits of lunacy," according to the
Evil
Angel, who has heard something in Faustus' voice which prompts
him
to describe a praying man as an idiot, a pathetic figure calling
in
the void to a God who does not hear. Forget such fancies, the
Evil
Angel continues. Think of tangible things- such as
wealth.
Wealth! Faustus seizes the idea with a passion. He shall have
the
signiory of Emden- that is, he will control the wealthy German
seaport
of Emden, one of the richest trading centers in all of Germany.
(Did
the Evil Angel say this? Think for a minute. How many enticements
have
been offered to Faustus by other characters in the play? How
many
has he, in fact, invented for himself?) Faustus can already hear
the
clink of gold in his coffers. In a fever of greed, he calls
to
Mephistophilis to hurry back from hell with Lucifer's answer. And
sure
enough, on the wings of a wish, the spirit flies into the
study.
Here's what my master says, Mephistophilis informs Faustus.
You
may have me to serve you, as you desire. But first, you must
promise
him your soul. Faustus protests that he has already done that. Yes,
in
words, the spirit replies. But now, you must do it in
writing.
Faustus discovers that there are various stages of commitment
when
dealing with the devil. Faustus has already "hazarded" his soul
(or
set it at risk) by foreswearing God and praying to Lucifer. But he
has
not yet signed away his soul. Faustus can still back out of
the
deal. But if he proceeds with it, he may never be able to back
out.
Lucifer is leaving no loopholes. The devil wants a contract. And
he
wants that contract written in Faustus' blood because
blood
contracts are binding
forever.
Faustus winces at the thought. Left to himself, he might never
write
such a document. But Mephistophilis is there to give him
"moral"
support. Just put up with this nasty little cut, the spirit tells
him,
and "then be thou as great as
Lucifer."
Taken at face value, this remark constitutes a glowing promise.
Sign
this contract, Faustus, and you'll become as powerful as the
monarch
of hell. But the comment is ironic. Mephistophilis sounds as if
he's
deriding Faustus' ambitions. The spirit really seems to be
saying,
"you think you'll be as great as Lucifer, but just wait and
see."
Does Mephistophilis deliver his line sincerely? Or is there irony
in
his voice? If so, he may be giving Faustus one last warning to
back
off while he can. How does the offer sound to
you?
Faustus, however, is tone deaf to irony. He suspects no
double
meaning in the spirit's words. And so he prepares to comply
with
Lucifer's demands. But as Faustus stabs his arm to draw blood,
he
finds that no blood will run. It has mysteriously
congealed,
preventing him from writing the words that would give the devil
his
soul.
We use the expression "My blood freezes over" to describe
a
feeling of great horror. That is what happens to Faustus. The blood
in
his veins- that which is human to him- freezes at the sight of
this
hideous contract with hell. Mephistophilis acts quickly. He
comes
running with a grate of hot coals to warm Faustus' blood and to set
it
flowing again, so that the contract can be
completed.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: BLOOD IMAGERY Hold onto this image of flowing blood. You
will
see it again in Act V, when Faustus has a vision of Christ's
blood
streaming in the night sky and knows that one precious drop of
it
would save his lost
soul.
--------------------------------------------------------------------As Mephistophilis snatches up the coals, he winks at the
audience
and whispers, "What will not I do to obtain his soul!" Clearly
the
spirit has changed his tune. Earlier in the play, Mephistophilis
did
his best to stop Faustus from damning himself. At this point, he
seems
eager for Faustus' ruin. How do you explain
it?
You can argue that Mephistophilis is simply doing his job.
Since
Faustus has insisted on this unholy bargain, the spirit has
no
choice but to hold him to it. Or you may feel that Mephistophilis
is
at last showing his true fiendish colors. The spirit is eager
for
Faustus' damnation because all demons want to add more notches
to
their score of souls garnered for hell. Mephistophilis is not the
most
consistent of characters. You will have to decide what motivates
him
at various points in the
play.
Faustus has finished writing his contract. "It is completed,"
he
says wearily, as he lays down his pen. "Consummatum est."
Another
blasphemy! These are the words of Christ on the cross,
rolling
casually off the tongue of a man who has just put his bloody
signature
on a contract with the devil. Suddenly, Faustus has a
hallucination.
He sees writing on his arm. "Fly, man," the inscription reads. Run
for
your life. ("Man." Why "man"? Wasn't this contract supposed to
make
Faustus
immortal?)
Mephistophilis is prepared for this sort of
emergency.
Undoubtedly, he's played scenes like this before. He arranges
a
diversion, something to take Faustus' mind off the perils of
the
contract and focus attention instead on the delights it will
bring.
Mephistophilis summons devils who enter bearing a crown and
ermine
robes. The devils dance around Faustus, offering him these
symbols
of power. Then they
depart.
Faustus is delighted with the royal treatment and with the
thought
that he can summon such demons at any time. He starts to hand
the
contract over to Mephistophilis. (Notice it's still in
Faustus'
possession, one reason why Mephistophilis is treating Faustus like
a
king.) Then Faustus halts, claiming that he'd better read the
contract
to Mephistophilis since he has made some
changes.
Faustus, like Lucifer, is something of a legalist. He has
added
articles to the contract, amendments to make sure he gets full
value
for the price he is going to pay. Flattered by Mephistophilis,
Faustus
assumes he can dictate his own terms to
hell.
Most of Faustus' conditions are self-explanatory. They list
the
terms of an agreement already understood. Mephistophilis will be
at
Faustus' beck and call. He will appear in any shape that
Faustus
commands. (No more unpleasant surprises like that
dragon.)
But there is a new condition. Faustus shall be "a spirit in form
and
substance." In other words, he will take on the physical attributes
of
a demon. Like Mephistophilis, Faustus will be able to walk
invisible
or fly through the
air.
Does this mean that Faustus actually becomes a demon? If so, then
he
is lost from this point on in the play. If not, then he still has
a
chance, however remote, of being saved. It is difficult,
looking
back across the space of four hundred years, to be sure of the
exact
rules of Renaissance demonology. But most scholars think that
under
the terms of the contract, Faustus forfeits his human body but
keeps
his human
soul.
Faustus returns to the subject that fascinates him: the nature
and
whereabouts of hell. Notice that Faustus always asks about
hell
after he's made an irrevocable step toward hell. He leaps
first,
then looks to see where he has
landed.
Mephistophilis expands on what he's said before. Hell is a
place
without limits. It's wherever the damned happen to be. The
spirit
speaks matter-of-factly now. He's no longer worried
about
frightening Faustus. The contract is signed. What's done is
done.
But Faustus doesn't believe it. Come, come, he says. You're
making
this up. Hell's an "old wives' tale." There is no life after death.
We
die with our last breath. And that's the end of
it.
Mephistophilis is amused in an ironic sort of way. Why,
Faustus,
he asks, what do you think you have just signed? A contract with
hell.
Then his amusement dies, and his irony turns bitter. You think
there's
no hell, do you? "Aye, think so still, till experience change
thy
mind."
As Mephistophilis points out, Faustus is being illogical.
Faustus
has asked for a contract with the devil in order to enjoy the
powers
that hell can give him. But if there is no hell, then there is
no
contract and no demon spirit in the
room.
Faustus, the great logician of Wittenberg, shouldn't
need
Mephistophilis to point out the flaws in his reasoning. He
should
see for himself that this argument is not sound. So why doesn't
he?
Perhaps Faustus is too fierce a skeptic to believe in a hell that
he
can't see or touch. Faustus prides himself on being a scientist.
He
prefers concrete facts to abstract ideas. And the hell described
by
Mephistophilis is an undefined place. In fact, it makes
Faustus
think of life
itself:
Nay, and this be hell, I'll willingly be
damned.
What, sleeping, eating, walking, and
disputing?
On the other hand, Faustus may be less a skeptic than
an
opportunist. That is, he may change his beliefs to suit his desires
of
the moment. Faustus seems willing enough to accept hell, provided
that
hell promises to make him a king like Lucifer. He only doubts
hell's
existence when it looms up before him as a place of
punishment.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: CONCEPTS OF HELL In this dialogue between Faustus
and
Mephistophilis, you can see the clash of old and new ideas
that
troubled Marlowe's generation. Coming out of the Middle Ages was
the
orthodox vision of hell, the pit of quenchless fire
and
pitchfork-carrying devils. Then there was the newer, more
subtle
definition of hell offered by Mephistophilis. Hell was a
gray,
twilight place from which God had withdrawn his presence. And
finally,
there was the atheistic view, espoused by Faustus in this scene.
The
only hell we could ever know was the hell of this
world.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Faustus, however, is not disposed to linger on the subject. Now
that
he has his contract signed, he is eager to test his powers and
get
some questions answered. He turns to Mephistophilis with his
first
demand. I'm a lusty man, he says. I need a woman to share my
bed.
Get me a
wife.
Mephistophilis is on the spot. He can't meet Faustus' first
demand
because marriage is a sacrament, a holy rite of the church,
and
sacraments lie outside his
jurisdiction.
When Faustus insists on having this wish, Mephistophilis summons
a
female demon, who arrives hissing and sparking like a
firecracker.
Faustus dismisses her as a "hot whore." He's beginning to see
that
hell keeps its promises in strangely unpleasant
ways.
Never mind a wife, Mephistophilis consoles him. I'll give you
the
mistress of your heart's desire. And better yet, I'll give you
books
that will reveal to you the hidden secrets of Nature. I'll show
you
everything you've always wanted to know about the trees and the
stars.
Faustus reaches greedily for the fabulous volumes handed to him
by
the spirit. But as he leafs through the printed pages, he finds
that
they contain only gibberish. This is worse than Wittenberg. "O,
thou
art deceived!" he
cries.
Remember we asked a little while back, "what does Faustus
really
want, knowledge or sensual pleasure?" In this scene, Faustus
reaches
for both, only to be disappointed on both counts. But while
he's
merely annoyed by Mephistophilis' failure to produce a wife, he is
cut
to the quick by the spirit's fraudulent volumes. It's this
latter
deception that wrings from Faustus a cry of
anguish.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: A MISSING SCENE? Between Act II, Scenes I and II, there
is
probably a lost scene in which Robin, the clown, steals one
of
Faustus' conjuring books and runs away from Wagner to find work
at
an inn. We will find him there in Act II, Scene
III.
--------------------------------------------------------------------ACT_II|
SCENE_II
ACT II, SCENE
II
Faustus is in his study, looking at the night sky. The sight
of
the heavens lit with stars reminds him of the glories he
has
sacrificed. Faustus' first instinct is to lash out
at
Mephistophilis. You did this to me, he tells the spirit
angrily.
Mephistophilis calmly denies the charge. No, Faustus. It was
your
own doing, not mine. Do you agree with the spirit? Is Faustus
being
unfair? Mephistophilis understands and tries to comfort Faustus
with
the thought that heaven isn't such a wonderful place after
all.
Prove your theory, demands Faustus the philosopher. And the
spirit
gives him logical proof in an unexpected burst of enthusiasm
for
man. After all, heaven was made for man. Therefore, man must
be
"more
excellent."
You might expect Faustus to agree with Mephistophilis. Faustus
is
just the type to put man at center stage. His whole rationale
for
denying God in the first place was his belief in human
potential,
human greatness- a typically Renaissance ideal. Now, if ever, is
the
time for a speech like Hamlet's "O, what a piece of work is
man!"
But you don't get such a speech from Faustus. What you get from
this
humanist-scholar is a purely Christian impulse to renounce magic
and
repent. Can God forgive him, hardened sinner that he is? As
Faustus
debates this vital question with himself, the angels come on stage
for
the third
time.
The Good Angel assures Faustus that God will still forgive him.
But,
as usual, the Evil Angel has the stronger argument. God can't
pity
you, Faustus. You're a spirit, a demon. (Remember the terms of
the
contract.) You're not even a human being any
more.
God would pity me, even if I were the devil himself,
Faustus
retorts, using strange language for an atheist. That is, God
would
pity me, if I'd repent. Ah, the Evil Angel throws out his
parting
shot. "But Faustus never shall repent." It turns out to be an
accurate
prophecy. Why doesn't Faustus repent? It's one of the great puzzles
of
the play. This is his second attempt at repentance and his
second
refusal. What is standing in his
way?
Maybe Faustus isn't very sincere about repentance, and all this
talk
is lip service only. Some readers feel this way. Certainly there
are
traits inherent in Faustus' character that make repentance
difficult
for him. Pride is a problem. Faustus is too arrogant to
readily
admit his errors. Appetite also trips him up. Faustus lusts
after
the gleam of silk and the whiteness of a woman's arms. But God,
in
this still half-medieval world, demands austerity. For
Faustus,
penitence would mean the hair-shirt under a monkish robe and
sandals
in the winter
snow.
Maybe the contract is the big stumbling block, as
Lucifer
intended. Faustus has told the Evil Angel that God can still pity
him.
But he doesn't really seem to believe it. Whenever Faustus
thinks
about salvation now, he is thrown into despair. He
contemplates
suicide, as if to rush to his inevitable
fate.
All the while, Mephistophilis spins his web, pulling
Faustus
toward hell with his sweet magic tricks. The spirit gives Faustus
just
enough pleasure to keep him wondering if there's more. As the
angels
depart, Faustus relishes the memory of beautiful, ghostly
concerts
in his study. By Mephistophilis' arrangement, the great bards
of
ancient Greece have strummed their lyres for Faustus
alone.
Perhaps, Faustus reasons, there's something to this diabolic
life
after all. Come, Mephistophilis, he says, throwing off his mood
of
depression, tell me about the
stars.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: MEPHISTOPHILIS' ASTRONOMY In the discussion that
follows,
Mephistophilis presents Faustus with the common medieval view of
the
universe. It is known as the Ptolemaic system, in contrast to
the
Copernican view that we still accept today. In the Ptolemaic
system,
the Earth stood at the center of the universe, with the
sun,
planets, and stars circling around it. The universe was thought
to
be made up of nine concentric spheres, ascending from the
Earth
right up to God's Heaven. The spheres were those of the moon,
Mercury,
Venus, the sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the stars, and the
primum
mobile or first mover, the sphere which set all the other spheres
in
motion. Each sphere was supposed to have an angel presiding over
it.
In the text of the play, Faustus refers to the angel as a "dominion
or
intelligentia," a ruling power or intelligence. Beyond the spheres
was
God's empyrean, a heaven bathed in light. Some people believed
(it
is the meaning of Faustus' question, "Is there not coelum
igneum,
etc.?") that there were eleven spheres, adding a heaven of fire
and
one of crystal to the scheme. It was a nice, orderly universe,
with
the spheres nestled in each other's arms, making sweet music as
they
turned. What Mephistophilis can't help describing to Faustus is
a
majestic sweep of stars and spheres that could only have been
imagined
by the mind of
God.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Notice that Mephistophilis volunteers very little
information
about the heavens. Faustus must pry for information from the
spirit.
"Tush! These are freshmen's suppositions," the scholar
protests.
What Mephistophilis makes such a great show of disclosing, Faustus
has
learned years ago in a course called Introduction to Astronomy.
Ask
yourself why the spirit is being so evasive. Does he
begrudge
Faustus a share of his secret knowledge? Or does he sense that
the
stars may be a dangerous topic of
conversation?
Faced with this coy cosmic voyager, Faustus feels a tremendous
sense
of frustration. Imagine a modern scientist talking to a visitor
from
outer space who knows- but who won't say- what a black hole
really
looks like or what kinds of life exist among the stars.
Faustus
wants to know, for example, why such phenomena as eclipses occur
at
varying intervals, if the whole system of spheres turns on a
single
axle-tree. The sun and the moon, he reasons, should always be in
the
same relative positions, as they spin around the
earth.
Mephistophilis hedges. He retreats into Latin and reels off a
pat
academic formula, arguing that the spheres turn at
different
velocities.
"Well, I am answered," mutters Faustus, meaning that he
isn't
answered at all. Here is hell again, dealing with him in half
measures
and half-kept promises. But Faustus grasps the real point of
this
lesson in astronomy. He's been wondering in silence how this
whole
great system of spheres came into being. And now he
asks
Mephistophilis, "Who made the
world?"
The spirit has seen this coming, and he absolutely refuses to
answer
the question. But Faustus hardly needs Mephistophilis to tell him.
God
made the world, the God he doubted, the God whose existence
is
proven by the spirit's grim silence. If there is no God, why
should
His name be banned in the kingdom of
hell?
Forget about Heaven, Mephistophilis warns. Think about
hell,
Faustus. That's where you're going. "Remember this!" he calls
out
while waving the blood-signed contract in Faustus' face. But
Faustus
has finally, inevitably, broken down. He falls to his knees calling
to
Christ, his Savior. Only it isn't Christ who answers Faustus' call.
It
is Lucifer who emerges from a trap door on stage, with Belzebub by
his
side. You're mine, Faustus, the monarch of hell proclaims. You
gave
your soul to me, and I have come to claim
you.
Lucifer's appearance comes at a highly sensitive moment. Just
as
Faustus cries out to God, the arch-fiend arrives. Some
spectators
might wish that Marlowe had sent the Good Angel flying to
Faustus'
side, but instead he sends Lucifer, restless with
purpose.
What's the message? Is Marlowe saying that people who play
with
matches get burned? Faustus has chosen to unleash the forces
of
hell. And now he falls victim to powers beyond his control. Or
is
Marlowe making a broader and more devastating statement about
the
presence of demons and the absence of God in this world? Men cry
out
in need. And God stays in his heaven silent, while the devil
pays
house
calls.
Faustus takes one look at his visitors and caves in. This
man,
with dreams of being a king, trembles like a slave before the
regent
of hell. Faustus starts to babble outrageous things about pulling
down
churches and murdering
priests.
Lucifer is pleased. Now that he is again sure of Faustus,
he
arranges some entertainment to take the unhappy scholar's mind
off
himself. This is the second diversion hell has created for Faustus.
In
this play, diversions are like tranquilizers. They are hell's
handy
remedy for sorrow and
stress.
Lucifer and Faustus witness a pageant of the Seven Deadly
Sins.
Pride, the sin which felled the angels, is the leader of the pack.
The
rest follow in a grimly comic review of human
vice.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: THE SEVEN DEADLY SINS The Seven Deadly Sins are
Pride,
Avarice, Envy, Wrath, Gluttony, Lust, and Sloth. These were
called
"the deadly sins" because, in church dogma, all other sins
were
supposed to stem from them. Marlowe borrowed the idea of the
Seven
Deadly Sins from the medieval morality plays. Often, in
medieval
drama, the sins provided a comic interlude, as they do here. At
the
very least, they were human traits which all spectators could
identify
in
themselves.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Faustus converses with all the sins, but especially with
Gluttony.
Can you imagine why Gluttony might be his favorite? After
hearing
their stories, he dismisses them with a wave of the hand, as if he
saw
in this parade of vices no particular application to
himself.
In spite of their crassness, the Seven Deadly Sins are a
thorough
delight to Faustus. "O this feeds my soul!" he exults, when the
last
of them goes from the
stage.
Why do some regard this pageant as a turning point for
Faustus?
One clue to help you phrase your answer is that we hear no
more
about God from Faustus until the very end of the
play.
ACT_II|
SCENE_III
ACT II, SCENE
III
Robin has stolen one of Faustus' conjuring books and is feeling
very
self-important. His job is to care for the horses at the inn, but
he
can't be bothered with such trifles. He orders Dick, another clown,
to
walk the horses for him. (In some editions of the play, Dick is
called
Rafe or
Ralph.)
The semi-literate Robin pores over his book, breaking into a
sweat
as he tries to figure it out. "A by itself," he drones, repeating
a
child's formula for learning the alphabet. Then he manages
to
recognize a word. "T... h... e." Robin is making progress, when
Dick
saunters over to see what the book is all about. A conjuring book,
ha,
says Dick. I bet you can't read a word of
it.
Can't I though? Robin retorts. I'll work such magic that I
won't
need a job. I'll live like a king, and I'll get you free wine in
every
tavern in
Wittenberg.
This is magic Dick can understand. He's won over by Robin's
grand
promises. The two clowns go off together to get roaring drunk,
leaving
the horses unexercised and the devil to pay the
bill.
Magic, you see, has a strange effect on people. In Act I,
when
Wagner learned how to conjure, it was no longer good enough to
be
Faustus' servant. Wagner wanted to have a servant of his own.
Now
Robin has similar ideas. He doesn't see why he should slave for
an
innkeeper when he can summon a demon to provide all his
wants.
ACT_III|
CHORUS
ACT
III
THE
CHORUS
The Chorus returns to fill you in on Faustus' activities over
the
years. Go back for a moment to the Chorus' speech in Act I. Has
his
attitude toward Faustus changed? In the opening speech of the
play,
the Chorus seemed to disapprove of Faustus. Now you just may hear
a
note of admiration in his
voice.
Look at the exploits the Chorus has to relate. Faustus- who
couldn't
get a straight answer from Mephistophilis about the heavens- now
flies
among the stars himself in a dragon-powered chariot. Faustus
soars
higher than an astronaut, right up to the ninth sphere of
the
universe. And while he's up there, he gets a chance to correct
the
maps of Earth. These are high adventures, indeed. For once, hell
has
lived up to its
promises.
Marlowe now maneuvers Faustus' chariot into a landing pattern
and
brings the scholar-magician skimming down over the Alps into
Rome.
ACT_III|
SCENE_I
ACT III, SCENE
I
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: ROME AND THE ELIZABETHAN ENGLISHMAN In Elizabethan
England,
Rome was the target of many criticisms. In those days, the
Vatican
wasn't just a religious institution. It was a political power and
a
hotbed of European Catholic plots against Protestant England.
For
years, Rome had incited English Catholics to rebel against
Queen
Elizabeth and to place the Roman Catholic, Mary, Queen of Scots,
on
the throne. Rome had also been involved in Philip of Spain's
1588
attempt to invade England by sea. Not surprisingly,
Elizabethan
audiences roared their approval whenever Catholic clergymen
were
portrayed as greedy monsters or as stuttering idiots. This
scene,
then, offers a sample of Catholic-baiting. But first, Marlowe
provides
an interesting exchange between Faustus and Mephistophilis in
their
airborne
chariot.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Faustus is calmer now than when you saw him last. He has come
to
terms with his situation. He intends to make the best of a
bad
bargain. He tells Mephistophilis that all he wants is to get
the
most pleasure possible out of his remaining time on Earth.
The
spirit approves. He praises Faustus' attitude. There's no use,
he
agrees, in crying over spilt milk. Mephistophilis has known
for
centuries that life means the graceful acceptance of limits.
Now,
Faustus seems to know it
too.
What kind of relationship do you sense between Faustus
and
Mephistophilis in this scene? Faustus calls the spirit,
"Sweet
Mephistophilis, gentle Mephistophilis" in a way that could
mean
affection- or fear. And the spirit seems happy, in an austere
way,
to be sightseeing at Faustus' side. Is there a real bond between
the
two? Or only a false camaraderie that dissolves the instant
Faustus
defies the spirit's authority? What evidence can you offer
in
support of your
opinion?
Faustus and Mephistophilis have come to Rome at a time of
papal
festivities. The Pope is celebrating his victory over a rival.
(The
collision between the Pope and Bruno, described in this scene,
belongs
only to the 1616 text.) A magnificent papal procession enters.
The
red-robed cardinals carry great jewelled crosses. The dark-robed
monks
and friars chant their prayers. The Pope follows, leading a
prisoner
in chains. The prisoner is Saxon Bruno, a German pretender to
the
papal throne. In a ruthless display of power, the Pope climbs to
his
throne on his conquered rival's
back.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: ON POPES AND KINGS During the Middle Ages, Roman
Catholic
pontiffs were often at war with secular monarchs and with
each
other. Sometimes there were two rival candidates for the papacy,
and
neither was willing to back down gracefully. So the question
was
settled by force of arms, with secular kings backing one
candidate
or the other. That's what happens in Doctor Faustus. King Raymond
of
Hungary has supported Pope Adrian, while the Holy Roman Emperor
(a
German king despite his fancy title) has backed the Antipope
Bruno.
When a ruler like the Holy Roman Emperor defied the Pope,
the
pontiff had a weapon to use. It was called the "interdict," a
papal
curse laid upon rulers and all the people in their domains.
While
the interdict lasted, all church sacraments were denied throughout
the
entire kingdom. That meant no one could be married by a priest, no
one
could receive holy communion, and none of the dying could receive
last
rites. After a few grim years of this treatment, kings sometimes
bowed
to the pressure of their people and submitted to the church.
When
Adrian arrogantly threatens to depose the Emperor "and curse all
the
people that submit to him," he is talking about using the
interdict.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Faustus decides, for sheer mischief's sake, to intervene in
this
clash of the pontiffs. He will prick a hole in proud Adrian's
balloon.
As the cardinals troop off in solemn conclave to decide
Bruno's
fate, Faustus sends Mephistophilis to put them all to sleep. While
the
cardinals snore away, Faustus and Mephistophilis tiptoe among them
and
steal two of their gowns. Disguised as cardinals in brilliant
red
silk, Faustus and the spirit appear before the Pope. Dolefully
they
declare Bruno to be a Lollard (a Protestant heretic) and
recommend
that he be burnt at the
stake.
The Pope agrees. To Mephistophilis' glee, he and Faustus receive
the
papal blessing. "Was never devil thus blessed before!" the
spirit
laughs. Faustus and Mephistophilis are given charge of the
prisoner
Bruno and are told to lock him up in a tower. But they have
other
plans for the papal pretender. They spirit him over the Alps to
the
safety of the Holy Roman Emperor's
court.
ACT_III|
SCENE_II
ACT III, SCENE
II
As part of his victory celebration, the Pope is holding a
banquet.
Servants enter to lay out sumptuous food. Faustus and
Mephistophilis
reappear on stage. They have shed their borrowed cardinals'
robes
and now make themselves invisible in order to wreak havoc at
the
feast.
The Pope ushers in his guests of honor, King Raymond of
Hungary
and the Archbishop of Reims. (In the 1604 text, the Pope's guest
is
the Cardinal of Lorraine.) One of the Vatican cardinals
timidly
interrupts. Excuse me, your holiness, he asks. Don't you want
to
hear our decision about the heretic Bruno? I've already heard
it,
the Pope answers, dismissing the cardinal with a wave of his
hand.
When the poor cardinal persists, the Pope suspects treachery.
What
do you mean you didn't pass sentence on Bruno? And what do you
mean
you can't produce the prisoner? the Pope
demands.
The Pope has good reason to be upset, but being the perfect host,
he
has the cardinal hauled off in chains without interrupting
the
feast. Graciously, he offers a choice bit of meat to King
Raymond,
explaining that the beautiful roast had been sent to him by
the
Archbishop of
Milan.
As Raymond reaches out with his fork, the meat
suddenly
disappears. It is snatched away from the Pope's hand by
the
invisible Faustus. The startled pontiff looks around, but of course
he
sees nothing. He tries again with another "dainty dish," then a cup
of
wine. Both disappear in the same astonishing
way.
"Lollards!" screams the Pope. (Those wicked Protestants
are
capable of anything.) The Archbishop suspects a ghost, and the
Pope
agrees. To exorcise the evil spirit, the Pope frantically
crosses
himself.
Faustus, annoyed by the holy sign sprinkled like salt all over
his
food, boxes the Pope on the ear. The Pope, wailing that he has
been
slain, is carried off by a group of distracted cardinals. The
feast
breaks up in disarray. The friars come on stage to curse the
unseen
spirit in their midst with bell, book, and
candle.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: THE FRIARS' DIRGE Bell, book, and candle were the
symbolic
elements of the rite of excommunication. They reflected the last
words
of the solemn ceremony: "Do the book, quench the candle, ring
the
bell." The friars' dirge that closes this scene is a grimly comic
echo
of the Black Mass performed by Faustus in Act II, Scene I.
Faustus
turns the phrase bell, book, and candle "forward and backward,"
just
as he has done earlier with the letters that make up the name of
God.
--------------------------------------------------------------------The Vatican banquet is sheer slapstick comedy, and many
readers
are disturbed by its presence in the play. You have moved from
the
flickering hell fires of the early scenes into the world of Laurel
and
Hardy. After making you shudder at his black magician,
Marlowe
suddenly invites you to
guffaw.
What is Marlowe's purpose? Is he demeaning Faustus,
deliberately
making his hero trivial in your eyes? Look, Marlowe may be
saying,
here's a man who bargained away his soul for superhuman power.
And
what does he do with that power, once he gets it? He uses it to
play
silly tricks on the
Pope.
If this is Marlowe's message, then this scene has a Christian
moral.
Faustus takes up with the devil and is debased by the company
he
keeps. You can trace Faustus' decline, within the act itself, from
the
pursuits of star travel to his mindless clowning at the Vatican
feast.
Other readers see a different interpretation of Marlowe's
sudden
change from seriousness to farce. The real clown of the
Vatican
banquet, they note, isn't Faustus at all. It's the Pope.
If
anything, Marlowe is making an anti-Christian statement. He's
saying
that churchmen are pompous fools. He uses a Roman Catholic
example
because it was open season on Catholics in the England of the
1590s.
But the truth is, he means all churchmen, Catholics and
Protestants
alike.
ACT_III|
SCENE_III
ACT III, SCENE
III
At last sight, Robin was in search of a tavern where he promised
his
sidekick Dick to conjure up spirits, both the kind you work magic
with
and the kind you drink. Now you find the two clowns fleeing
for
their lives, with the vintner (or wine-seller) in hot pursuit.
Robin
has stolen a wine cup which he pawns off, in a bit of stage
fooling,
on Dick. When challenged by the vintner, Robin is outraged and
plays
innocent. Cup? Never saw your cup in my life. Frisk me, if you
like.
Like Faustus, Robin has acquired the art of making wine cups
vanish
into thin
air.
The vintner, sure of his man but cheated of his evidence,
grows
angrier by the minute. Feeling the situation get out of hand,
Robin
whips out his conjuring book. Abracadabra, he mutters (or the
Latin
equivalent). The spell works, and Mephistophilis
appears.
Robin feels a rush of elation, but Mephistophilis is
thoroughly
disgusted. Here he is, servant to the great prince of hell,
whipped
around the world at the whim of these ruffians. He will teach
the
clowns a lesson. With a wave of his wand, Mephistophilis turns
Robin
into an ape and Dick into a dog. The pair will make up a circus
act,
the ape riding on the dog's back and performing silly
tricks.
There are penalties for meddling with the powers of hell, though
the
clowns are too thoughtless to feel them. Robin and Dick scamper
off
stage, apparently delighted with their
fate.
ACT_IV|
CHORUS
ACT
IV
THE
CHORUS
The Chorus gives you a glimpse of the human side of Faustus.
His
friends have missed him while he's been away- which may seem odd
since
Faustus has seemed like a
loner.
After his travels abroad, Faustus stops home for a rest. All
this
flying about the world has proved to be bone-wearying. Magic or
no
magic, Faustus is
tired.
Faustus' friends greet him with affection and awe. Here's a
man
who knows the heavens first-hand. Faustus walks the streets
of
Wittenberg with an aura of star dust about him. His fame as
an
astrologer (astronomer) spreads throughout the land. He is
even
invited to the Holy Roman Emperor's
court.
ACT_IV|
SCENE_I
ACT IV, SCENE
I
The court is in a state of excitement. The Anti-pope Bruno
has
just materialized from nowhere. (Remember Faustus and
Mephistophilis
whisked him out of Rome.) And Faustus follows hard on Bruno's
heels
with the promise of some fabulous
entertainment.
Faustus has told the Emperor he will raise the shade (that
is,
ghost) of Alexander the Great. Faustus intends to summon from
the
underworld the ghost of the greatest conqueror the world has
ever
known.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: ALEXANDER THE GREAT Alexander was king of Greece
and
Macedonia in the fourth century B.C. He was called Alexander the
Great
because, during his brief reign, he extended Greek rule all the way
to
Egypt and India. He was a young, handsome, and fearless
ruler,
considered by the ancient world to be almost a god. Darius of
Persia
was Alexander's enemy. The two kings clashed in battle when
Darius'
army blocked Alexander's path to conquest in the East.
Alexander's
paramour or lover is unnamed. But she is apparently the
lovely
Thais, whose beauty was celebrated in ancient Greek poetry and
song.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Martino and Frederick, two gentlemen-in-waiting, are bursting
with
expectation. Nothing like this has ever been seen in Germany
before.
But there are skeptics about the court. Benvolio, in a
nightcap,
recovering from a hangover, yawns at the whole business.
Haven't
they all had enough of magic lately, what with Bruno's
whirlwind
arrival from Rome? How can you bear to miss the show? Frederick
asks
Benvolio. Well, I suppose I'll watch it from my window
here,
Benvolio replies without enthusiasm. That is, if I don't go back
to
bed first. (The entire Benvolio episode is found only in the 1616
text
of Doctor
Faustus.)
ACT_IV|
SCENE_II
ACT IV, SCENE
II
The Emperor praises Faustus abundantly for his role in
Bruno's
rescue. "Wonder of men, renowned magician, / Thrice-learned
Faustus,
welcome." The Emperor speaks the flowery, extravagant language
of
the court, and Faustus responds in
kind.
The magician promises the Emperor that his magic charms will
"pierce
through / The ebon gates of ever-burning hell." Benvolio, at
his
window, sneers at Faustus' words. What a silly, transparent
boast!
Admittedly, Faustus' language is pompous. But is he really
boasting?
He does mean to raid the underworld for Alexander's ghost.
(Faustus,
you recall, makes no distinction between the classic
underworld,
Elysium, and the fiery Christian
hell.)
When the Emperor asks to behold Alexander the Great and the
fabulous
Thais, Benvolio yawns again. If Faustus can produce these two,
he
mutters to himself, let me be turned into a stag. Benvolio's remark
is
meant as an aside. But Faustus overhears it. He promises the
skeptical
knight that he shall get his
wish.
Faustus holds everyone in court but Benvolio in a state
of
breathless expectation. Trumpets sound. Alexander the Great and
Darius
enter with drawn swords. Alexander slays his enemy and
places
Darius' crown on Thais' lovely
brow.
The Emperor is ecstatic. He jumps up from his throne and rushes
over
to embrace Alexander. Before he can do so, he is stopped by
Faustus'
cautioning hand. The figures he has summoned, Faustus warns,
are
"but shadows, not substantial." They can be seen, but not touched,
nor
can they be spoken to. (Remember Faustus' warning when
Helen's
spirit appears in Act
V.)
The Emperor wants to prove the reality of these ghosts. Since
he
cannot touch them, he has another test in mind. He has heard
that
Thais had a single imperfection, a mole on her neck. May he look?
Yes,
the mole is there. Faustus has raised Thais as she was, warts and
all,
accurate to the last
detail.
Yet these shades seem only half real. Although they are
Alexander
and Thais to the life, they are airy things which cannot interact
with
flesh-and-blood human beings. They play their silent parts as
if
they were inside a thick glass cage. So perhaps they
have
entertainment value only, and Faustus is wasting his vast power on
a
fairly trivial
trick.
The Emperor is impressed. Are you? You will have to decide
whether
this feat of Faustus' is just a circus act or a display of
power
worthy of a great
wizard.
Faustus now turns his attention to Benvolio. Look, he points
at
the knight, snoring at his windowsill. Benvolio's head is weighed
down
by a heavy pair of stag's
horns.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: BENVOLIO'S HORNS In Elizabethan England, horns on a
man's
head were a sign that he was a cuckold. In other words, his wife
had
been unfaithful to him. The Elizabethans did not sympathize
with
cuckolds. They regarded wronged husbands as figures of
ridicule.
Benvolio's plight is terrible, indeed. Not only has he lost his
normal
appearance, he's become an object of raillery for the entire
court.
Those horns are Benvolio's punishment for skepticism. Faustus,
a
skeptic himself on certain subjects, does not take it kindly
when
people disbelieve his
magic.
--------------------------------------------------------------------As Benvolio awakes and feels his head with horror, Faustus
addresses
him with icy mirth. "O, say not so, sir. The Doctor has no skill, /
No
art, no cunning" to put a pair of stag horns on your head.
Faustus
is really rubbing it in, when the Emperor intervenes. He requests
that
Faustus (an Emperor's request is a command) restore Benvolio to
his
normal
shape.
ACT_IV|
SCENE_III
ACT IV, SCENE
III
Benvolio promises to take revenge on Faustus. He convinces
his
friends, Martino and Frederick, to help him. They lay ambush
for
Faustus in a
wood.
Either Faustus guesses their plans or his demons tip him off, for
he
enters the wood wearing a false head on his shoulders. The
ambushers
attack and strike off what they assume to be Faustus' head.
They
admire their grisly trophy and plan to wreak all sorts
of
indignities on
it.
Faustus, of course, isn't dead at all. He's merely lying in wait
for
Benvolio, Frederick, and Martino to make complete fools of
themselves.
Then he picks himself off the ground, keeping his hood pulled
down
over his shoulders, and speaks to the terrified conspirators.
Where,
they wonder in panic, is his voice coming
from?
The "headless" magician informs the appalled knights that
their
efforts to kill him have been in vain. For twenty-four years,
until
his contract with the devil expires, he can't be killed or injured.
He
leads a charmed
life.
Faustus summons his spirits (notice there are three of them
now)
to drag the ambushers through the wood. Throw Martino into a
lake,
he orders. Drag Frederick through the briars. Hurl Benvolio off
a
cliff.
As you've probably noticed, there's a lot of roughhouse and
ghoulish
stage business in this scene. What do you think is the point of
it
all? This second encounter with Benvolio doesn't advance the plot,
and
it doesn't tell you anything new about Faustus. You've seen him
get
the better of Benvolio before. If you can't think of a point,
then
you'll understand why some readers suspect this scene isn't
Marlowe's.
The mindless horror, plus those additional demons, may point to
a
collaborator's
work.
ACT_IV|
SCENE_IV
ACT IV, SCENE
IV
Benvolio, Martino, and Frederick have taken quite a beating at
the
hands of Faustus' spirits. They drag themselves out of the mud
and
briars to find that each of them now wears a pair of stag horns on
his
head. They steal away to Benvolio's castle, where they can
hide
their shame and live unobserved by the world. The horns
are
permanent now, since there is no merciful Emperor around to
make
Faustus take them
off.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: ON MAGICAL TRANSFORMATIONS If you have read Shakespeare's
A
Midsummer Night's Dream, you may want to compare Benvolio's
fate
with that of Bottom the weaver. In Shakespeare's play, the
mischievous
fairies give Bottom an ass' head to wear through the long
summer
night. But in the morning, they restore Bottom to his
original
appearance. In contrast, Benvolio and his friends are left to
wear
their stag horns forever. Shakespeare, with his love of harmony
and
his tenderness even for fools, restores the world to
normal.
Marlowe, perhaps a crueler spirit, leaves undone his
magician's
devilish
work.
--------------------------------------------------------------------ACT_IV_SCENE_V
ACT IV, SCENE
V
A horse-courser, or horse-trader, approaches Faustus with an
offer
to buy his horse. In Elizabethan times, horse-traders were known
for
being cheats and sharp dealers. The trader offers Faustus
forty
dollars (German coins) for his horse but apparently the price
is
low. Faustus suggests fifty, but the horse-trader pleads poverty,
so
Faustus agrees to the
deal.
As the trader starts to lead the horse away, Faustus stops
him
with a warning. Ride the horse anywhere, but not into water.
Why
not? asks the suspicious trader. Faustus offers no explanation,
but
the reason is simple. The horse is a demon spirit which will vanish
in
water.
The trader suspects some hidden power in the horse that
Faustus
didn't want to reveal. He rides the animal into a pond. Two
seconds
later, he's left sitting on top of a wet bundle of
hay.
So the sharp dealer is outsmarted. Was Faustus being honest with
the
man when he told him not to ride the horse into water? Or was
he
deliberately arousing the trader's curiosity, knowing full well
the
man would take the first opportunity to satisfy it? The question is
of
interest because it makes you wonder how much humanity is left
in
Faustus. As soon as the trader departs, Faustus has one of
those
moments of introspection which occur so rarely now. "What art
thou,
Faustus, but a man condemned to die?" Possibly, Faustus has
remembered
that we are all human beings condemned to die. Perhaps he has felt
a
fleeting sense of brotherhood with the poor
trader.
More likely, however, Faustus has intended all along to cheat
the
horse dealer. He's devised this elaborate trick to distract
his
thoughts from approaching death. The faster Faustus runs, the
less
time he has to think. Whenever he stops his feverish activity, as
he
does for a moment now, the terror comes upon him. Faustus
escapes
his fear this time by falling
asleep.
The wet horse-trader returns in a rage to demand his money
back.
He finds Faustus asleep on a chair, and he tugs at the
magician's
leg to wake him up. To the trader's horror, Faustus' leg comes
off.
(Remember, Faustus has a demon's body now, and he can play
macabre
tricks with it.) The trader flees in terror with Faustus
yelling
"Murder!" at the top of his lungs. Faustus roars with laughter
at
his joke. He has the trader's money, and the trader has no
horse.
Is this scene funny? Are you supposed to laugh with Faustus at
the
horse-trader's rout? Or are you supposed to be shocked and saddened
at
the level to which Faustus has
sunk?
ACT_IV|
SCENE_VI
ACT IV, SCENE
VI
The horse-trader meets the clowns, Robin and Dick, in a
nearby
tavern. (This episode is found only in the 1616 text.) The trader
is
still fuming about his vanished horse. He tells his story, but
he
changes a few details to make himself out a
hero.
Know what I did to pay Faustus back for his nasty trick?
the
horse-trader confides. I attacked him while he was sleeping, and
I
yanked off his leg. No kidding? says Dick. I'm glad to hear it.
That
damn demon of his made me look like an
ape.
A carter or cart driver joins the party. He has a weird tale
of
his own to tell. The carter has met Faustus on the road to
Wittenberg,
where the magician offered him a small sum of money for all the hay
he
could eat. The carter, realizing that men don't eat hay,
accepted
the sum, whereupon Faustus devoured his whole wagon-load.
It's
really a grotesque story. Faustus' runaway appetites seem to
have
turned him into a fairy-tale monster, like a
troll.
The carter, the horse-trader, and the clowns continue to
drink
ale. Full of false courage, they decide to find the magician
and
give him a rough time about his missing
leg.
ACT_IV|
SCENE_VII
ACT IV, SCENE
VII
Faustus has been summoned to the Duke of Vanholt's castle,
where
he's busy showing off his magic arts. He asks the Duchess, who
is
pregnant, if there is any special food she craves. The
Duchess
admits she has a yen for grapes. Only it's January, she sighs.
Snow
covers the ground, and the grapes have long since vanished from
the
vines.
Faustus replies graciously that grapes are no trouble at all.
He
sends Mephistophilis whizzing around the globe to warmer climates.
The
spirit returns in a twinkling of an eye with a ripe cluster of
grapes.
This scene asks you to exercise some historical imagination.
In
the twentieth century, we have electric freezers for storing
summer
fruits and vegetables during the winter. But the
Elizabethans
didn't. In their eating habits, the Elizabethans were strictly
subject
to the seasons. With that point in mind, what do you think of
Faustus'
latest trick? Is it just some good-natured hocus-pocus that
you
shouldn't take too seriously? Or is Faustus doing something
rather
impressive by thumbing his nose at the
calendar?
The issue at stake, as you've probably guessed, is Faustus'
dignity.
Either he retains the heroic stature he had in the early scenes, or
he
deteriorates as he wades deeper and deeper into evil- and into
the
illusions of Lucifer's
hell.
You can make an argument for Faustus' steady decline that
runs
something like this. In Act II, Faustus wanted knowledge
and
questioned Mephistophilis about the stars. In Act III, Faustus
opted
for experience and enjoyed the delights of travel. But by Act
IV,
Faustus has become obsessed with food. All he can think about
is
something to eat- hay for himself, "dainties" for pregnant
women,
and so on. In other words, Faustus began with noble aims, but
under
the influence of demons, he's gone steadily downhill. This leads
you
back to the play's Christian
moral.
The rowdy crew from the tavern descends on the castle of
Vanholt.
They bang on the gates and loudly call for Faustus to show
himself.
The Duke is shocked and wants to call the police. But Faustus says
no.
Let the louts be admitted. We'll all have a good laugh at
their
expense.
The noisy, snow-splattered group invades the quiet stone halls
of
the castle. They are drunk, and the horse-trader calls loudly
for
beer. Then he starts ribbing Faustus about his supposed wooden
leg.
(Remember, the trader boasted in the tavern about the way he
injured
Faustus by pulling off his leg. The horse-trader, the carter,
and
the clowns all believe Faustus is
crippled.)
The trader wants to humiliate Faustus by publicizing
his
deformity. Stop denying you have a wooden leg, he explodes. I know
I
pulled your leg off while you were asleep. Faustus lifts his robe
to
reveal two very healthy limbs. The tavern crew breaks into
noisy
protests. Faustus decides it's time to silence the fools. With
a
wave of his hand, he strikes each of them dumb in midsentence.
ACT_V|
SCENE_I
ACT V, SCENE
I
A puzzled Wagner appears on stage. He suspects his master
is
dying. Faustus has made a will leaving Wagner all his property.
What
troubles Wagner is that Faustus doesn't behave as if he is dying.
He
doesn't lie in bed, for instance, and send for the priest. Instead,
he
drinks the night away with his cronies from Wittenberg. What's
Faustus
up
to?
The scholars who are Faustus' guests this night beg him for
some
after-dinner entertainment. They have heard of Faustus' reputation
for
raising the shades of the dead. They want to see the most
beautiful
woman who has ever lived- Helen of
Troy.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: HELEN OF TROY Paris, son of King Priam of Troy, fell
in
love with Helen, wife of the Greek king, Menelaus. With the help
of
the goddess of love, Paris stole Helen from her husband's side.
The
enraged Menelaus called upon the other Grecian kings to help
him
avenge his honor and win back his wife. The Greeks set sail
for
Troy, and for ten years, laid siege to the city (this was the
Trojan
War). Finally, unable to win a decisive battle, they entered Troy
by
treachery (hidden inside the Trojan Horse) and burned the city
to
the ground. The Trojan War was the subject of Homer's epic, The
Iliad.
The Renaissance admired Homer above all other poets. In this
scene,
Faustus acts like a truly great teacher by bringing the
greatest
epic of the classic world to
life.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
As Helen walks across the stage, the scholars sing her
praises.
She is incomparably beautiful, "the pride of Nature's works." As
the
scholars' words suggest, Helen represents the glories of this
world,
set against the glories of the next. With her bright eyes
and
radiant hair, she is Nature's ultimate challenge to
God.
An Old Man comes on stage now to present God's side of the case.
You
must imagine what he looks like to understand what he means
to
Faustus. The Old Man is stooped over and walks with a cane. He
has
wrinkles, gray hair, and weary
eyes.
Though Faustus is twenty-four years older now than he was at
the
start of the play, he shows none of these signs of age. His
contract
with the devil has protected him. Faustus' demon body is
untouched
by the indignities of
time.
Yet the Old Man's eyes shine with a light of faith that
captures
Faustus' attention. When the Old Man speaks, Faustus
listens
respectfully. There is no scoffing from the magician
now.
The Old Man gently scolds Faustus for the magic which has
lured
him away from God. So far, he tells Faustus, you have sinned like
a
man. "Do not persevere in it like a devil." He means that
Faustus
still has a human soul and can be forgiven by
God.
The Old Man's words tear through the veil of illusion that magic
has
created in this Wittenberg house. They set off a final struggle
in
Faustus, though, as in Act II, Faustus at first despairs at the
very
idea of
salvation.
You might imagine how he feels after all those years of
denying
God and serving Lucifer- all the favors he has had from hell.
How
can he back out of his bargain now? "Hell claims its right," a
right
which Faustus acknowledges. And he will do hell right by
killing
himself.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: ON SUICIDE Suicide is a mortal sin which will damn
Faustus
just as surely as the expiration of his contract with Lucifer.
As
Faustus is well aware, hell is not at all fussy about the manner
in
which it acquires his
soul.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Faustus reaches for the dagger which Mephistophilis- no
friendly
spirit now- puts in his hand. The Old Man intercedes. He tells
Faustus
not to despair and to remember God's mercy. He points to the
sky
overhead. Look, an angel hovers there, ready to fill your soul
with
grace. Faustus looks up. Does he see an angel too? Or is the
air
vacant to his
eyes?
Whatever he sees, Faustus calms down and thanks his advisor
for
his good counsel. The Old Man shuffles off, leaving Faustus to
his
conscience- and to
Mephistophilis.
The spirit is right there to threaten Faustus with torture if
he
so much as thinks of repentance. "Revolt," he orders Faustus (he
means
from these thoughts of God), "or I'll in piecemeal tear thy
flesh."
Courage has never been one of the scholar's strong points, and
he
pales at the threat. He urges Mephistophilis to turn on the Old
Man.
Torture him. Him! Not me! Faustus
pleads.
Mephistophilis shrugs his shoulders. I can hurt the Old
Man's
body, I suppose, but I can't touch his soul. However, anything
to
please.
And may I have Helen? Faustus asks, his thoughts abandoning
the
grace he has been offered for the beautiful shade who has just
crossed
the stage. I'll be back with her, Mephistophilis promises, "in
a
twinkling of an eye." (That phrase again suggests a magician's
sleight
of hand, when the audience barely blinks.) The caresses of the
most
beautiful woman in history will be Faustus' last diversion and
the
final payment hell will make for his
soul.
As Helen returns, Faustus greets her with a speech that makes
you
wonder if she isn't worth the
price:
"Was this the face that launched a thousand
ships
And burnt the topless towers of Ilium
[Troy]?"
Did Helen cause the destruction of a city, the agonies of war,
the
death of ancient heroes? Who can doubt it? For such beauty as
this,
Troy was well
lost.
Helen dazzles Faustus. Her radiance seems to bring tears to
his
eyes, so that he describes not a woman but the shimmering effect
of
light. Helen outshines the evening stars. She is brighter than
flaming
Jove, the king of the gods, when he dallied in the arms of
nymphs
whose very names (Semele and Arethusa) sound like all the pleasures
of
love.
"Sweet Helen," Faustus murmurs in ecstasy, "make me immortal
with
a kiss." He moves to embrace her. As Faustus kisses Helen, he
cries,
"Her lips suck forth my soul!" Possibly this is a lover's rhapsody,
or
a disturbing hint that Helen may be a succuba
(demon).
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: A SUCCUBA A succuba was a demon spirit who assumed human
form
to have intercourse with men. Intercourse with demons was
an
unpardonable sin in the eyes of the church. If Helen is a
succuba,
then Faustus, by claiming her as his lover, is beyond redemption.
When
he says, "Her lips suck forth my soul!" he is being quite
literal.
That's just what her lips are
doing.
--------------------------------------------------------------------The Old Man, who has been watching this romantic interlude
from
the wings, hurls damnation at Faustus like an Old Testament
prophet.
He is set upon by devils. Torture is the test of his faith which
he
passes with flying colors. Heaven opens its gates to welcome
him.
Faustus sweeps Helen off stage in his arms. At best, he has
chosen
worldly beauty over other-worldly grace. At worst, he holds a
creature
whose fairness disguises an ugly moral reality. As the Old
Man
enters heaven by the straight and narrow gate, Faustus takes
the
primrose path to
hell.
Yet, you should ask yourself how deeply you quarrel with
Faustus'
choice. Suppose a religious advisor warned you against a passion
for
the loveliest woman or the handsomest man in the world. What would
you
do about
it?
Admittedly, Faustus doesn't love Helen in any meaningful sense.
He
is infatuated with physical looks. But is Faustus' response to Helen
a
sign of gross physical appetite- or of a moving sensitivity to
beauty?
That's an important question because whichever it is, it's
what
damns Faustus in the
end.
ACT_V|
SCENE_II
ACT V, SCENE
II
In the 1616 text, Lucifer and Belzebub enter to watch Faustus'
final
hours. They stand on a balcony above the stage, looking down at
the
scene to come. The two princes of hell make a suggestive
picture.
The devils are on top of the world, running the
show.
Faustus comes from his study, where he has completed a new will.
The
scholars of Wittenberg greet him with concern. They have
come
expecting the usual food and good cheer. Instead, they find
a
white-faced Faustus, the somber testament of a will in his
hand.
Are you sick? they ask Faustus. Maybe it's only a bit
of
indigestion, one scholar suggests. ("Surfeit," the word he uses,
means
overindulgence of the appetite. Not a bad diagnosis of
Faustus'
trouble.)
Part of Faustus yearns toward these companions. "Ah, my
sweet
chamber-fellow," he turns to one of them who, years ago, shared
his
dormitory. "Had I lived with thee"- had I stayed with the
common
herd of scholars- "then had I lived
still."
But part of Faustus insists on isolation, exclusivity. He takes
a
certain pride in the enormity of his sin. The serpent who
tempted
Eve may be forgiven, he says, but not Faustus. The magician will
be
great to the last, if great only in his
offense.
The scholars give Faustus the usual advice. Pray, man. Turn
to
God. But these are really just platitudes. The scholars lack
the
wisdom to rise to the occasion. Finally, they withdraw into the
next
room, leaving Faustus alone to die. As in the morality plays,
the
friends of Everyman abandon him on the path to the
grave.
In the 1616 text, there is a last exchange between Faustus
and
Mephistophilis. Faustus accuses the spirit of having put temptation
in
his way. "Bewitching fiend," he cries. "You're the one who's robbed
me
of
paradise."
Faustus made this accusation once before (see II, iii),
and
Mephistophilis had denied it. But now the spirit freely admits
the
charge. Yes, it was all my doing, Faustus. And one of my
most
brilliant jobs. You almost slipped away from me while you were
reading
the Bible. But I made sure you found no hope there. (Remember
those
two Biblical passages which, when read together, seemed to prove
to
Faustus that he was doomed? Mephistophilis is saying he made
sure
Faustus read those passages back-toback.)
This is quite an admission on the spirit's part. And for
some
readers, it casts long shadows over the play. If
Mephistophilis
stood unseen (and as yet unsummoned) at Faustus' elbow, turning
the
leaves of the Bible, who knows what other nasty tricks he
has
played? Switched a succuba for the shade of Helen, no doubt.
Perhaps
even sent Valdes and Cornelius to call. Is Faustus responsible for
any
of his actions? Or has he been just a puppet all this time,
with
Mephistophilis pulling the
strings?
To what degree, after all, has Faustus been in control of
his
fate? It's not an easy question. You can cite plenty of evidence
in
the play for free will. The Old Man's warning, for instance,
makes
sense only if Faustus is free to accept the grace he is
offered,
free to choose the Old Man's way. But you can also argue
that
Faustus is right in his feeling that he's been doomed all
along.
Mephistophilis' speech points in this direction. So does
Lucifer's
unexpected arrival (II, ii), when Faustus desperately calls on
Christ.
Still in the 1616 text, Faustus is now shown the heaven he
has
forfeited and the hell he has earned. As sweet music plays, a
heavenly
throne descends toward the stage. The Good Angel appears and
tells
Faustus, Ah, if you had only listened to me, there you would be
seated
like the saints in
glory.
The throne hovers above Faustus' head, within his vision,
but
forever out of reach. And now, a trap door on stage opens,
revealing
hell. The Evil Angel makes Faustus look down into the burning
pit,
where grinning devils are torturing the damned. As Faustus
turns
away in horror, the clock strikes the eleventh hour of Faustus'
last
day on
earth.
Faustus' final soliloquy runs fifty-nine lines, one for every
minute
of the hour that remains. Time is the subject of the speech,
as
Faustus tries frantically to stop time or at least to slow it down.
He
calls to the stars to halt in the sky and to the sun to rise
again
in the west, bringing back the precious
day.
The poignant speech replays the heroic themes of Act I, only
this
time in a sad minor key. Faustus wanted to be a god, to command
"all
things that move between the quiet poles." But the stars wheel
in
the heavens now in response to far different commands than
his.
Faustus' cry of protest is grand, and grandly futile. Like every
human
being since Adam, Faustus finds he is trapped in
time.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: "RUN SLOWLY, SLOWLY..." A classicist to the last,
Faustus
recalls a line from Ovid, the Latin love poet. "O lente, lente
currite
noctis equi." Run slowly, slowly, horses of the night. The
line
falls ironically in the midst of Faustus' death scene, for
the
difference in Faustus' situation and the original speaker's
is
great. In Ovid's poem, the lover longs for night to last so that
he
may continue to he in the arms of his beloved. Faustus, of
course,
wants the night to endure because the sun will rise on the dawn of
his
torment. The Latin words sound like a last attempt to cast a
spell.
But it doesn't work. if anything, the pace of time speeds up.
"The
stars move still, time runs, the clock will
strike."
--------------------------------------------------------------------Faustus has a vision. Far off in the night sky, he sees
the
streaming blood of Christ. You remember when Faustus signed a
contract
with the devil, his own blood refused to flow. He
asked
Mephistophilis, "Why streams it not?" And the spirit brought
coals
to set it flowing afresh. Christ's blood streams in the heavens now
as
a sign of divine mercy, withheld from Faustus because of his
own
denial of
God.
The clock strikes eleven-thirty. The seconds are ticking away
much
too fast. And yet, time stretches away before Faustus in
that
dizzyingly endless expanse we call eternity. Faustus will burn in
hell
a billion years- only the beginning of his torment. Faustus
wanted
immortality, and he has found it in an unlooked-for
way.
The clock strikes midnight. The thunder roars. Leaping devils
come
on stage to carry Faustus away. Faustus makes his final, frantic
plea.
"I'll burn my books," cries this seeker of forbidden
knowledge.
Well, he will burn for them, at any rate. And then a
shriek,
"Mephistophilis!" A cry for help? An accusation? A shock
of
recognition? Then Faustus disappears through the trap door into
the
yawning mouth of
hell.
If you are reading the 1604 text, the play ends
here.
ACT_V|
SCENE_III
ACT V, SCENE
III
After a dreadful night, a quiet morning dawns. The scholars
find
Faustus' torn body, and though they deplore his fate, they honor
his
great learning. Wittenberg will hold a stately
funeral.
The Chorus returns for a final word. He speaks like a
Christian
moralist now. The Chorus has severe qualms about all this
classic
learning. One has only to look at its effect on
Faustus.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: ON THE IMAGE OF THE BURNT LAUREL BOUGH The laurel was
the
sacred tree of Apollo, the Greek god of intellect. When the
Chorus
says, "Burned is Apollo's laurel bough / That sometime grew
within
this learned man," he means that Faustus, the avid
classicist,
followed the classics too far. Spurred on by the freedom of
ancient
Greek thought, Faustus delved into knowledge forbidden by
the
church. As a result, he found the searing Christian hell,
never
imagined by the
Greeks.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Let Faustus' fall be a lesson to everyone, the Chorus continues,
not
to practice magic. There is nothing wrong with curiosity, but
for
God's sake, don't
touch.
The great disturbance at Wittenberg is over. The scholars
return
to their studies. The professors give their everyday
lectures,
unassisted by ghosts. And peace returns to the university. Or does
it?
Look again at the Chorus' last
words:
Faustus is gone: regard his hellish
fall,
Whose fiendful fortune may exhort the
wise
Only to wonder at unlawful
things
Whose deepness doth entice such forward
wits
To practice more than heavenly power
permits.
Faustus may be roasting in hell, but magic has lost none of
its
appeal. Its very deepness testifies to its enduring
fascination.
The old men of Wittenberg may have won the day for now. They
have
succeeded, for the time being, in clamping down on the
questionable
practice of wizardry. But the "forward wits," the young
scholars,
are still champing at the bit, waiting for their chance to rush
into
necromancy.
As long as young men have adventurous spirits, the university
hasn't
heard the last of black magic. Not by a long
shot.
TESTS_AND_ANSWERS
A STEP
BEYOND
TESTS AND ANSWERS
(MDRFTEST0
TESTS
TEST
1
_____ 1. Faustus sells his soul to the devil primarily
for
A.
immortality
B. limitless
knowledge
C. Helen of
Troy
_____ 2. The Vatican banquet is an example
of
A. Faustus' great
appetite
B. Marlowe's
atheism
C. satire on the Catholic
Church
_____ 3. One thing Faustus does not request of Mephistophilis
is
A. a golden
crown
B. a
wife
C. information about the
stars
_____ 4. When Faustus dies, the scholars of
Wittenberg
A. deny him Christian
burial
B. foreswear (give up) the practice of
magic
C. plan a stately
funeral
_____ 5. Robin the clown agrees to serve Wagner because
he
A. needs
money
B. is frightened into it by
demons
C. wants to learn about
magic
_____ 6. Faustus' contract with the devil specifies that
Faustus
will
I. visit the
heavens
II. have Mephistophilis to serve
him
III. take on the attributes of a
demon
A. I and II
only
B. I and III
only
C. II and III
only
_____ 7. "Then be thou as great as Lucifer" is an example
of
I. blank
verse
II. poetic
imagery
III.
irony
A. I and II
only
B. I and III
only
C. II and III
only
_____ 8. Lucifer calls for the parade of the Seven Deadly Sins
in
order
to
I. reward Faustus for his
surrender
II. divert Faustus'
thoughts
III. show Faustus his future in
hell
A. I and II
only
B. I and III
only
C. II and III
only
_____ 9. "Was this the _____ that launched a thousand
_____"
A. woman...
heroes
B. face...
ships
C. angel...
warriors
_____ 10. The proverb that best applies to Faustus
is
A. pride goeth before a
fall
B. a little learning is a dangerous
thing
C. eat, drink, and be merry, for tomorrow we
die
11. Is Mephistophilis Faustus' friend or his deadly
enemy?
12. Why doesn't Faustus
repent?
13. What role do diversions play in Doctor
Faustus?
14. How does magic affect the comic characters, Wagner and
Robin?
15. What does the Chorus think of
Faustus?
TEST
2
_____ 1. In Doctor Faustus, hell is not described
as
A. a burning
pit
B. psychological
pain
C. an old wives'
tale
_____ 2. Faustus is tempted to take up magic mostly
by
A. Valdes and
Cornelius
B. the Evil
Angel
C.
himself
_____ 3. During the final hours of his life Faustus tries
to
A. make his peace with
God
B. stop the clock from striking
midnight
C. hide from the devils who will come for
him
_____ 4. The setting for Doctor Faustus can best be described
as
A.
Germanic
B.
collegiate
C.
cosmic
_____ 5. Faustus' next-to-last words
are
A. "I confound hell with
Elysium"
B. "I'll burn my
books"
C. "Make me immortal with a
kiss"
_____ 6. The episode with the horse-courser can be
called
I. a bad
joke
II. a
diversion
III. highway
robbery
A. I and II
only
B. II and III
only
C. I, II, and
III
_____ 7. "What will be, shall be" is Faustus' argument
for
I. disregarding the
Bible
II. taking up
magic
III. becoming the lover of Helen of
Troy
A. I and II
only
B. II and III
only
C. I, II, and
III
_____ 8. Faustus leaves Wagner his money
because
I. Faustus is a lonely
man
II. Wagner has been
loyal
III. the scholars have proved to be fair-weather
friends
A. I and II
only
B. II and III
only
C. I, II, and
III
_____ 9. The emperor wants to see if Thais has a mole
because
A. he doesn't believe in perfect
beauty
B. the mole is hereditary, and Thais is his
ancestor
C. he wants to make sure Thais is
real
_____ 10. One of Faustus' saving graces
is
A. responsiveness to
beauty
B. a sense of
humor
C. manly
fortitude
11. What is the definition of hell in this
play?
12. Faustus dreams that magic will bring him limitless
power.
To what extent do his dreams come
true?
13. How do the Old Man and Helen function as dramatic opposites
in
Act
V?
14. Is Faustus a Renaissance or medieval hero? Justify
your
response.
15. Find three examples of hyperbole (exaggeration), and
discuss
Marlowe's specific
techniques.
ANSWERS
TEST
1
1. B 2. C 3. A 4. C 5. B 6. C 7.
B
8. A 9. B 10.
A
11. If you take the position that Mephistophilis is Faustus'
friend,
you'll want to prove that Mephistophilis cares for Faustus and
would
spare him hell's torments, if he could. You'll find your
best
ammunition in the third scene of the play. Point out that,
here,
Mephistophilis specifically warns Faustus against any involvement
with
hell. He is honest and moving in his description of the suffering
that
awaits Faustus. It is the arrogant Faustus who ignores the
spirit's
danger
signal.
When you deal with Mephistophilis in the later scenesthe
Mephistophilis who holds Faustus firmly to his agreement- be sure
to
mention that the spirit isn't free. He is Lucifer's servant and
must
obey his master's orders, however distasteful he finds
them.
If you decide that Mephistophilis is Faustus' enemy, you
will
argue that the spirit is eager for Faustus' damnation and plans for
it
all along. In this interpretation, Mephistophilis'
"friendly"
warning in Scene III is just a trick to get Faustus to trust
him.
And once he has that trust, the spirit lies shamelessly to
Faustus.
Mephistophilis cons Faustus into signing the contract with
hell
under the totally false promise that Faustus will be "as great
as
Lucifer." After Faustus has signed the contract, the spirit
holds
him to it relentlessly. Mephistophilis bars Faustus' way to
repentance
with daggers and threats of torture. If you are reading the 1616
text,
you can clinch your argument with the spirit's jeering speech in
Act
V, Scene II, where he rejoices in Faustus' fate and boasts that he
has
brought it about singlehandedly.
12. There are two ways to attack this question. You can argue
that
Faustus doesn't really want to repent. His failure to do so stems
from
a lack of motivation. Or you can argue that Faustus
wants
repentance, but isn't permitted it. All the forces of hell
stand
between Faustus and
God.
If you believe that Faustus is insincere in his talk
of
repentance, you can marshall the following evidence: (1) Faustus
is
a skeptic. He can't turn to God with any real feeling because
he
doesn't believe in God. (2) Faustus is too easily distracted
from
thoughts of repentance in order for his contrition to be genuine.
Just
mention wealth to Faustus (II, i) or show him a beautiful woman
(V,
i), and he forgets all about God. (3) Faustus is too proud and
too
sensual a man to repent. He's just not the type to lead a
penitent's
life of humility and selfdenial.
If you believe that Faustus is sincere about repentance, then
you'll
have to prove that he's trapped in sin by forces beyond his
control.
You can mention (1) Lucifer's dramatic appearance (II, ii)
when
Faustus is on his knees, calling to Christ. It would take a
martyr
to stand up to the fury of the monarch of hell, and Faustus is
no
martyr. (2) The Evil Angel's all-too-cogent argument. Marlowe seems
to
have stacked the deck by giving the Evil Angel the persuasive
words
and the Good Angel the weaker arguments. (3) Mephistophilis'
threats
of torture, when the Old Man has all but converted Faustus.
Poor
Faustus doesn't have the courage to face being torn apart. But
then,
who
does?
13. Diversions are hell's way of keeping Faustus' mind
occupied,
so that he doesn't think about death and damnation. You
should
choose at least three examples of diversion in the play and
explain
what purpose each one serves. For example, you might discuss
(1)
Mephistophilis' ad-lib show in Act II Scene I, which
distracts
Faustus' attention from the warning inscription on his arm and
gets
the scholar to hand over the contract. (2) Lucifer's pageant of
the
Seven Deadly Sins in Act II, Scene II, which captures
Faustus'
interest after his abortive attempt at repentance and makes him
wonder
what other marvels hell has in store. (3) The trick Faustus plays
on
the horse-courser in Act IV, Scene V, which takes the
magician's
mind off thoughts of his approaching death. Faustus, well trained
in
the ways of hell, provides this diversion for
himself.
There are many other examples from which to choose. You
might
discuss the elaborate feasts Faustus holds for the scholars
of
Wittenberg (V, i); the journey to Rome (III, i); and the
most
wonderful diversion of all, Helen of
Troy.
14. To answer this question, you'll need to focus only on two
or
three scenes in the
play.
In Act I, Scene IV, Wagner has learned how to conjure.
Being
Faustus' servant is not good enough for him any more. Wagner now
wants
a servant of his own. Heady with the sense of his new powers,
Wagner
summons two devils to impress the clown, Robin, into his
service.
By Act II, Scene III, Robin has caught on to the idea. He has
stolen
one of Faustus' conjuring books and plans to learn magic, so that
he
can tell his master off and live on the devil's handouts.
For both these lower-class characters, magic means new
ambitions,
aspirations above their station in life. You might want to
mention
that Robin's swelled head gets him into trouble. The clown
manages
to summon Mephistophilis, who turns him into an
ape.
15. To answer this question, you will have to analyze
carefully
the Chorus' language in his four appearances. (See the beginning
of
Acts I, III, IV, and the end of Act V.) You may decide that the
Chorus
has ambivalent feelings toward Faustus- that he admires
Faustus'
achievement but deplores his godless beliefs. Or you may feel that
the
Chorus changes his mind about Faustus over the course of the
play.
In your essay, be sure to discuss the Icarus image and that of
the
burnt laurel
bough.
TEST
2
1. B 2. C 3. B 4. C 5. B 6. C 7.
A
8. A 9. C 10.
A
11. This is a tricky question because Marlowe makes use of
three
different concepts of hell. (1) Though Faustus avails himself
of
hell's services, at times he denies the existence of hell. In
Act
II, Faustus calls hell "a fable" and claims that there is no hell
at
all. (2) Mephistophilis, an apparent expert on the
subject,
describes hell as a real, if unlocalized place. The spirit says
hell
is where the damned dwell, forever banished from the light of God.
(3)
Faustus is sent to a hell which is a very tangible pit of fire.
This
is the hell suggested by the setting of Doctor Faustus, where
a
smoking trapdoor is a constant reminder of flame just below the
stage.
There is perhaps a fourth definition of hell implied in the
play.
Hell exists, but it is here and now. Hell is the human condition.
It
is life itself because in life we are subjected to the
frustration
of our dreams and to the terrors of death and old
age.
Do you find one definition of hell more convincing than
the
others? If so, develop this in your essay and explain your
choice.
12. Most readers of the play sense a large gap between
Faustus'
original hopes for magic and the realization of those hopes.
The
inspiration is grand, the price is terrible, and the stage
business
verges on the
ludicrous.
If you agree with this interpretation, you can prove your case
by
comparing Faustus' glowing dreams in Act I with his trivial
magic
tricks in Acts III and IV. Faustus envisions fabulous riches, but
ends
up robbing a working man of his coins. Faustus dreams of power
over
Nature, dominion over the winds and the clouds. Yet all he has to
show
for it is a bunch of out-of-season grapes. Curiously, Faustus
seems
smugly pleased with himself as he pulls off these silly
stunts.
Somewhere along the line, the dreamer has vanished and the
showman
in Faustus has taken
over.
You will find it a little more difficult to argue that
Faustus
realizes his dreams and becomes a great wizard after all. But
you
can do it. You will want to point out the limits of
Elizabethan
stagecraft and mention that Elizabethan audiences took the word
for
the deed. In their eyes, a bunch of grapes stood for all of Nature,
as
a pot stood for a kitchen or a bush for the Forest of
Arden.
You should also mention that the Holy Roman Emperor, a
sophisticated
ruler, is left speechless when Faustus summons the ghost
of
Alexander the Great. And you will point to Faustus' truly
impressive
feats of magic in the play- his trek among the stars, described by
the
Chorus in Act II, and his raising of the most exquisite of
Homeric
shades.
13. In the last act of the play, the Old Man and Helen are two
rival
contenders for Faustus' soul. Of the two characters, the Old Man
is
undoubtedly real. His gray hair and wrinkles are the harsh
results
of life. Helen, on the other hand, is eternally young and
beautiful.
Thousands of years after the Trojan War, she is as radiant as
she
was on the day Paris stole her from her husband's side. But Helen is
a
shade, a ghost, an airy thing not made of flesh and
blood.
Point out in your essay that the Old Man is a spokesman for
faith.
In the entire play, he's the only human being who
believes
profoundly in God. The Old Man fervently pleads with Faustus to
turn
from magic and its illusory delights. By precept and example, he
tries
to persuade Faustus to accept heaven's
grace.
Helen does not open her mouth. Nonetheless, she's an
effective
spokesman for worldly pleasure. With her exquisite beauty, Helen
is
a walking argument for
love.
In your essay, you will have to take a position for or
against
Helen's authenticity. If you think Helen is the real Helen,
then
talk about her as Nature's supreme creation- this world's answer
to
the next. If you think Helen is a demon spirit, then describe her as
a
sort of watch dog for hell, brought on by Mephistophilis to
guard
Faustus' soul against the Old Man's
persuasions.
14. This is a difficult question, and one you can't answer
by
reading Doctor Faustus alone. You will have to draw on
your
knowledge of Shakespearean drama. You should also get a copy
of
Everyman, so that you will have some first-hand information
about
medieval morality plays. (You will find Everyman in
many
anthologies, like the Norton Anthology of English
Literature.)
The question is included in this guide because it's a popular
essay,
and one you should be prepared to answer if you're studying
Doctor
Faustus in a college-level drama
course.
To argue that Faustus is a Renaissance hero, you'll want to
point
out that, unlike Everyman, he is very much an individual.
Faustus
has a well-documented background, a hometown, and an Alma Mater.
In
this, Faustus resembles Hamlet, for example, whose upbringing in
the
Danish court and whose scholarly pursuits are germane to
Shakespeare's
play. Faustus also has distinctly Renaissance aspirations. He wants
to
take advantage of the possibilities of knowledge and sensations
that
were just opening up in the sixteenth century. The emerging
sciences
fascinate Faustus. And his yen for New World fruits reflects
his
interest in the recent voyages of
discovery.
To argue that Faustus is a medieval hero, you will want to
talk
about the many holdovers in Marlowe's drama from the medieval
morality
plays. Faustus lives in a world of angels and demons,
supernatural
beings who belong to the medieval stage. Like a medieval hero,
Faustus
has direct dealings with heaven and hell. (God is a character
in
Everyman, but divine intervention vanishes entirely from the
English
Renaissance stage.) Finally, Faustus pays a medieval hero's
penalty
for his sin. Because of his overbearing ambition, Faustus is sent
to
an eternity of torment in hell. (Macbeth, for a similar
transgression,
suffers agonies of mind in the here and
now.)
Still a third possibility is to portray Faustus as a man
caught
between two worlds. For help with this kind of answer, see
the
sections on Characters and
Setting.
-
15. The best examples of hyperbole can be found in Acts I and
V.
If you choose as one example the Helen of Troy speech, you would
point
out that the speech begins with a rhetorical question in which
Faustus
implies that the whole world would be well lost for Helen's
love.
The speech goes on to include highly poetic and
exaggerated
comparisons. ("O, thou art fairer than the evening air," etc.)
In
addition, it draws on Trojan War heroes to heighten Faustus'
nobility.
You might mention, however, that an undercurrent of irony in
the
speech works against the high notes of a lover's rapture. For
more
help on hyperbole, see the section on
Style.
TERM_PAPER_IDEAS
TERM PAPER IDEAS AND OTHER TOPICS FOR WRITING
(MDRFTERM)
CHARACTER
ANALYSIS
1. Is Faustus a
hero?
2. What kind of relationship exists between Faustus
and
Mephistophilis?
3. Why is Wagner Mephistophilis'
heir?
4. Does Faustus choose to be damned? Or is he forced into it
by
demons?
5. What role do Valdes and Cornelius play in Doctor
Faustus?
-
6. Of all the things that Faustus desires, what does he desire
most?
7. How does Benvolio resemble
Faustus?
8. Write an entry in Wagner's diary, and date it from the last
month
of Faustus'
life.
9. Wagner tells Robin to follow in his footsteps. How does
Robin
carry out the
order?
10. Contrast the characters of the Pope and the Old
Man.
11. Why do the central relationships of Faustus' life
involve
spirits and shades, not human
beings?
LITERARY
TECHNIQUE
1. What is the point of the Icarus image in the
prologue?
2. What examples of hyperbole (exaggeration) can you find
in
Faustus' speech to Helen of
Troy?
3. Why is there so much Latin in the
play?
4. How does Marlowe change the verse line to show frustration
or
uncertainty in
Faustus?
5. Find three examples of irony in Doctor Faustus and explain
what
purpose the irony
serves.
SETTING
1. What do you learn about Faustus from his
study?
2. Why is the University of Wittenberg in a state of
unease?
3. What use does Marlowe make of the trapdoor on the
Elizabethan
stage?
4. Compare the world of Doctor Faustus to a medieval
painting.
THEMES
1. Would Marlowe agree with this statement: "A man's reach
should
exceed his grasp, or what's a heaven for?" (The quotation is
from
Robert Browning's "Andrea del Sarto.")
Why?
2. Does Doctor Faustus have a Christian moral? What is
it?
3. According to Marlowe, hell is _______________. Finish
the
sentence, and explain your
answer.
BEYOND THE
PLAY
1. What do Marlowe and Faustus have in common? Is Doctor
Faustus
an autobiographical
play?
-
2. Faustus and Macbeth are two men of ambition. How are
they
alike? How are they
different?
3. Is Doctor Faustus a tragedy or a morality play?
Explain.
CRITICS
THE CRITICS
(MDRFCRIT)
ON
FAUSTUS
Proud Faustus is the most uneasy of men, the frailest conqueror,
the
most sorrowful of atheists, uncertain of his uncertainties.
Here
indeed is the weak man, terror-stricken by his own
audacity,
irresolute at the very moment when he boasts of his
inflexibility,
hurling defiance at God and Devil, but immediately mad with
terror,
choosing now the soul, now matter; incapable of grasping the
unity
of the world, of making a synthesis between this soul which
he
cannot repudiate and this matter which imposes on him its laws.
He
hopes, then renounces; summons, then rejects; brags and
trembles.
-Henri Fluchere,
Shakespeare
and the Elizabethans,
1967
If pity mixed with condemnation were the only feeling that
Marlowe's
audience can have for Faustus, then he would still be a poor sort
of
figure, tragic perhaps but only in a rather weak, pathetic sort
of
way; an Edward II in fact. But again the experience of reading
and
seeing the play tells us quite plainly that he is not that.
There
are also a kind of strength and a kind of attractiveness.
Both
reside in the quality of his imagination. "Megalo-manical
fantasy"
is [the critic] Kirschbaum's phrase for this imagination, and it
is
a fair objective analysis of the "diseased ego," a "case" in
the
psychologist's notebook: but it is also remarkably deaf or blind
to
the beauty of the lines in which the "case" expresses himself.
Let
us take the most famous speech of all, Faustus' address to
the
spirit-Helen of Troy.... What is in the foreground is poetry
of
exceptional radiance and beauty: moreover, a fervour of spirit
and
responsiveness to the presence of beauty that are powerful
and
infectious.
-J. B. Steane, "Introduction"
to
Christopher Marlowe: The Complete Plays,
1969
ON FAUSTUS AND
MEPHISTOPHILIS
After the scholars have left, the mockery of
Mephistophilis
administers a last turn of the screw: "'Twas I, that when thou wert
i'
the way to heaven, Damned up thy passage; when thou tookst the book
To
view the scriptures, then I turned the leaves And led thine
eye."
Faustus weeps. It is a terrifying speech, recoiling on our
whole
experience of the play. But without it the exploration of
the
mystery of evil would not be complete; it is the dramatic
equivalent
of the gospel's equally disturbing, "Then entered Satan into
Judas."
From one point of view the play's devils are only symbols of
"aspiring
pride and insolence," and it is simply Faustus's wilful pride
that
turned the leaves and led his
eye.
-J. P. Brockbank, Marlowe: Dr. Faustus,
1962
Faustus has in Mephistophilis an alter ego who is both a demon and
a
Damon. The man has an extraordinary affection for the spirit,
the
spirit a mysterious attraction to the man. Mephistophilis should
not
be confused with Goethe's sardonic nay-sayer; neither is he
an
operatic villain nor a Satanic tempter. He proffers no
tempting
speeches and dangles no enticements; Faustus tempts himself
and
succumbs to temptations which he alone has conjured up.
What
Mephistophilis really approximates, with his subtle insight and
his
profound sympathy, is the characterization of Porfiry, the
examining
magistrate in Dostoevsky's Crime and
Punishment.
The dialogues between Faustus and Mephistophilis resemble
those
cat-and-mouse interrogations in which Porfiry teaches the wouldbe
criminal, Raskolnikov, to accuse and convict
himself.
-Harry Levin, The Overreacher,
1964
ON THE MESSAGE OF THE
PLAY
If he had lived longer, perhaps Marlowe might have written a play
of
true Christian affirmation, but he did not do so in
Doctor
Faustus... though in that play, he seemed to be moving closer
than
ever to traditional
Christianity.
-Ronald Ribner, "Marlowe's 'Tragicke Glasse,'"
1961
No doubt, he (Marlowe) yearns all the more avidly with
Faustus,
but with Faustus he condemns himself; the Good Angel and the Old
Man
are at liberty, while Mephistophilis is in perpetual fetter. Yet,
it
is just at this point that Marlowe abandons his preoccupation
with
unfettered soaring, and seems to submit himself to ideas of
durance,
torment, and constraint. If he is imaginatively identified with
any
character, it is no longer Faustus; it is Mephistophilis,
who
suffers with Faustus like a second self yet also plays the
cosmic
ironist, wise in his guilty knowledge and powerful in his
defeated
rebellion.
-Harry Levin, The Overreacher,
1964
ADVISORY_BOARD
ADVISORY BOARD
(MDRFADVB)
We wish to thank the following educators who helped us focus
our
Book Notes series to meet student needs and critiqued
our
manuscripts to provide quality
materials.
Sandra Dunn, English
Teacher
Hempstead High School, Hempstead, New
York
Lawrence J. Epstein, Associate Professor of
English
Suffolk County Community College, Selden, New
York
Leonard Gardner, Lecturer, English
Department
State University of New York at Stony
Brook
Beverly A. Haley, Member, Advisory
Committee
National Council of Teachers of English Student Guide
Series
Fort Morgan,
Colorado
Elaine C. Johnson, English
Teacher
Tamalpais Union High School
District
Mill Valley,
California
Marvin J. LaHood, Professor of
English
State University of New York College at
Buffalo
Robert Lecker, Associate Professor of
English
McGill University, Montreal, Quebec,
Canada
David E. Manly, Professor of Educational
Studies
State University of New York College at
Geneseo
Bruce Miller, Associate Professor of
Education
State University of New York at
Buffalo
Frank O'Hare, Professor of English and Director of
Writing
Ohio State University, Columbus,
Ohio
Faith Z. Schullstrom, Member of Executive
Committee
National Council of Teachers of
English
Director of Curriculum and
Instruction
Guilderland Central School District, New
York
Mattie C. Williams, Director, Bureau of Language
Arts
Chicago Public Schools, Chicago,
Illinois
THE END OF BARRON'S BOOK
NOTES
CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE'S DOCTOR
FAUSTUS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(MDRFBIBL)
DOCTOR_FAUSTUS
FURTHER
READING
CRITICAL
WORKS
Bakeless, John. Christopher Marlowe. The Man and His Times.
New
York: Washington Square Press,
1937.
Boas, F. S. Christopher Marlowe. A Biographical and
Critical
Study. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1940.
-
Brockbank, J. P. Marlowe: Dr. Faustus. London: Edward Arnold
Ltd.,
1962.
Eliot, T. S. Selected Essays. New York: Harcourt, Brace &
World,
1964.
Fluchere, Henri. Shakespeare and the Elizabethans. New York:
Hill
and Wang,
1967.
Gregg, W. W. "The Damnation of Faustus," in The Modern
Language
Review,
1946.
Kirschbaum, Leo. "Marlowe's Faustus: A Reconsideration," in
Review
of English Studies,
1943.
Leech, Clifford, ed. Marlowe: A Collection of Critical
Essays.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,
1964.
Levin, Harry. The Overreacher. Boston: The Beacon Press,
1964.
Ribner, Ronald. "Marlowe's 'Tragicke Glasse,'" in
Furman
University Studies,
1961.
Sachs, Ariel. "The Religious Despair of Doctor Faustus,"
in
Journal of English and Germanic Philology,
1964.
Steane, J. B. Christopher Marlowe: The Complete Plays.
Baltimore:
Penguin Books,
1969.
Tillyard, E. M. W. The Elizabethan World Picture. New
York:
Vintage Books,
1959.
Weil, Judith. Christopher Marlowe. New York: Cambridge
University
Press,
1977.
AUTHOR'S OTHER
WORKS
Dido, Queen of Carthage (Date unknown, probably the earliest
play)
Tamburlaine the Great, Part I,
1587
Tamburlaine the Great, Part II,
1588
The Jew of Malta,
1591?
Edward II,
1592
The Massacre at Paris (Date
unknown)
Hero and Leander, 1593
(Unfinished)
THE END OF THE BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR BARRON'S BOOK
NOTES
CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE'S DOCTOR
FAUSTUS
1851
HERMAN
MELVILLE'S
MOBYDICK
by Peter
Fish
SERIES
EDITOR
Michael Spring,
Editor,
Literary Cavalcade, Scholastic
Inc.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to acknowledge the many painstaking hours of
work
Holly Hughes and Thomas F. Hirsch have devoted to making
the
Book Notes series a
success.
(C) Copyright 1984 by Barron's Educational Series,
Inc.
Electronically Enhanced Text (C) Copyright 1993, World Library,
Inc.
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
SECTION.......................... SEARCH
ON
THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES.................
MMOBAUTH
THE
NOVEL
The Plot.................................
MMOBPLOT
The Characters...........................
MMOBCHAR
Other
Elements
Setting.............................
MMOBSETT
Themes..............................
MMOBTHEM
Style...............................
MMOBSTYL
Point of View.......................
MMOBVIEW
Form and Structure..................
MMOBFORM
THE STORY................................
MMOBSTOR
A STEP
BEYOND
Tests and Answers........................
MMOBTEST
Term Paper Ideas.........................
MMOBTERM
Glossary.................................
MMOBGLOS
The Critics..............................
MMOBCRIT
Advisory Board...........................
MMOBADVB
Bibliography.............................
MMOBBIBL
AUTHOR_AND_HIS_TIMES
THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES
(MMOBAUTH)
On a January morning in 1841, a twenty-one-year-old man stood on
the
docks of the New Bedford, Massachusetts, harbor. Poverty had
forced
him to abandon his schooling to help support his family, but he
had
not found happiness as a farmer, schoolteacher, or bank clerk.
Two
years before, he had shipped out as a sailor on a merchant ship,
and
that job hadn't pleased him any better than the others.
Still,
something about the sea must have called him back, for here he
was
about to board another ship, the whaler Acushnet, bound from
New
Bedford round Cape Horn to the South
Pacific.
It was a voyage that would change the young man's life, and
change
American literature as well. The man standing on the New Bedford
docks
was Herman Melville, and his four years at sea provided him with
the
raw material for a career's worth of books, one of them a
masterpiece:
MobyDick.
Melville was an unlikely candidate to become a sailor. He was
born
on August 1, 1819, into a well-off, religious New York family
whose
sons by rights should have found careers in business or in law
offices
rather than aboard ships. But Melville's comfortable childhood
ended
all too soon. When he was ten his father's import business failed,
and
that failure drove his father to madness and, two years later,
to
death. The Melvilles sank into genteel poverty, dependent on
money
doled out by richer relatives and on the earnings of Herman and
his
brothers. These were the pressures that helped drive Melville,
like
Moby-Dick's narrator, Ishmael, to
sea.
The history of Melville's time at sea reads very much like
an
adventure story. In fact, it reads very much like Melville's own
early
books, and for good reason, since they are largely
autobiographical.
His first year on the Acushnet seemed happy enough, but by July
of
1842 he had grown sick of his captain's bad temper. With a
companion
he jumped ship at Nuku Hiva in the Marquesas Islands, hoping to
find
refuge with a tribe known to be friendly to sailors. The pair
got
lost; they wound up not with the friendly tribe but with the
Typees,
reputed to be cannibals. While the Typees treated their
American
guests well enough, their reputation made Melville's stay a
nervous
one, and after four weeks he escaped with the help of the crew of
an
Australian whaling ship, the Lucy Ann. The Lucy Ann was
little
improvement over the Acushnet, however- her captain was
incompetent,
her first mate alcoholic- and when she reached Tahiti, Melville
and
other crew members plotted a revolt. Found out, they were thrown
in
jail. Eventually Melville escaped, made his way to Honolulu, and
there
enlisted in the United States Navy, serving on the frigate
United
States, which brought him back to Boston in October,
1844.
Melville was now twenty-five and seemed no closer to finding
a
--------------------------------------------------------Electronically Enhanced Text (C) Copyright 1991 - 1993 World
Library, Inc.
Doctor Faustus
Christopher Marlowe
THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES
If you met Christopher Marlowe, you might not like him. But you would probably be
fascinated by him. Marlowe was a fiery genius whose brief career resembled the trail of a
meteor across the night sky.
Marlowe was not just a writer. A hot-headed swordsman, he was arrested twice for street
fighting and spent some weeks in prison for his role in a fatal duel. He was also a spy, involved
in a dangerous, though not fully understood, ring of secret agents.
At one extreme, Marlowe was a social climber who hobnobbed with the rich and powerful of
his day. He was friend to Sir Francis Walsingham, head of the government's secret service.
And he knew Sir Walter Raleigh, Queen Elizabeth's favorite at court. At the other extreme,
Marlowe had a taste for London low life. He haunted the taverns till dawn in the company of
thieves and confidence men.
Marlowe combined a thirst for adventure with wildly speculative opinions. In Elizabethan
times, when church attendance was strictly enforced by law, Marlowe was an atheist. Like
Faustus, he scoffed openly at established beliefs. He called the biblical Moses "a juggler," or
second-rate magician, and referred to Christ as a not-so-pious fraud.
Not surprisingly, when Marlowe died at 29- stabbed through the eye in a tavern brawl- many
people saw in his fate the hand of an angry God. But let's start at the beginning.
Marlowe was born in 1564, two months before William Shakespeare, in the cathedral town of
Canterbury. He was a shoemaker's son and, in the normal course of events, would have taken
up his father's trade. Destiny intervened, however, in the form of a college scholarship. In the
sixteenth century, even more than in the present day, college was a way out of a laborer's life. It
opened up the path of advancement, presumably within the church.
Today, we think of education as a universal right. But in those days, it was a privilege. The
ability to read- which meant the ability to read Latin- was still a rare accomplishment. In fact,
under English common law, any man who could read was considered a priest and could claim,
if arrested, a right called "benefit of clergy." That meant, if you killed a man and could read,
you might go free with a warning. But if you killed a man and couldn't read, you were sure to
swing from the gallows.
In the sixteenth century, as you will see in Doctor Faustus, there was still something magical
about books and people who could read them. That's why, when Marlowe was offered a
scholarship by the Archbishop of Canterbury, he probably jumped at the chance. In 1581 the
promising youth left home to attend Cambridge University.
Cambridge fed Marlowe's hungry mind, even while it vexed his spirit. The university library
was one of the world's finest. Good books were still scarce and expensive. The shoemaker's
household would have had its Bible and some collections of sermons. But the Cambridge
library shelves were lined with leather-bound classics, those works of ancient Greece and
Rome that the Renaissance found so illuminating. Aristotle's studies of Nature, Homer's
magnificent epics, the Roman poet Ovid's frank celebrations of love- they were all there, and
Marlowe read them avidly along with maps that showed him the exotic places of the world.
The books and the library were part of the luxury offered by Cambridge. But there was an
oppressive side, too, to university life. Cambridge in those years was a training ground for the
ministry, its graduates destined to be clergymen or schoolmasters. Piety and sobriety were the
virtues promoted in its cold stone halls. Cambridge scholars slept in communal dormitories,
took their bread at the buttery (a sort of feudal cafeteria), and wore, by regulation, simple wool
caps and gowns. Innocent pastimes like swimming were forbidden and subject to severe
punishment. In short, despite occasional high-jinks, the lives of the students were not so
different from those of medieval monks.
There was a basic contradiction in all this, a contradiction that lies at the heart of Doctor
Faustus. The classics which these young men were reading beckoned them toward the world
and the pleasures of the senses. But to stay at Cambridge and to study these books, the young
men had to appear to be devout ministers-in-training. As Faustus puts it, they were "divines in
show."
A whole generation broke under the strain. They fled the Cambridge cloister and descended on
London to earn a precarious living by writing. These were the so-called University Wits. And
Marlowe would soon join them, for he, too, was in rebellion against the religious demands of
Cambridge.
While studying for his master's degree, Marlowe wrote plays in secret (plays were viewed as
the devil's work by the church), and he became involved in some colorful espionage activities.
In a flagrant breach of the rules, Marlowe stayed absent for months at a time, traveling on the
Continent on some deep business of the Privy Council's. (The Privy Council was a body of
advisors to the queen, a sort of unofficial Cabinet.)
The Cambridge authorities moved to expel Marlowe, but a grateful government intervened.
The university dons, their arms gently twisted by the Privy Council, awarded Marlowe the
highly respected Master of Arts degree in 1587. With two university degrees (a bachelor's and
a master's) under his belt, the shoemaker's son was entitled to style himself Christopher
Marlowe, gentleman. No small matter in class-conscious England, then or now.
His studies behind him, Marlowe left for London, where he joined the circle of bright and
ambitious university renegades: Thomas Nashe, John Lyly, Robert Greene. Marlowe and the
rest headed for the theater with a sense of exhilaration. In London of the 1580s, the drama was
just springing to life.
The first theaters were being built- the Curtain, the Rose- legitimate places for plays that had
previously been performed in innyards. The first acting companies were being formed- the
Lord Admiral's Men, the Lord Chamberlain's Men- as the players, frowned upon by the church,
sought the service and protection of the great lords.
Marlowe, an innovator, thrived in this stimulating environment. He threw himself into the new
theater with enthusiasm. He took lodgings in Shoreditch, the theatrical district on the outskirts
of town, and roomed for a while with Thomas Kyd, the author of the popular Spanish Tragedy.
Marlowe worked for the hard-headed theater owner, Philip Henslowe, and wrote plays for the
Lord Admiral's Men and their great star, Edward Alleyn. In the process, Marlowe's fertile brain
and fiery spirit helped give shape and form to what we now call Elizabethan drama.
The main gift Marlowe gave to the theater was its language. As you probably know from your
study of Shakespeare, Elizabethan playwrights wrote in blank verse or iambic pentameter.
(Iambic pentameter meant that the verse line had five feet, each composed of a weak and a
strong syllable.) Marlowe didn't invent blank verse, but he took a form that had been stilted and
dull and he breathed fresh life and energy into it. It was Marlowe who made blank verse a
supple and expressive dramatic instrument.
When Marlowe arrived in London, he took the theatrical world by storm. He was new to the
stage, but within months, he was its master. He was admired, imitated, and envied, as only the
wildly successful can be.
His first play was Tamburlaine (1587), the tale of a Scythian shepherd who took to the sword
and carved out a vast empire. Audiences held their breath as Tamburlaine rolled across stage in
a chariot drawn by kings he had beaten in battle. Tamburlaine cracked his whip and cried,
"Hola, ye pampered jades of Asia!" (Jades meant both worn-out horses and luxury-satiated
monarchs.) This was electrifying stuff which packed the theaters and made ruthless conquerors
the rage of London.
Marlowe had a terrific box-office sense, and he kept on writing hits as fast as his company
could stage them. In 1588 came Tamburlaine II and then, probably in 1591, The Jew of Malta,
the story of a merchant as greedy for riches as Tamburlaine was for crowns. Gold wasn't good
enough for the Jew of Malta. That merchant longed for priceless gems and unimaginable
wealth. No warrior, the Jew of Malta's weapons in his battle with life were policy and guile. He
set a new style in dramatic characters, the Machiavellian villain. (These villains were named
for Nicholas Machiavelli, the Italian author of a cynical guide for princes.)
Faustus was either Marlowe's second or last tragic hero. Some scholars believe Doctor Faustus
was written in 1590, before The Jew of Malta. Others date the play from 1592, the last year of
Marlowe's life. In either case, Faustus completed the circle of heroes with superhuman
aspirations. Where Tamburlaine sought endless rule, and the Jew of Malta fabulous wealth,
Faustus pursued limitless knowledge.
Like Tamburlaine, Faustus had a powerful impact on Elizabethan theatergoers. For audiences
who flocked to see him, Marlowe's black magician combined the incredible powers of Merlin
with the spine-chilling evil of Dracula. We know the thrill of horror that swept through
spectators of Doctor Faustus since there are records of performances called to a halt, when the
startled citizens of London thought they saw a real devil on stage.
Marlowe's tragic heroes share a sense of high destiny, an exuberant optimism, and a fierce
unscrupulousness in gaining their ends. They've been called "overreachers" because of their
refusal to accept human limitations. Humbly born, all of Marlowe's tragic heroes climb to lofty
heights before they die or are humbled by the Wheel of Fortune.
Did Marlowe share the vaulting ambitions of his characters, their lust for power, riches, and
knowledge? In dealing with a dramatist who wears a mask, it's always dangerous to make
assumptions. But the slim facts and plentiful rumors that survive about Marlowe suggest a
fireeating
rebel who was not about to let tradition stand in his way.
All his life, Marlowe thumbed his nose at convention. Expected to be first a cobbler, then a
clergyman, he defied expectations and chose instead the glamorous world of the theater.
Lacking wealth and a title- the passports to high society- he nevertheless moved in brilliant,
aristocratic circles. In the shedding of humble origins, in the upward thrust of his life, Marlowe
was very much a Renaissance man.
Free of the restraints of Cambridge, Marlowe emerged in London as a religious subversive.
There are hints of forbidden pleasures ("All that love not tobacco and boys were fools," he
quipped) and more than hints of iconoclasm. Marlowe is said to have joined a circle of
freethinkers
known as the School of Night. This group, which revolved around Sir Walter Raleigh,
indulged in indiscreet philosophic discussion and allegedly in blasphemies concerning the
name of God.
Marlowe was blasted from the pulpit, and eventually his unorthodoxy landed him in trouble
with the secular authorities. In 1593 he was summoned before the Privy Council, presumably
on charges of atheism. (In Elizabethan times, atheism was a state offense with treasonous
overtones.) Though Marlowe's death forestalled the inquiry, the furor was just beginning.
Two days after Marlowe was killed, an informer named Richard Baines submitted to the
authorities a document concerning Marlowe's "damnable judgment of religion." Baines
attributed eighteen statements to Marlowe, some attacking Jesus, others the Bible and the
church. A sample comment of Marlowe's was that "if the Jews, among whom Christ was born,
crucified him, they knew him best." By implication, they knew what he deserved. The
document ends with Baines' charge that Marlowe failed to keep his outrageous opinions to
himself, touting them all over London. In addition, Marlowe's sometime roommate, Thomas
Kyd, who was also arrested and tortured, accused Marlowe of having written atheistic tracts
that were found in Kyd's possession, when his house was searched.
The evidence against Marlowe is suspect or hearsay. But with so much smoke, there may have
been fire. Some scholars think that Marlowe leapt at the Faustus story because it gave him a
chance to vent his godless beliefs under cover of a play with a safe moral ending. Yet other
scholars point to the damnation of Faustus as evidence that Marlowe was moving away from
atheism- indeed, that he was moving toward Christianity, even though he never quite arrived
there. Was Marlowe beginning to be frightened by his audacity? Was he mellowing with the
approach of middle age? Or was God-defiance and a youthful faith in glorious human
possibility simply his life-long credo?
These questions have no answers, for Marlowe's life and writing career were cut short in May
1593. After spending a day closeted with secret agents in a Deptford tavern, Marlowe quarreled
with one of them- Ingram Friser- over the bill. Marlowe pulled out a dagger and hit Friser over
the head with its flat end. In the ensuing scuffle, Friser got hold of the dagger and thrust its
point deep into Marlowe's eye. The playwright died of brain injuries three days later, "died
swearing" according to the gratified London preachers.
We can only speculate as to what heights Marlowe might have climbed as a dramatist, had he
lived. He spent six astonishingly productive years in London. Had Shakespeare, his
contemporary, died at the same age, he would have written very few of the plays for which he
is loved today.
THE PLAY
[Doctor Faustus Contents] [The Study Web Home Page]
[Christopher Marlowe quotes]
© Copyright 1985 by Barron's Educational Series, Inc.
Electronically Enhanced Text © Copyright 1993, World Library, Inc.
Doctor Faustus
Christopher Marlowe
THE PLAY
THE PLOT
If you are interested in the world of the occult, you'll like this play. Doctor Faustus is a drama
about a famous scholar who sells his soul to the devil in exchange for magical powers. It is a
play which has come down to us over the centuries in two different versions (see the beginning
of the section on The Story). Events found in the 1616 text, but missing from the 1604, are
marked here with an asterisk (*).
In Doctor Faustus, as in many Elizabethan plays, the main plot centers on the tragic hero, while
a subplot offers comic relief.
Dr. John Faustus, the renowned scholar of Wittenberg, has closeted himself in his study to
decide his future career. Law, medicine, theology- he has mastered them all. And he finds them
all dissatisfying.
Faustus wants a career to match the scope of his ambition, a subject to challenge his enormous
intellect. So he turns to necromancy, or black magic, which seems to offer him godlike powers.
He knows, however, that it involves forbidden traffic with demons.
Faustus summons Valdes and Cornelius, two accomplished magicians, to instruct him in the art
of conjuring. That night, in the midst of a crashing thunderstorm, Faustus raises up the demon
spirit, Mephistophilis. Faustus proposes a bargain. He will give his immortal soul to the devil
in exchange for twenty-four years of magic and merry-making.
Mephistophilis procrastinates. Reconsider, he advises Faustus. You really don't know what you
are getting into. Besides, Mephistophilis does not have the power to conclude such an
agreement. He is only a servant to Lucifer, the prince of hell. Faustus orders him to speak with
Lucifer, so Mephistophilis quickly flies off to the nether regions.
While waiting for the spirit to return, Faustus has second thoughts. Is it too late to pull back
from the abyss? Never too late, counsels the Good Angel, who suddenly appears before
Faustus' eyes. Too late, whispers the Evil Angel, who advises Faustus to think of fame and
wealth. Wealth! The very word makes Faustus catch fire. Hesitation flies out the window as
Mephistophilis flies in with Lucifer's reply.
The prince of hell will grant Faustus' wish, provided that Faustus sign over his soul in a deed of
gift. Lucifer wants a contract to make sure he isn't cheated. The contract must be written in
Faustus' own blood.
In compliance with Lucifer's demand, Faustus stabs his arm, only to find that his blood has
mysteriously frozen in his veins. Mephistophilis comes running with hot coals to warm
Faustus' blood, and it starts flowing again. The contract is completed, and the moment of crisis
past. Mephistophilis provides a show to divert Faustus' thoughts. He calls for devils who enter
with a crown and royal robes. They dance around Faustus, delighting him with the thought that
he can summon such spirits at any time.
Now that the bargain is sealed, Faustus is eager to satisfy his passionate curiosity and appetites.
He wants answers to questions that surge in his brain about the stars and the heavenly spheres.
He also wants a wife to share his bed.
Faustus' demands are met in typically hellish fashion. Mephistophilis' revelations about the
stars turn out to be no more than elementary assumptions of medieval astronomy. And the wife
provided Faustus by the spirit is a female demon who bursts onto the stage in a hot spray of
fireworks.
Faustus becomes wary. He suspects he has sold his soul for a cheap bag of tricks. The
disillusioned scholar falls into bitterness and despair. He curses Mephistophilis and ponders
suicide.
Faustus makes a futile stab at repentance. He prays desperately to God, only to have Lucifer
appear before him. As a confirmation of Faustus' bondage to hell, they watch a parade of the
Seven Deadly Sins. Pride leads Avarice, Gluttony, and the rest, as each brandishes his own
special weakness of the soul or flesh.
Casting aside all further thoughts of repentance, Faustus gives himself up to the distractions
that Mephistophilis puts in his way. Through travel and visits to foreign courts, Faustus seeks
to enjoy himself in the time he has left on earth.
Mephistophilis takes Faustus to Rome and to the private chambers of the Pope. The two
become invisible and play practical jokes until a planned papal banquet breaks up in disarray.
Then it's on to the German Emperor's court, where they entertain his majesty by raising the
ghost of Alexander the Great.
* At the Emperor's court, a skeptical knight voices his doubts about Faustus' magic powers.
The magician takes revenge by making a pair of stag horns grow on the knight's head. Faustus
follows this prank with another. He sells a crafty horse-dealer a demon horse which vanishes
when it is ridden into water.
In the meantime, Faustus' experiments with magic are being imitated by his household staff.
Faustus' servant, Wagner, tries his own hand at conjuring by summoning two comic devils who
force the clown, Robin, into Wagner's service.
Not to be outdone, Robin steals one of Faustus' conjuring books. In his dimwitted way, he tries
to puzzle out the spells. The real magic is that Robin's spell works! A weary Mephistophilis,
summoned from Constantinople, rises up before the startled clown. In anger, the spirit turns
Robin into an ape and his sidekick, Dick, into a dog.
* The transformed clowns and the horse-dealer meet in a nearby tavern, where they swap
stories about the injuries they have suffered at Faustus' hand. Tipsy with ale, they descend on
the castle of Vanholt, where Faustus is busy entertaining the Duke and Duchess with his
fabulous magic tricks. The magician produces for the pregnant Duchess an out-of-season
delicacy she craves- wintertime grapes.
* Faustus wins an easy victory over the rowdy crew from the tavern, striking each of them
dumb in turn. He then returns to Wittenberg, in a more sober frame of mind, to keep his
rendezvous with fate.
Faustus' mind has turned toward death. He has made a will, leaving his estate to Wagner. Yet
he still holds feverishly onto life. He drinks and feasts far into the night with the dissolute
scholars of Wittenberg. And, in a last magnificent conjuring trick, he raises the shade (spirit) of
the most beautiful woman in history, Helen of Troy.
At the end of his career, poised between life and death, Faustus undergoes a last crisis of
conscience. An Old Man appears to plead with Faustus to give up his magic art. God is
merciful, the Old Man promises. He will yet pardon Faustus and fill his heart with grace.
The magician hesitates, visibly moved by the Old Man's chastening words. But Mephistophilis
is too quick for him. The spirit threatens Faustus with torture, if he reneges on his contract with
Lucifer. At the same time, Mephistophilis promises to reward Faustus with Helen of Troy, if he
keeps faith with hell. Faustus collapses under the pressure. He orders Mephistophilis to torture
the Old Man. (Anyone, anyone but himself.) And he takes the insubstantial shade of Helen for
his lover. In doing so, he is lost.
The final hour approaches. As the minutes tick away, Faustus tries frantically to stop the clock.
Give him one more month, one more week, one more day to repent, he cries. But the hours
chime away. Midnight strikes. The devil arrives through billowing smoke and fire, and Faustus
is led away to hell.
* In the morning, the scholars of Wittenberg find Faustus' body. They deplore his evil fate, but
honor him for his learning. For the black magician who might have been a light unto the world,
they plan a stately funeral.
[Doctor Faustus Contents]
THE CHARACTERS
l FAUSTUS
It is no accident that Faustus compares himself to a colossus (IV, VII). Marlowe's hero
looms out of the play like some huge, jagged statue. There is far too much of him to
take in at a glance.
Make any simple statement about Faustus, and you'll find you are only talking about
part of the man. Faustus lends himself less than most characters to easy generalization.
Say, for instance, that Faustus is a scholar. Books are his trade, philosophy his strength.
Yet what an unscholarly scholar he is! At times during the play, he kicks up his heels
and romps about the stage just like a comedian who has never heard of philosophy in his
life.
Or say that Faustus is an atheist. He scoffs at religion and denies the existence of God.
But, at one of the play's most dramatic moments, you see Faustus fall to his knees in a
fervent prayer of contrition to Christ.
Perhaps we should take our cue from such contradictory behavior and seek the key to
Faustus in contradiction. Clearly he's a man of many inner conflicts. Here are three for
you to think about:
1. Some people sense an age-old conflict in Faustus between his body and his
mind. To these readers, Faustus is a noble intellect, destroyed by his grosser
appetites. In this interpretation, Faustus' tragedy is that he exchanges the
worthwhile pursuit of knowledge for wine, women, and song. Faustus not only
burns in hell for his carnal ways, he pays a stiffer price: loss of his tragic dignity.
2. Other readers see Faustus' conflict in historical terms. Faustus lives in a time of
the Middle Ages and the start of the Renaissance. These were two very different
historical eras with quite different values, and Faustus is caught in the grip of
changing times. On the one hand, he is very aware of the admonitions of the
medieval church- don't seek to know too much, learn contempt for this world,
and put your energy into saving your soul. On the other hand, Faustus hears
Renaissance voices which tell him just the opposite. Extend the boundaries of
human knowledge. Seek wealth and power. Live this life to the full because
tomorrow you'll be dead. (This theme of "eat, drink, and be merry for tomorrow
we die" is known as carpe diem or seize the day. It was a popular theme in the
Renaissance.)
3. Still other readers see Faustus torn between superhuman aspirations and very
human limitations. Faustus dreams that magic will make him a god. In his early
dealing with Mephistophilis, he talks about himself as if he were a king. He
gives commands, dictates terms, and fancies himself on a par with Lucifer, the
dreaded regent of hell. Faustus is willing to sign a contract which will free him
from human restraints for twenty-four years. During that time, he will have a
spirit's body that can soar free of the earth, a body immune from the ravages of
old age and time. Yet, even as he signs the contract, Faustus somehow knows
that he is only human. His body warns him to flee and addresses him, in no
uncertain terms, as "man."
The contrast between Faustus' hopes and his realities is very great indeed. The
man who was to have been a king grovels like a slave before Lucifer. The "god"
who was to have escaped from time watches powerless as the last hour of his life
ticks away. Because of the great distance between Faustus' dreams and
achievements, he strikes some readers as a wretch, an immature egotist who cries
like a child when the universe won't let him have his way.
Indeed, all three interpretations of Faustus present you with a challenge and a question.
Which emerges most strongly from the play: Faustus' noble mind, his soaring
Renaissance aspirations, his superhuman dreams? Or Faustus' gross appetites, his sins
against God, his very human terrors? Somewhere between the super-hero and the lowly
wretch, you will find your own truth about Faustus.
l MEPHISTOPHILIS
There are two sides to Mephistophilis. One of these spirits is an evil, malevolent
tempter. He wants Faustus' soul and stops at nothing to get it. This Mephistophilis lies
to Faustus, manipulates him with threats of torture, and jeers at him when his final hour
has come:
What, weepst thou? 'tis too late: despair. Farewell.
Fools that will laugh on earth must weep in hell.
The second spirit has a sweeter nature. He's a reluctant demon who would spare Faustus
if he could. This Mephistophilis offers no enticements. He watches, in quiet distress,
while Faustus damns himself. When summoned during the night by Faustus'
blasphemous conjurings, the spirit does not seize the soul that is offered to him. Instead,
he urges Faustus away from his contemplated deal with hell:
O Faustus, leave these frivolous demands
Which strike a terror to my fainting soul.
Which is the real Mephistophilis? It isn't easy to say. You can put your trust in
Mephistophilis' better nature and see him as a kind of guardian spirit. You'll find
evidence in the play that Mephistophilis cares for Faustus and feels a strong attraction to
the man. He calls his charge "My Faustus," and flies to his side with eagerness. He is a
companion in Faustus' adventures and is also Faustus' comforter. The spirit sympathizes
when Faustus is sick with longing for heaven. And he goes out of his way to console the
scholar with the thought that heaven isn't such a great loss after all.
Mephistophilis understands Faustus in ways that suggest they are two of a kind. He's
been called Faustus' alter ego. And you get the feeling that he sees himself in Faustus as
he was eons before- a proud young angel who marched with Lucifer against God, only
to see his hopes of glory dashed when Lucifer's rebellion failed.
It's possible that, when Mephistophilis threatens Faustus, he is merely doing his job. The
spirit isn't free to do what he likes. He is Lucifer's man. Mephistophilis has counseled
Faustus against making a deal with hell. But once that deal is made, the spirit has no
choice but to hold Faustus to it.
On the other hand, you may feel that Mephistophilis shows more enthusiasm than the
job requires. In that case, you can see the spirit as Faustus' evil genius. And
Mephistophilis' understanding of Faustus becomes a potent weapon in his hands.
The spirit, for instance, knows just what cleverly worded promises to make to get
Faustus' signature on the dotted line. He tells Faustus, "I will... wait on thee, and give
thee more than thou has wit to ask." That promise turns out to be true, but not in the way
that Faustus has reason to expect. What Mephistophilis gives Faustus is an eternity of
torment, not the limitless power that Faustus imagines.
Mephistophilis is a trickster. When Faustus asks for a wife, the spirit provides one- a
demon too hot to touch. When Faustus asks for information about the stars,
Mephistophilis gives him facts which the scholar already knows. In his own hellish
fashion, Mephistophilis abides by the letter, not the spirit, of the contract. He obeys
Faustus' commands without fulfilling his wishes. The spirit makes sure that Faustus
pays full price for relatively shoddy goods.
Is Mephistophilis a brilliant schemer who plots the damning of Faustus? Or is he a
reluctant actor in the tragedy? It's up to you to decide.
l WAGNER
Wagner is not happy in his role as a servant. He's sufficiently educated to regard himself
as a scholar, and he's eager to prove his prowess in logical dispute. If you read between
the lines, you begin to suspect that Wagner has a secret yen to wear a professor's robes
and sit as king of the roost in Faustus' study.
Yet there is a more faithful side to Wagner. He serves his master loyally. He shields his
master from the prying eyes of tattle-tale clerics. And he takes the trouble to track
Faustus down on the road with an invitation to the castle of Vanholt. (Wagner knows
very well that his master likes to preen in front of the nobility.) What's more, Wagner is
Faustus' heir. Faustus probably wouldn't leave his money to Wagner except as a "thank
you" for years of good service.
Some readers think Wagner is foolish. But there's every indication he's really rather
clever. He dabbles in magic and conjures demons without going to hell. Wagner
watches carefully as his master gets snared by the devil. He manages to skirt by the
same trap without getting caught.
l VALDES AND CORNELIUS
Valdes and Cornelius usher in the era of wizardry at Wittenberg. By introducing magic
to the university, they, play a minor role in tempting Faustus. Valdes seems the bolder
of the pair. He dreams of a glorious association with Faustus and has himself overcome
the scruples of conscience that await the would-be magician. Cornelius is more timid,
content to dabble in magic rather than practice it in earnest. "The spirits tell me they can
dry the sea," Cornelius says, never having ventured to try the experiment.
l ROBIN
With his stirrings of ambition and his hapless attempts at conjuring, Robin, the clown, is
a sort of minor Wagner. He's yet another servant who follows his master into devilry.
Like most of the characters in the play, Robin is an upstart. He regards himself as
destined for higher things than service in an innyard. In particular, magic turns his head.
Intoxicated with the thought of commanding demons, Robin turns impudent. He gets
drunk on the job and boasts of seducing his master's wife.
l THE OLD MAN
The Old Man is a true believer in God and is the one human being in the play with a
profound religious faith. He walks across the stage with his eyes fixed on heaven, which
is why he sees angels visible to no one else. With his singleness of purpose, the Old
Man is an abstraction, rather than a flesh-and-blood character. (Appropriately, he has no
name.) His role is to serve as a foil for Faustus. His saintly path is the road not taken by
Marlowe's hero.
l LUCIFER
There's something compelling about the prince of hell, a fallen angel who once dared to
revolt against God. Formerly bright as sunlight, Lucifer's now a dark lord who holds
sway over a mighty kingdom. Yet there's something coarse about him, too. Lucifer's
regal image is tarnished by association with creatures like the Seven Deadly Sins and
that jokester, Belzebub. The grandeur of ambition, the grossness of sin- these two
aspects of Lucifer are reflected in his servants.
l BENVOLIO
A courtier, Benvolio takes the world with a blase yawn and a skeptical sneer. You can't
fool him, but he can outwit himself. He does so by rashly challenging the powers of hell
on two occasions.
l THE HORSE COURSER
Horse coursers or traders were the Elizabethan equivalents of our used-car salesmen.
That is, they were known for being cheats. Marlowe's horse courser is no exception. A
sharp bargainer, he beats down the price of Faustus' horse. And when the horse proves
to be a spirit, he demands his money back. This hardy peasant is a survivor. l THE POPE
The Pope is the most worldly of priests, luxury-loving and power-hungry. The character
seems tailored to the Elizabethan image of the churchmen of Rome, and his defeat at
Faustus' hands was undoubtedly the occasion for roars of approval from a Catholichating
crowd.
[Doctor Faustus Contents]
OTHER ELEMENTS
SETTING
Doctor Faustus stands on the threshold of two eras- the Renaissance and the Middle Ages.
Some aspects of the setting are distinctly medieval. The world of Doctor Faustus, for example,
includes heaven and hell, as did the religious dramas of the medieval period. The play is lined
with supernatural beings, angels and demons, who might have stepped onstage right out of a
cathedral. Some of the background characters in Doctor Faustus are in fervent pursuit of
salvation, to which the Middle Ages gave top priority.
But the setting of Doctor Faustus is also a Renaissance setting. The time of the play is the Age
of Discovery, when word has just reached Europe of the existence of exotic places in the New
World. The atmosphere of Doctor Faustus is speculative. People are asking questions never
dreamed of in the Middle Ages, questions like, "Is there a hell?" Faustus himself is seized by
worldly, rather than otherworldly ambitions. He's far more concerned with luxurious silk
gowns and powerful war-machines than with saving his soul.
It's easy for us to talk as if there were a neat dividing line between the Middle Ages and the
Renaissance. But of course there isn't. People lived through a long period of transition in which
old and new ways of thinking existed side by side.
Transition is a key to the setting in Doctor Faustus. Specifically, the scene is Wittenberg, a
German university town in the grip of change. For almost a century before Faustus' time,
Wittenberg was a bastion of the Protestant faith. But now, religious certainties are being
challenged by new ideas. The students are more interested in Homer than in the Bible. The
younger men press forward toward forbidden knowledge, while the old men shake their heads
in dismay.
The tensions of the university are reflected in Faustus' study, where much of the play takes
place. The study is an uneasy room. At its center, on a great stand, lies the Bible. It is there to
remind Faustus of God. But the bookshelves contain works of ancient Greek writers which
suggest a more practical approach to life (Galen's guide to medicine, for example). The study
also contains maps which show Faustus exotic lands with their promise of new sensations. And
the scholar has recently added occult books, with their short cut to Nature's secrets.
The room gives off conflicting signals about a man on the verge of a great decision. Theology?
Science? A life of unabashed pleasure? Which shall it be? In this uncertain atmosphere,
Faustus struggles and fails to find his way. Even as he entertains bright Renaissance dreams, he
gets caught in the door that history is closing on the medieval age of faith.
THEMES
The following are major themes of Doctor Faustus.
1. AMBITION
Doctor Faustus is a study in ambition. Its hero is an "overreacher," a man who strives
against human limitations. Faustus tries to do more than is humanly possible. He seeks
to know, possess, and experience everything under the sun. There are two ways to read
Doctor Faustus: (1) The play glorifies ambition. Though Faustus is finally undone, his
dreams emerge larger than the forces that defeat him. (2) The play criticizes ambition.
Faustus falls to great depths from lofty heights. What's more, his larger-than-life dreams
are cut down to size by the pointed ironies of Mephistophilis.
2. CONCEPTS OF HELL
There are three different concepts of hell in this play. Faustus claims there is no hell.
Mephistophilis defines hell as the absence of God. The church says that hell is a pit of
fire, and that's where Faustus goes in the end. Why are there three hells instead of just
one? Perhaps Marlowe is exploring his own uncertain ideas. Or perhaps everyone finds
a hell of his own.
3. CHRISTIANS vs. CLASSIC IDEALS
Despite its pantheon of gods, the classical world believed in humanity. The ancient
Greeks extolled the perfection of the human body and the clarity of human thought. The
medieval church held almost the opposite view. In the eyes of the church, reason was
suspect and flesh was the devil's snare. Christian and classical beliefs clash in Doctor
Faustus. The classical ideals focus on beauty, which is exemplified in the play by Helen
of Troy. The Christian ideals are more severe and are personified by the Old Man.
Helen's beauty is not to be trusted, but the Old Man's counsel is sound, even if grim.
4. FREE WILL vs. DETERMINISM
A sense of doom hangs over Doctor Faustus, a sense that Faustus' damnation is
inevitable and has been decided in advance. Faustus struggles to repent, but he is
browbeaten by devils and barred from salvation by all the forces of hell. Nonetheless, it
is of his own volition that Faustus takes the first step toward evil. He makes a pact with
the devil to satisfy his lust for power. And in that sense, Faustus chooses his fate.
5. AN ATHEIST OR A CHRISTIAN PLAY?
On the surface, Doctor Faustus has a Christian moral. Faustus commits a mortal sin and
goes to hell for it. He denies God and is therefore denied God's mercy. Faustus is a
scoffer who gets a scoffer's comeuppance. No fire-and-brimstone preacher could have
put it better than Marlowe. If the surface moral is the true moral of the play....
There are reasons to be suspicious. Marlowe was known to be an atheist. Moreover, he
included a lot of blasphemy in the play. He seems to have taken an unholy glee in antireligious
ceremony. There is some powerful sacrilege in Doctor Faustus, half buried in
the Latin.
Was Marlowe trying to slip a subversive message past the censors? Or was he honestly
coming to grips with doubts about his own atheistic beliefs? If Marlowe knew the truth,
it died with him.
6. DIVERSIONS
Hell has a lot of interesting gimmicks to keep Faustus from thinking about death and
damnation. Devils provide distracting shows, fireworks, and pageants for his
entertainment. Soon Faustus catches on to the idea. He learns to preoccupy his own
mind by feasting, drinking, and playing pranks. All these diversions keep Faustus from
turning his attention to God and to the salvation of his soul. But is Faustus so different
from the rest of us? Perhaps Marlowe is saying that diversions are not only the pastimes
of hell. They are also the everyday business of life itself.
STYLE
Whenever you read a critical work on Marlowe, you are almost certain to find the writer
referring to "Marlowe's mighty line." That much-quoted phrase was coined by Ben Jonson, an
Elizabethan playwright, in a poetic tribute he wrote, not to Marlowe, but to Shakespeare. The
poem was a send-off to the first complete edition of Shakespeare's plays, published in 1623.
Here is what Ben Jonson had to say:
How far thou [Shakespeare] didst our Lyly outshine,
Or sporting Kyd, or Marlowe's mighty line.
And there Marlowe has stood through the ages, his name unflatteringly bracketed with
Shakespeare's. Marlowe the loud-voiced trumpet to Shakespeare's mellow violin.
Ben Jonson's left-handed compliment was fair enough in its way. Marlowe earned his
reputation as a loud-mouth. His heroes are boasters, not only in their aspirations, but also
through their language, which defies all limits.
You can see the mighty line at work in Doctor Faustus. When Faustus speaks of power, for
instance, he boasts of command over "all things that move between the quiet poles," dominion
that stretcheth as far as doth the mind of man." The literary term for extravagant, exaggerated
language like this is "hyperbole." And Marlowe exaggerates in many interesting ways. For
example, he likes exotic adjectives. "Pearl" alone won't do. He wants to convey the soft luster
of a rarer gem. So he reaches for a phrase that has an air of Eastern mystery to it. He writes of
the "orient pearl." Marlowe's giants are not merely large, they are "Lapland giants," huge,
furclad creatures from the frozen North who come running, with smoke on their breath, to obey
a magician's commands.
Marlowe has a fondness for dazzling heights and far-off vistas. In Doctor Faustus, he speaks of
the "topless towers" of Troy, towers so dizzyingly high they can't be climbed or assaulted. He
imagines spirits who will "ransack the ocean" floor and "search all corners of the new-found
world" for delicacies and treasure. This outward thrust of the language suggests space without
limits, space that gives his restless, searching heroes worlds to conquer and room to maneuver
in.
Marlowe likes the sound of large, round numbers. In Doctor Faustus, the figures tend to be
moderate: "A thousand ships," "a thousand stars." But elsewhere, the playwright deals
cavalierly in half-millions.
In addition, Marlowe makes impossible comparisons. Faustus is promised spirit-lovers more
beautiful than Venus, the queen of love. In fact, he is given Helen, who is brighter and more
luminous than a starlit sky.
The very use of Helen as a character suggests another of Marlowe's stylistic devices. He raids
the pantheon of classic gods and heroes for comparisons that reflect favorably on his own
protagonists. Helen steps out of the pages of the world's most famous epic straight into Faustus'
arms. And Alexander the Great appears at the snap of the magician's fingertips. Marlowe's
heroes don't seek to emulate famous figures. The ancient gods and warriors come to them.
Marlowe's use of hyperbole has a profound effect on your perception of Faustus, though you
may not be aware of it. Without the real magic of the language, Faustus would be a second-rate
magician. But with the poetry spinning its silken web, Faustus becomes a dreamer of real
magnitude. The language makes him a force to be reckoned with and gives him heroic stature.
ELIZABETHAN ENGLISH
The term "Elizabethan English" is often applied to the English of the period 1560-1620. It was
a time when English began to be used with vigor and growing confidence. Before Elizabeth I's
reign (1558-1603), Latin was the language of the Church, of education, of law, science,
scholarship, and international debate. English was regarded by many as an inferior language. It
had no fixed spelling, no officially sanctioned grammar, and no dictionaries. In the words of
one scholar, writing in 1561, "Our learned men hold opinion that to have the sciences in the
mother-tongue hurteth memory and hindereth learning."
During Elizabeth's reign, poetry, drama, and criticism in English flourished. Writers like
Edmund Spenser, Christopher Marlowe, and William Shakespeare helped to forge English into
a flexible medium capable of being used not only for the expression of local culture but also for
a translation of the Bible.
Language differences can occur even today between parents and their children. It is only to be
expected, therefore, that the English used some four hundred years ago will diverge markedly
from the English used today. The following information on Marlowe's language will help you
to understand Doctor Faustus.
l MOBILITY OF WORD CLASSES
Adjectives, nouns and verbs were less rigidly confined to particular classes in
Marlowe's day. For example, nouns could be used as verbs. In the first lines of the
Prologue, the Chorus says:
Not marching in the fields of Trasimene
Where Mars did mate the warlike Carthagens
using "mate" to mean "befriend." Nouns could also be used as adjectives as in Act I,
Scene I, when "orient" is used to mean "shining":
Ransack the ocean for orient pearl.
Adjectives could be used as adverbs. In Act II, Scene II, Faustus says to Lucifer, "This
will I keep as chary as my life," using "chary" where a modern speaker would require
"charily" or "carefully."
l CHANGES IN WORD MEANING
The meaning of words undergoes changes, a process that can be illustrated by the fact
that "silly" used to mean "holy" and "villain" referred to a "peasant." Many of the words
in Doctor Faustus are still an active part of our language today but their meanings have
changed. The change may be small as in the case of "dispute," which meant "debate,
discuss," as in:
Is to dispute well logic's chiefest end?
and "wit," which meant "understanding":
A greater subject fitteth Faustus' wit
The change could be more fundamental, so that "artisan" implied "student"; "cunning"
was the equivalent of "knowledgeable"; and "boots" meant "is worth" in:
What boots it then to think of God or heaven?
(Act II, Scene I)
l VOCABULARY LOSS
Words not only change their meanings but sometimes disappear from common usage. In
the past, "earm" meant "wretched" and "leod" meant "people." The following words
found in Doctor Faustus are no longer current in English, but their meaning can usually
be gauged from the context in which they occur.
AMAIN
at top speed
AND
if
ANON
immediately, soon
BELIKE
it would appear, probably
BESEEMS
suits, fits
BOTTLE
bundle
BREVIATED
cut short, abbreviated
BRIGHT-SPLENDENT
magnificent
CAITIFF
miserable person, wretch
COIL
turmoil, noisy row
COSMOGRAPHY
geography
COZENING
cheating
ELL
45 inches (103 centimeters)
ETERNIZED
made famous forever
FAIN
willingly, gladly
FAMILIARS
spirits. Old women's cats were often thought to be "familiars," devils in disguise.
FOOTMANSHIP
skill in running
GET
create, beget
GLUT
satisfy
GRAMERCIES
great thanks
GRATULATE
express pleasure at
GRAVELLED
confounded
HEST
command
LIST
wish, please
LOLLARDS
heretics
LUBBERS
clumsy men
MALMSEY
sweet wine
MUSCADINE
muscatel wine
PICKEDEVANTS
pointed beards
PROPER
own
PRITHEE
pray thee
PROPER
own
QUICK
alive
QUITTANCE
payment for
RAZE
cut, scratch
ROUSE
carousal, drinking bout
'SBLOOD
by God's blood
SIGNORY
lord, lordship
SITH
since
'SNAILS
by God's nails
STAVESACRE
insecticide
TERMINE
end, terminate
TESTER
small coin
THEREFOR
for this
THOROUGH
through
VARLETS
rascals
WELKIN
sky, heavens
WHATSO
whatever, whatsoever
WHIPPINCRUST
hippocras, cordial wine
'ZOUNDS
by God's wounds
In addition, Marlowe could have assumed much of his audience was familiar with Latin
and the Bible. This is why he could make use of such Latin tags as "Stipendium peccati
mors est," meaning "The wages of sin are death."
l VERBS
Elizabethan verb forms differ from modern usage in three main ways:
1. Questions and negatives could be formed without using "do/did," as when
Faustus asks:
Why waverest thou?
where today we would say: "Why do you hesitate?" Marlowe had the option of
using forms a and b whereas contemporary usage permits only the a forms:
ab
What do you see? What see you?
What did you see? What saw you?
You do not look well. You look not well.
You did not look well. You looked not well.
2. A number of past participles and past tense forms are used that would be
ungrammatical today. Among these are:
"writ" for "written":
...here's nothing writ.
(II, I)
"beholding" for "beholden":
...I am beholding
To the Bishop of Milan.
(III, II)
"cursen" for "accursed" and "eat" for "eaten":
...as I am a cursen man, he never left eating till he
had eat up all my load of hay.
(IV, VI)
3. Archaic verb forms sometimes occur:
No Faustus, they be but fables.
(II, II)
Thou art damned
(II, II)
Thou needest not do that, for my mistress hath done it.
(II, III)
l PRONOUNS
Marlowe and his contemporaries had the extra pronoun "thou," which could be used in
addressing equals or social inferiors. "You" was obligatory if more than one person was
addressed:
Come, German Valdes, and Cornelius
And make me blest with your sage conference.
(I, I)
It could also be used to indicate respect, as when Faustus tells the Emperor:
My gracious Lord, you do forget yourself.
(IV, I)
Frequently, a person in power used "thou" to a subordinate but was addressed "you" in
return, as when the Clown agrees to serve Wagner at the end of Act I, Scene IV.
Clown: I will, sir. But hark you, master, will you teach me this
conjuring occupation?
Wagner: Ay, sirrah, I'll teach thee to turn thyself to a dog.
Relative pronouns such as "which" or "that" could be omitted:
...'twas thy temptation
Hath robbed me of eternal happiness.
(V, II)
The royal plural "we" is used by the Pope, the Emperor, and Lucifer when they wish to
stress their power:
We will despise the Emperor for that deed.
(III, I)
Thrice-learned Faustus, welcome to our court.
(IV, II)
Thus from infernal Dis do we ascend.
(V, II)
l PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions were less standardized in Elizabethan English than they are today and so
we find several uses in Doctor Faustus that would have to be modified in contemporary
speech. Among these are:
"of" for "by" in:
Till, swollen with cunning of a self-conceit
(Prologue) - "of" for "from" in:
Resolve me of all ambiguities
(I, I)
"on" for "of" in:
Ay, take it, and the devil give thee good on't.
(II, I)
"of" for "on" in:
They put forth questions of astrology.
(IV, The Chorus)
"unto" for "into" in:
...and I be changed
Unto some brutish beast.
(V, II)
l MULTIPLE NEGATION
Contemporary English requires only one negative per statement and regards such
utterances as "I haven't none" as nonstandard. Marlowe often used two or more
negatives for emphasis. For instance, in
Why, thou canst not tell ne'er a word on it.
(II, III)
THE FAUST LEGEND AND MARLOWE
There really was a Faust, casting his magic spells about fifty years before Christopher Marlowe
wrote his play. Johannes Faustus, a German scholar of dubious reputation, flourished between
1480 and 1540. Some of his contemporaries spoke of him as a faker who lived by his wits, a
medieval swindler. Others, more impressed, thought him a sorcerer in league with evil spirits.
Whatever else he may have been, he was certainly notorious. A drunken vagabond, he was
reported to have studied magic in the Polish city of Cracow. While some regarded him as a fool
and a mountebank, others claimed that he traveled about with a dog and a performing horseboth
of which were really devils.
Soon after his death the "real" Dr. Faustus disappeared into the realm of legend, and every
story popularly told about wicked magicians was told about him. Faustus became the scholar
who sold his soul to the devil in exchange for universal knowledge and magical power, and so
was damned forever.
Stories like these weren't new- they had been popular for centuries. There was a legend about
Simon Magus, a wizard of early Christian times, who was said to have found death and
damnation, when he attempted to fly. Pope Sylvester II (314-335) was also suspect. He knew
so much that his contemporaries thought he must have sold his soul to the devil to gain such
knowledge.
During the Renaissance, the Faustus tales had a powerful impact. They dramatized the tug-ofwar
between the admonitions of the church and the exciting possibilities of knowledge
suggested by the advance of science and the revival of classical learning. All over Europe,
inquisitive spirits found themselves in trouble with the conservative clergy. In Italy, for
instance, Galileo was accused of heresy for challenging the Roman Catholic view of the
heavens. In England, the free-thinking Sir Walter Raleigh was investigated for atheism. And in
Germany, adventurous scholars found themselves at odds with the zealous spirit of the
Protestant Reformation. Protestant theologians thought that mankind's energies should be
focused on God, the Bible, and salvation by faith.
By 1587, the German Faustbuch (Faustbook) had appeared, a collection of tales about the
wicked magician. The Protestant author makes it clear that Faustus got exactly what he
deserved for preferring human to "divine" knowledge. But theological considerations aside,
these were marvelous stories. The book was enormously popular and was rapidly translated
into other languages, including English. However, the English Faustbook wasn't published until
1592, a fact that creates some mystery for scholars who believe that Doctor Faustus was
written in 1590.
Christopher Marlowe saw the dramatic potential of the story. He promptly used it as the plot of
his play, the first Faust drama, and possibly the best. Every incident in the play seems taken
from the Faustbuch, even the slapstick comedy scenes. The attacks on the Roman Catholic
church had also become part of the Protestant orthodoxy of the tale. The poetry, however, is
Marlowe's.
Since then, the story has been used many times, both comically and seriously. The German
poet Goethe turned Faust into a hero whose thirst for knowledge leads to salvation. In the
nineteenth century, Charles Gounod and Hector Berlioz wrote operas about Faust. Shortly after
World War II, the novelist Thomas Mann used the Faust story as the basis of an allegory about
the German people. More recently, the story was transformed into the musical comedy Damn
Yankees, in which the hero sells his soul to help his hometown baseball team win the pennant.
FORM AND STRUCTURE
Allowances must be made for the shattered form in which Doctor Faustus survives. Originally,
the play may have had the loose five-act structure suggested by the 1616 text. Or it may simply
have been a collection of scenes or movements, as in the shorter version of 1604. In fact, the
act divisions in Doctor Faustus are the additions of later editors. Scholars have made their own
decisions about the play's probable cut-off points. That's why no two editions of Doctor
Faustus have identical act and scene numbers.
The genre of Doctor Faustus is the subject of critical debate. Some readers view the play as an
heroic tragedy where the hero is destroyed by a flaw in his character but retains his tragic
grandeur. Others believe Doctor Faustus is more of a morality play in which the central
character forfeits his claim to greatness through a deliberate choice of evil.
Doctor Faustus most closely resembles the type of drama known in the Renaissance as an
atheist's tragedy. The atheist's tragedy had for its hero a hardened sinner, a scoffer who boldly
denied the existence of God. In such a play, the hero's cynical disbelief brought about his
downfall. His tragedy wasn't just death. It was also damnation. For the edification of the
audience, the hero died unrepentant, often with a curse on his last breath, and one had the
distinct impression that repentance would have saved him.
It is technically possible to diagram Doctor Faustus in a manner similar to Shakespearean
tragedy:
l ACT I: EXPOSITION
Faustus' ambitions are explored. He turns to magic to fulfill them.
l ACT II: RISING ACTION
Faustus summons Mephistophilis and signs a contract with hell. He begins to regret his
bargain.
l ACT III: CLIMAX
Faustus repents, but Lucifer holds him to his agreement. Faustus reaffirms his bondage
to hell.
l ACT IV: FALLING ACTION
Faustus wins fame and fortune through magical evocations. His inner doubts remain.
l ACT V. CATASTROPHE
Faustus damns himself irrevocably by choosing Helen over heaven. His final hour
comes, and he is carried off by devils.
THE STORY
THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES
[Doctor Faustus Contents] [The Study Web Home Page]
© Copyright 1985 by Barron's Educational Series, Inc.
Electronically Enhanced Text © Copyright 1993, World Library, Inc.
Doctor Faustus
Christoper Marlowe
THE STORY
There is no standard edition of Doctor Faustus. The play survives in two widely read versions,
one dating from 1604, the other from 1616. The 1616 text is longer by about 600 lines and
contains incidents and characters missing from the 1604 text. There is great critical debate as to
which is the "real" Doctor Faustus. Some scholars attribute the additional material in the 1616
text not to Marlowe, but to a collaborator named Samuel Rowley. Check the introduction to
your copy of Doctor Faustus. It will tell you which version of the play you are reading. This
guide is based on the version of Doctor Faustus printed in The Norton Anthology of English
Literature (New York: Norton, 1979), edited by M. H. Abrams and others. The version in that
anthology is based on W. W. Gregg's composite of the 1604 and 1616 texts of Marlowe's play.
ACT I
THE CHORUS
The play opens with a speech by the Chorus, a voice outside the action that prepares you for
the story of Doctor Faustus. The Chorus was used in Greek and Roman plays as a way of
commenting on the dramatic action. Here, the Chorus might also be called the "Commentator"
since it consists of only one actor. He tells us that Faustus grew up in the German town of
Rhodes, had lower-class parents, and went on to study theology in Wittenberg. After earning
his doctorate, Faustus soon realized that he preferred magic to religion.
The Chorus calls this magic "cursed necromancy." Does he disapprove of Faustus? Or does he
privately admire him? Your answer is important because the Chorus' feelings influence the
audience's reaction to Faustus, even before Faustus himself appears on stage.
NOTE: THE CHORUS The first business of the Chorus is to speak the prologue. The
Elizabethan prologue usually contains a brief introduction to the story and is delivered before
the play begins. If the plot is complicated, the prologue gives the audience a thread to hold on
to. And just as important, when there is little scenery on the stage, the prologue often tells an
audience when and where the play will take place.
The Chorus informs you that this isn't a play about warlike conquests or love. The hero of this
play is a scholar, a university man, a peasant's son, who has pulled himself up by his bootstraps
to become a Doctor of Divinity.
What the Chorus is announcing in these opening lines is a departure from the usual subject
matter of tragedy. Traditionally, tragedy was the province of noblemen and kings. But Faustus
occupies a lower rung of the social ladder, hailing from a poor and humble family. Brains,
energy, and talent have lifted him from obscurity to a position of honor in Wittenberg. Despite
his achievements, Faustus is not a nobleman. He is a self-made man, with a strong skepticism
toward much of the establishment around him.
The Chorus' speech contains an abbreviated biography of Faustus, but it also parallels events in
Marlowe's life. It is the story of a town laborer's son, sent by generous relatives to college so
that he might get ahead in life. For a while, Faustus, like Marlowe, flourished at the university.
He followed the usual clerical path of study and excelled in disputes (the academic exercises of
the time, similar to our exams) concerning "heavenly matters of theology." Then something
happened to Faustus. Theology lost its attraction. From heavenly matters, he fell to the
"devilish exercise" of necromancy (black magic).
To mark this shift in the man, the Chorus uses the image of appetites gone awry. At one point
in his life, Faustus relished the healthful fruits of learning. Now he craves unwholesome
delicacies. Magic comes to Faustus like a rich dessert at the end of a heavy meal, sweet to his
taste, yet destructive of his well-being.
With such an introduction, the Chorus sweeps aside the curtain to reveal the inner stage.
Faustus is seated in his study, a small monkish cell that is both a library and a laboratory.
NOTE: THE IMAGE OF ICARUS
In the Chorus' reference to Faustus' "waxen wings," you have an implied comparison of
Faustus to Icarus. Icarus was a figure of Greek mythology who flew too near the sun on wings
of wax and feathers, made for him by his father, Daedalus. When the wax melted, Icarus fell
into the sea and drowned. There is something heroic about this foolish boy, consumed by the
oldest dream of man, who challenged the heavens in his desire for flight. The image of Icarus
qualifies the negative feelings toward Faustus, aroused in you by all the Chorus' words
("swollen, glutted, surfeits") that suggest a monstrous appetite.
As Marlowe will remind you throughout the play, there are two faces to scholarly ambition.
One is of greed and ruthlessness, but the other is of courage and ambition. If Doctor Faustus is
an ambiguous play- that is, a play capable of more than one interpretation- then the ambiguity
begins here in the opening speech.
ACT I, SCENE I
You come upon Faustus at a critical moment in his life. He is obsessed with the course of his
future, and speaks in a formidable, scholarly fashion, sprinkling his sentences with quotations
in Latin and Greek. Try reading it first for the English sense. Then read it again for insights
into the man. Who is this Faustus? What kind of choice is he about to make?
The first thing that may strike you about Faustus is the sheer breadth of his knowledge. He has
mastered every advanced course of study offered by the university. Divinity, logic (we would
say philosophy), medicine, and law are all at his finger-tips. Whatever the scholarly life can
teach- the liberal arts, the professions, the sciences- Faustus has already learned. In our age of
specialization, it is hard to grasp the scope of his achievement. What Faustus knows is just
about everything there was to know in the world of his time.
Unless such a man is content to rest on his laurels, he has a problem. Where does he go from
here? Perhaps more deeply into one of the various disciplines. Watch Faustus as he grapples
with his inner conflicts.
Trained in philosophy, he asks the very basic question: "What is the end, or the purpose, of
every art?" The end of law is to settle petty legacies, and this is a waste of such considerable
gifts as his. Medicine strives to preserve the body's health. Faustus has done more than his
share of this already. His prescriptions alone have saved whole cities from the plague.
The aim of logic is to dispute well. Yet this won't do much good for the star debater of
Wittenberg. Disputation is for boys in the schoolroom. Faustus has advanced far beyond that
stage.
In the reasons for Faustus' rejections, you gain insight into his dreams. The practice of law may
serve society, but that doesn't mean one should become a lawyer. Medicine may prolong life,
but it cannot make life eternal. Logic offers a tool and a method of thought, but it does not even
begin to approach life's ultimate truths. None of these disciplines offers a supreme purpose. All
leave him still "but Faustus and a man."
Perhaps, after all, religion will best serve his ends. Having dismissed the secular disciplines one
by one, Faustus returns for a moment to his first love, theology. Laying aside the books he's
been leafing through, the works of Aristotle and Galen, he picks up the Bible and reads from
St. Paul: "The reward of sin is death." Flipping a little further, he comes upon a text which
seems to him an ominous contradiction. It says all men are sinners. Thus, all must die. But
sinning is human. The two passages, taken together, bring Faustus up short. Mortality is what
he came to the Bible to avoid. And here it is again, staring him in the face. Faustus takes refuge
in fatalism- what will be, will be, he says with a shrug of the shoulders. Tossing the Bible
aside, he turns with evident relish to the books (already in his library) on the forbidden art of
necromancy.
NOTE: THE BIBLE ACCORDING TO FAUSTUS
Faustus, of course, is quoting the Bible out of context. The passage from St. Paul reads: "The
reward of sin is death, but the gift of God is eternal life." Faustus notes only the first part of the
text, the part that seems to doom him from the beginning. He ignores the message of hope at
the end of the same chapter and verse. This seems an oversight for a learned Doctor of
Divinity.
The question is why does Faustus read the Bible in such a selective manner? Here are some
possible answers:
1. Faustus finds in the Bible exactly what he is looking for- an excuse to plunge headlong
into magic. Since he is eager to take up the "damned" art of necromancy, it is
convenient for him to believe he is damned, no matter what he does.
2. Another hand than Faustus' is at work, turning the leaves of the Bible and directing his
eyes. In Act V, you will see the suggestion that, for all his sense of power, Faustus may
not be in charge of his own life.
3. Marlowe believes religion to be a closed door. Faustus finds no hope in the Bible
because Marlowe finds no hope there. From the author's point of view, Faustus' reading
of the Bible, however incomplete, may be essentially right.
Do you see other possibilities? Try to figure out why Faustus quotes so selectively from
the Bible.
Faustus is instantly charmed by his books on black magic. For one thing, they still hold secrets
for him. Here's the ideal subject for a man who wants to know everything. All those strange
lines and circles are so wonderfully mysterious.
Faustus dreams of power and imagines that magic will give him mastery over the elements,
dominion over the winds and the clouds. What is a king, after all, compared to a mighty
magician? With magic, Faustus thinks it possible to become a god.
Faustus' ambition may seem less far fetched if you compare his hopes of magic with our own
expectations of science. We look to science to carry us to the stars, to control disasters like
famine and flood, to cure disease and to prolong human life. Faustus looks to magic for the
power of flight and for freedom from death and old age. So our own dreams are pretty close to
Faustus'. The real difference lies in our method. We try to make our dreams come true with the
cool, factual discipline of science, whereas Renaissance scholars like Faustus turned, instead,
to a curious blend of science and superstition.
The sixteenth century made no clear distinction between astronomers (people who studied the
stars through the newly-discovered telescopes) and astrologers (people who used the stars to
predict human destiny). The word "astrologer" applied to both. In a similar manner, early
Renaissance chemistry included alchemy, the pseudo-science of turning base metals into gold.
Faustus, as you've seen, knows the experimental sciences. His room is, in part, a laboratory.
But he does not find it unusual to have in his office both test tubes and necromantic books. For
Faustus, magic and science merge into a deep, dark area which was feared and largely
prohibited by the church.
As Faustus reaches out for this forbidden knowledge, two angels suddenly appear before his
eyes. The Good Angel urges him to "lay his damned book aside" and return to God and the
scriptures. The Evil Angel tells Faustus to continue on the path he has chosen since this will
enable him to rival God in power.
NOTE: THE GOOD AND THE EVIL ANGELS
The Good and Evil Angels are hold-overs from medieval morality plays. In this form of drama,
popular during the Middle Ages, they did battle for the soul of a character known as
Everyman. (The characters in medieval drama were abstractions. Everyman, as his name
implies, stood for all humanity.) Marlowe has borrowed the device of the angels to dramatize
Faustus' inner struggle. The Good Angel is the voice of his conscience; the Evil Angel, that of
his appetites. Throughout the play, the angels will appear on stage whenever a moral crisis is
at hand. And they will vanish as soon as Faustus has chosen his course.
You'll notice that the Good Angel doesn't put up much of a fight. Magic has taken too deep a
hold on Faustus. "How am I glutted with conceit of this!" indicates that he is wildly excited
about magic. His thoughts take wing. They fly all over the place. To India for gold and to the
New World for exotic fruits, then back again to the lecture halls of Germany, where he will
clothe the scholars in silk.
But wait. Faustus seeks knowledge and power, yet now he sets his goals on luxury and wealth.
Are Faustus' desires sensual or intellectual? Does he want wisdom- or material comforts? You
might keep this question in mind as you read the play. Faustus is first and foremost a scholar.
But he's no professor in an ivory tower. As the Chorus has pointed out, Faustus is a man of
appetite. He may love books as few men love them, but he also has a strong taste for good
food, rare gems, and rich clothing.
Some readers are disturbed by the sensual side of Faustus. While they admire his quest for
knowledge, they're dismayed by his bent for luxury. If Faustus would stick to pure research
into the workings of Nature, he might be a noble hero in their eyes. But his craving for lush
fruits and silk garments make him seem undignified.
Other readers regard Faustus' sensuality as an heroic quality. His hunger for beauty and lust for
life are part of the great Renaissance adventure. The medieval church was unnatural in its
efforts to suppress bodily desires. Such readers conclude that Faustus is right in giving full play
to his senses.
What do you think of Faustus' desires? Do they enhance or diminish him in your eyes? If
offered unlimited power, in what direction would your thoughts travel?
As Faustus embarks on his career in magic, he summons to his home Valdes and Cornelius,
two practitioners of black magic from Wittenberg University. They have been in the
neighborhood, if not in the lecture halls, distracting students' minds with their conjuring tricks.
They also have called on Faustus before.
Faustus' greeting to Valdes and Cornelius suggests that they are responsible for luring him into
magic. Last time you came for dinner, you talked me into it, Faustus implies. But no, he
quickly retracts his words. Magic is his own idea. He has reached the point where he simply
cannot concentrate on anything else.
Valdes is delighted with Faustus' news. He imagines a trio of magicians- Cornelius, Valdes,
and Faustus- who will take the world by storm. With Faustus' brains and the experience of
Cornelius and Valdes, they'll all be rich and famous. But that's not what happens. Valdes and
Cornelius instruct Faustus in the basics of conjuring and then send him off to practice on his
own.
The student magician quickly becomes a master who has no need of partners for his act. This
will isolate Faustus since he will now practice magic without a human tie.
ACT I, SCENE II
Faustus has been missing from the university. The disputations, which he was accustomed to
win with his persuasive arguments (his "sic probos," Latin for "thus, I prove") just aren't the
same any more. Two Wittenberg scholars, as they pass Faustus' house, wonder what has
happened to him.
The scholars make the mistake of stopping and questioning Wagner, Faustus' half-servant,
halfdisciple.
(The Renaissance called such a person a "famulus.") Wagner considers himself
superior to servants, but obviously the scholars see him as a servant. They address him
contemptuously as "sirrah," a term appropriate for a menial worker, and they quickly irritate
him. For the rest of this scene, Wagner takes his revenge by matching wits with the scholars
and proving that he is just as sound a logician as either one of them. This is all part of a comic
subplot, and to reinforce the difference in tone, Marlowe has Wagner speak in prose.
NOTE: PROSE FOR THE LOWER CLASSES
Elizabethan dramatists reserved poetry for their upperclass characters. Kings, nobles, and
Doctors of Divinity like Faustus generally spoke a formal, dignified language appropriate to
their station in life. Lowerclass characters didn't usually merit the verse line. Servants and
clowns like Wagner and Robin could be expected to speak prose, the language of the London
streets.
Wagner is also speaking nonsense. When asked where his master is, he answers that "God in
heaven knows." Don't you know? the scholars ask him. Ah, that doesn't necessarily follow,
Wagner replies, wagging his finger in their faces and reminding them severely that, after all, he
isn't God. No, Wagner isn't God. But he finds it necessary to say so. In Wagner's insolence,
there are echoes of Faustus' aspiring pride. In fact, these scenes in the comic subplot are often
called "echo scenes" since servants follow in their masters' footsteps.
After Wagner answers insult for insult, he finally gives the scholars the information they want.
Faustus is having dinner inside with Valdes and Cornelius. The scholars, shuddering at the
mere names of these two demon-traffickers, wring their hands and fear the worst.
ACT I, SCENE III
In the pitch black of night, with an ominous thunderstorm brewing, Faustus goes off to a grove
to conjure spirits. As the thunder roars and the lightning flashes, he draws a charmed circle on
the ground. The circle marks the spot where the spirits will rise. Inside the circle, Faustus
writes anagrams (or twisted versions) of the name of God, spelling Jehovah forward and
backward, as one might change "God" to "dog." Faustus celebrates the blasphemous Black
Mass and, by so doing, demonstrates his growing commitment to necromancy.
NOTE: THE BLACK MASS
The Black Mass was a travesty of the Roman Catholic service, and was conducted over the
centuries by the worshippers of Satan. The Black Mass mimicked the language of the Catholic
mass (Latin, in those days) and used some of the sacred gestures in a way that perverted their
meaning. For example, Faustus sprinkles holy water and makes the sign of the cross. This
mockery of a holy rite contained a message for Satan: I denounce God, and I serve only you. In
the 1590s, it was an act of daring to perform this sacrilege on the stage. Though Henry VIII
had pulled England away from the Roman Catholic Church in 1533, there were still English
people alive who remembered attending mass every Sunday during the reign of the late Queen
Mary. Even if Rome and all its works were detested in England now, Satan was quite another
story. The climax of Faustus' ceremony is his farewell to God and his hail to the devils Lucifer,
Demigorgon,
and Belzebub. In the name of the three princes of hell, Faustus calls upon the demon
spirits to rise. (Don't worry if you don't understand Faustus' speeches in this scene. The
convoluted Latin sentences were no more intelligible to most of Marlowe's audience than they
are to you. The playwright's intent is to mystify and appall you with these Latin incantations.)
In response to Faustus' summons, Mephistophilis appears in the hideous shape of a dragon.
Faustus takes one look at the fire-breathing monster, then tells it to go away and change its
appearance. You're too ugly for me, he says. And, in a satiric thrust at a Roman Catholic
monastic order, he orders the demon to come back as a Franciscan friar. After a short delay, the
spirit returns, his dragon's scales exchanged for a friar's sedate hooded gown.
Why does Mephistophilis first appear as a monster, only to vanish and reappear as a monk?
Readers of Doctor Faustus disagree on the meaning of this bit of quick-change artistry. Some
think that the devil is giving Faustus fair warning by portraying hell honestly. Mephistophilis
arises in the horrifying form of a dragon because hell is a place of horror and damnation. It is
Faustus, the self-deceiver, who wants evil prettied up.
Other readers claim that it is all just good theater. The dragon zooms on stage to scare the
audience, and the friar follows to relieve terror with laughter. It's open to interpretation and
your opinion is as good as any.
Faustus is delighted with his demon spirit's obedience and compliance. Faustus thinks, like
Aladdin, that he has rubbed a genie out of a lamp. (The genie's business, you recall, was to
fulfill Aladdin's every wish.) Faustus is ready with some pretty tall orders for his spirit.
Now that you're here, Faustus says to Mephistophilis, of course, you'll do everything I say. If I
command it, you'll make the moon drop out of the sky or cause the oceans to flood the Earth.
Can't do it, says Mephistophilis. Sorry, Faustus, but I work for Lucifer, not you. My master has
to approve every step I take. It turns out that Faustus has been flattering himself. Magic hasn't
brought him half the power he thought. In fact, strictly speaking, he hasn't summoned
Mephistophilis at all. The spirit has come of his own accord because he has heard Faustus
"racking" (torturing with anagrams) the name of God.
Mephistophilis explains in scholastic terms that Faustus' conjuring speech is only the incidental
cause ("the cause per accidens") of his showing up. The real reason he has come is that spirits
always fly to souls who are in imminent danger of being damned.
I'm not afraid of damnation, Faustus replies with bravado. Heaven and hell, they are all the
same to me. ("I confound hell with Elysium," is what he says, dangerously equating the
Christian hell of flame with the blessed underworld of the dead in Greek mythology.)
What does Faustus think about hell? He says hell holds no terrors for him. He implies (he'll
later make it explicit) that he doesn't even believe in it. But if, in one breath, Faustus belittles
the whole idea of hell, in the next breath, he is eager to hear more about it. Just who is this
Lucifer you keep talking about? Faustus demands of Mephistophilis.
Mephistophilis tells Faustus the story of Lucifer, the bright angel (his name in Latin means
light-bearer) who rebelled against God and was thrown out of heaven. Lucifer's sins were
"aspiring pride and insolence," sins Faustus has reason to be all too familiar with.
You are moving in a world which believed profoundly in order, in knowing one's place and
staying in it. The Renaissance inherited from the Middle Ages a belief in a great chain of being
that descended from God all the way down to the sticks and stones. In this great chain, every
link, from the lowliest pebble to the angels on high, had a divine purpose. If a link was broken
because somebody reached above his station, then chaos ensued.
In heaven, as on earth, order was strictly enforced. God reigned in glory there over nine
different levels of angels. Angels, being without sin, were presumably without envy. They
rejoiced in God's order and sought only to uphold it. Lucifer was the exception, being
ambitious. Not content to serve God, he tried to rival Him.
In the eyes of the medieval church, Lucifer's aspiring pride was the first- and worst- sin.
Lucifer's rebellion and consequent fall created hell and brought evil into the world. Is Marlowe
endorsing the church's view that ambition is a deadly sin? Does he imply that ambition is a
great virtue? These are important questions in Doctor Faustus and are open to interpretation.
So far, ambition has made Faustus jeopardize his soul through contact with demons and
through his denial of God. But ambition has also made Faustus a first-class scholar. Without
inner drive, he would have remained the illiterate peasant he was born. Ambition has given
Faustus magnificent dreams- dreams like expanding the boundaries of human knowledge- on
which all progress depends.
NOTE: LUCIFER AND ICARUS
The image of Lucifer falling from heaven, dark against a flaming sky, recalls the image of
Icarus in the prologue. Both Lucifer and Icarus flew too high, sought the sources of light, and
got burned in the process. Lucifer and Icarus are emblems for Faustus. They tell you about the
precedents and penalties for soaring ambition. Their fate suggests that limitless aspiration is
ill-advised. But is it also wrong? At what point do you know whether your ambition is too
great?
Faustus' next question to Mephistophilis concerns the nature of hell. If you're damned, you're in
hell, right? he challenges the spirit. But if Mephistophilis is in hell, then why is he here? But I
am in hell, the spirit replies. Hell isn't a spot Mephistophilis can point out on a cosmic map. It's
a state of being that one carries around inside. "Why, this is hell, nor am I out of it." For
Mephistophilis, hell is a real, if unlocalized place. It's where Mephistophilis dwells and is an
immeasurable distance from God. Mephistophilis is a fallen angel. And for a moment, he acts
like one. Perhaps he remembers the higher things and this gets the better of him, for he doesn't
egg Faustus on. Instead, he tries to hold him back and issues a warning:
O Faustus, leave these frivolous demands
Which strike a terror to my fainting soul!
The words are powerful. They show you a Mephistophilis afraid for Faustus. The spirit knows
what is to come for this foolish, arrogant man. And he suffers for him in advance. Faustus,
however, takes Mephistophilis' pain for weakness. Can't you be more manly about things? he
asks contemptuously.
Faustus sends him to Lucifer with the message that he would like to strike a bargain with the
fallen angel: Faustus' soul in exchange for twenty-four years of luxury, with Mephistophilis as
a servant who will cater to his every whim. Notice that Faustus refers to himself in the third
person, like a king. Why do you think Marlowe does that?
Mephistophilis agrees and returns to the nether regions with no further comment.
ACT I, SCENE IV
We return to the comic subplot and the high-handed doings of Wagner. Wagner's pride has
been hurt by his encounter with the scholars in Scene II. As a result, he is looking for someone
to humiliate in turn. Wagner hails the clown, Robin, with the same demeaning terms, "Sirrah,
boy" that he himself objected to from the scholars. Robin doesn't care for this sort of treatment,
either. Boy! he mutters indignantly. I'm sure you've seen many "boys" with beards on their
faces like mine.
Wagner tries another approach. He accuses the unemployed Robin of being so down-at-theheels
that he'll sell his soul to the devil for a piece of raw mutton. No dice, says the clown. Not
unless the mutton is well roasted and sauced. Like Faustus, Robin is willing to sell his soul, but
only if the price is right.
This exchange between Wagner and Robin is a bawdy pun on the word "mutton." Mutton is
sheep's flesh, but in Elizabethan English mutton also referred to the human sexual organs.
Robin is thinking less about food than about the kitchen maid.
Wagner, who is Faustus' servant and disciple, has a hankering for a servant-disciple of his own.
And who better, he reasons, than this out-of-work clown. Wagner makes Robin an imperious
offer: "Sirrah, wilt thou... wait on me?"
Faced with resistance, Wagner tries to buy Robin into his service by offering the poor clown
money. It's a trick which Robin fails to catch in time. By taking Wagner's money, Robin is
accepting wages. He's offering himself as Wagner's man. Of course, there's a condition
attached to that money. He is to present himself, at an hour's notice, at a place Wagner will
name. And there he is to be carried off by a devil. When Robin hears what the condition is, he
drops the coins like a hot potato.
Oh no! cries the clown. Oh yes, says Wagner, who conjures up two devils to come to his aid.
(Notice that Wagner is Faustus' disciple in more ways than one. He's been practicing to good
effect his master's magic tricks.) The devils, Banio and Belcher, appear on stage in a spray of
fireworks. They chase the poor clown until, frightened out of his wits, he agrees to Wagner's
terms.
Robin will serve Wagner, call him master, and walk after him in a manner that Wagner
describes pedantically in Latin as Quasi vestigiis nostris insistere (a high-flown way of saying
"follow in my footsteps").
ACT II, SCENE I
With Mephistophilis gone, Faustus begins to have doubts about this deal with hell. Must he go
through with it and be damned? Or can he still change his mind and be saved?
Faustus is seized with a sudden impulse to give up the game and throw himself on God's
mercy. It's an impulse that he fiercely subdues. How can he, a denier of God, go crawling to
God now? Faustus tells himself to despair of God and trust in the devil. Yet still he wavers:
"Now go not backward, no, be resolute!"
You may be surprised by this hint of uncertainty in Faustus. What happened to all his proud
boasts of manly resolution? That's what Faustus also wonders. He's disgusted by these signs of
human weakness in himself.
NOTE: MARLOWE'S POETRY OF HESITATION
In this speech, Marlowe has altered the verse line to convey Faustus' feelings of uncertainty.
The meter is wildly uneven. The number of stresses varies with almost every line. Within the
lines themselves, there are many abrupt pauses to break the flow of the verse. This poetry
reflects the nervous pacing of Faustus' thoughts. The speech starts off in one direction, turns
back on itself, and comes crashing down on the one point of assurance:
To God? He loves thee not.
The God thou servest is thine own appetite,
Wherein is fixed the love of Belzebub.
In the midst of such candid self-assessment, Faustus sees the angels again. This time, he does
more than passively listen to their advice. He actively questions them. "Contrition, prayer,
repentance- what of them?" Faustus doubtfully ticks off this list of virtues like a man who has
heard that such things work, but who's never had the leisure to try them.
They're illusions, the "fruits of lunacy," according to the Evil Angel, who has heard something
in Faustus' voice which prompts him to describe a praying man as an idiot, a pathetic figure
calling in the void to a God who does not hear. Forget such fancies, the Evil Angel continues.
Think of tangible things- such as wealth.
Wealth! Faustus seizes the idea with a passion. He shall have the signiory of Emden- that is, he
will control the wealthy German seaport of Emden, one of the richest trading centers in all of
Germany. (Did the Evil Angel say this? Think for a minute. How many enticements have been
offered to Faustus by other characters in the play? How many has he, in fact, invented for
himself?) Faustus can already hear the clink of gold in his coffers. In a fever of greed, he calls
to Mephistophilis to hurry back from hell with Lucifer's answer. And sure enough, on the
wings of a wish, the spirit flies into the study.
Here's what my master says, Mephistophilis informs Faustus. You may have me to serve you,
as you desire. But first, you must promise him your soul. Faustus protests that he has already
done that. Yes, in words, the spirit replies. But now, you must do it in writing.
Faustus discovers that there are various stages of commitment when dealing with the devil.
Faustus has already "hazarded" his soul (or set it at risk) by foreswearing God and praying to
Lucifer. But he has not yet signed away his soul. Faustus can still back out of the deal. But if he
proceeds with it, he may never be able to back out. Lucifer is leaving no loopholes. The devil
wants a contract. And he wants that contract written in Faustus' blood because blood contracts
are binding forever.
Faustus winces at the thought. Left to himself, he might never write such a document. But
Mephistophilis is there to give him "moral" support. Just put up with this nasty little cut, the
spirit tells him, and "then be thou as great as Lucifer."
Taken at face value, this remark constitutes a glowing promise. Sign this contract, Faustus, and
you'll become as powerful as the monarch of hell. But the comment is ironic. Mephistophilis
sounds as if he's deriding Faustus' ambitions. The spirit really seems to be saying, "you think
you'll be as great as Lucifer, but just wait and see."
Does Mephistophilis deliver his line sincerely? Or is there irony in his voice? If so, he may be
giving Faustus one last warning to back off while he can. How does the offer sound to you?
Faustus, however, is tone deaf to irony. He suspects no double meaning in the spirit's words.
And so he prepares to comply with Lucifer's demands. But as Faustus stabs his arm to draw
blood, he finds that no blood will run. It has mysteriously congealed, preventing him from
writing the words that would give the devil his soul.
We use the expression "My blood freezes over" to describe a feeling of great horror. That is
what happens to Faustus. The blood in his veins- that which is human to him- freezes at the
sight of this hideous contract with hell. Mephistophilis acts quickly. He comes running with a
grate of hot coals to warm Faustus' blood and to set it flowing again, so that the contract can be
completed.
NOTE: BLOOD IMAGERY
Hold onto this image of flowing blood. You will see it again in Act V, when Faustus has a
vision of Christ's blood streaming in the night sky and knows that one precious drop of it would
save his lost soul.
As Mephistophilis snatches up the coals, he winks at the audience and whispers, "What will not
I do to obtain his soul!" Clearly the spirit has changed his tune. Earlier in the play,
Mephistophilis did his best to stop Faustus from damning himself. At this point, he seems eager
for Faustus' ruin. How do you explain it?
You can argue that Mephistophilis is simply doing his job. Since Faustus has insisted on this
unholy bargain, the spirit has no choice but to hold him to it. Or you may feel that
Mephistophilis is at last showing his true fiendish colors. The spirit is eager for Faustus'
damnation because all demons want to add more notches to their score of souls garnered for
hell. Mephistophilis is not the most consistent of characters. You will have to decide what
motivates him at various points in the play.
Faustus has finished writing his contract. "It is completed," he says wearily, as he lays down
his pen. "Consummatum est." Another blasphemy! These are the words of Christ on the cross,
rolling casually off the tongue of a man who has just put his bloody signature on a contract
with the devil. Suddenly, Faustus has a hallucination. He sees writing on his arm. "Fly, man,"
the inscription reads. Run for your life. ("Man." Why "man"? Wasn't this contract supposed to
make Faustus immortal?)
Mephistophilis is prepared for this sort of emergency. Undoubtedly, he's played scenes like this
before. He arranges a diversion, something to take Faustus' mind off the perils of the contract
and focus attention instead on the delights it will bring. Mephistophilis summons devils who
enter bearing a crown and ermine robes. The devils dance around Faustus, offering him these
symbols of power. Then they depart.
Faustus is delighted with the royal treatment and with the thought that he can summon such
demons at any time. He starts to hand the contract over to Mephistophilis. (Notice it's still in
Faustus' possession, one reason why Mephistophilis is treating Faustus like a king.) Then
Faustus halts, claiming that he'd better read the contract to Mephistophilis since he has made
some changes.
Faustus, like Lucifer, is something of a legalist. He has added articles to the contract,
amendments to make sure he gets full value for the price he is going to pay. Flattered by
Mephistophilis, Faustus assumes he can dictate his own terms to hell.
Most of Faustus' conditions are self-explanatory. They list the terms of an agreement already
understood. Mephistophilis will be at Faustus' beck and call. He will appear in any shape that
Faustus commands. (No more unpleasant surprises like that dragon.)
But there is a new condition. Faustus shall be "a spirit in form and substance." In other words,
he will take on the physical attributes of a demon. Like Mephistophilis, Faustus will be able to
walk invisible or fly through the air.
Does this mean that Faustus actually becomes a demon? If so, then he is lost from this point on
in the play. If not, then he still has a chance, however remote, of being saved. It is difficult,
looking back across the space of four hundred years, to be sure of the exact rules of
Renaissance demonology. But most scholars think that under the terms of the contract, Faustus
forfeits his human body but keeps his human soul.
Faustus returns to the subject that fascinates him: the nature and whereabouts of hell. Notice
that Faustus always asks about hell after he's made an irrevocable step toward hell. He leaps
first, then looks to see where he has landed.
Mephistophilis expands on what he's said before. Hell is a place without limits. It's wherever
the damned happen to be. The spirit speaks matter-of-factly now. He's no longer worried about
frightening Faustus. The contract is signed. What's done is done. But Faustus doesn't believe it.
Come, come, he says. You're making this up. Hell's an "old wives' tale." There is no life after
death. We die with our last breath. And that's the end of it.
Mephistophilis is amused in an ironic sort of way. Why, Faustus, he asks, what do you think
you have just signed? A contract with hell. Then his amusement dies, and his irony turns bitter.
You think there's no hell, do you? "Aye, think so still, till experience change thy mind."
As Mephistophilis points out, Faustus is being illogical. Faustus has asked for a contract with
the devil in order to enjoy the powers that hell can give him. But if there is no hell, then there is
no contract and no demon spirit in the room.
Faustus, the great logician of Wittenberg, shouldn't need Mephistophilis to point out the flaws
in his reasoning. He should see for himself that this argument is not sound. So why doesn't he?
Perhaps Faustus is too fierce a skeptic to believe in a hell that he can't see or touch. Faustus
prides himself on being a scientist. He prefers concrete facts to abstract ideas. And the hell
described by Mephistophilis is an undefined place. In fact, it makes Faustus think of life itself:
Nay, and this be hell, I'll willingly be damned.
What, sleeping, eating, walking, and disputing?
On the other hand, Faustus may be less a skeptic than an opportunist. That is, he may change
his beliefs to suit his desires of the moment. Faustus seems willing enough to accept hell,
provided that hell promises to make him a king like Lucifer. He only doubts hell's existence
when it looms up before him as a place of punishment.
NOTE: CONCEPTS OF HELL
In this dialogue between Faustus and Mephistophilis, you can see the clash of old and new
ideas that troubled Marlowe's generation. Coming out of the Middle Ages was the orthodox
vision of hell, the pit of quenchless fire and pitchfork-carrying devils. Then there was the
newer, more subtle definition of hell offered by Mephistophilis. Hell was a gray, twilight place
from which God had withdrawn his presence. And finally, there was the atheistic view,
espoused by Faustus in this scene. The only hell we could ever know was the hell of this world.
Faustus, however, is not disposed to linger on the subject. Now that he has his contract signed,
he is eager to test his powers and get some questions answered. He turns to Mephistophilis with
his first demand. I'm a lusty man, he says. I need a woman to share my bed. Get me a wife.
Mephistophilis is on the spot. He can't meet Faustus' first demand because marriage is a
sacrament, a holy rite of the church, and sacraments lie outside his jurisdiction.
When Faustus insists on having this wish, Mephistophilis summons a female demon, who
arrives hissing and sparking like a firecracker. Faustus dismisses her as a "hot whore." He's
beginning to see that hell keeps its promises in strangely unpleasant ways.
Never mind a wife, Mephistophilis consoles him. I'll give you the mistress of your heart's
desire. And better yet, I'll give you books that will reveal to you the hidden secrets of Nature.
I'll show you everything you've always wanted to know about the trees and the stars.
Faustus reaches greedily for the fabulous volumes handed to him by the spirit. But as he leafs
through the printed pages, he finds that they contain only gibberish. This is worse than
Wittenberg. "O, thou art deceived!" he cries.
Remember we asked a little while back, "what does Faustus really want, knowledge or sensual
pleasure?" In this scene, Faustus reaches for both, only to be disappointed on both counts. But
while he's merely annoyed by Mephistophilis' failure to produce a wife, he is cut to the quick
by the spirit's fraudulent volumes. It's this latter deception that wrings from Faustus a cry of
anguish.
NOTE: A MISSING SCENE?
Between Act II, Scenes I and II, there is probably a lost scene in which Robin, the clown, steals
one of Faustus' conjuring books and runs away from Wagner to find work at an inn. We will
find him there in Act II, Scene III.
THE STORY, continued
THE PLAY
[Doctor Faustus Contents] [The Study Web Home Page]
© Copyright 1985 by Barron's Educational Series, Inc.
Electronically Enhanced Text © Copyright 1993, World Library, Inc.
Doctor Faustus
Christoper Marlowe
THE STORY, continued
ACT II, SCENE II
Faustus is in his study, looking at the night sky. The sight of the heavens lit with stars reminds
him of the glories he has sacrificed. Faustus' first instinct is to lash out at Mephistophilis. You
did this to me, he tells the spirit angrily. Mephistophilis calmly denies the charge. No, Faustus.
It was your own doing, not mine. Do you agree with the spirit? Is Faustus being unfair?
Mephistophilis understands and tries to comfort Faustus with the thought that heaven isn't such
a wonderful place after all.
Prove your theory, demands Faustus the philosopher. And the spirit gives him logical proof in
an unexpected burst of enthusiasm for man. After all, heaven was made for man. Therefore,
man must be "more excellent."
You might expect Faustus to agree with Mephistophilis. Faustus is just the type to put man at
center stage. His whole rationale for denying God in the first place was his belief in human
potential, human greatness- a typically Renaissance ideal. Now, if ever, is the time for a speech
like Hamlet's "O, what a piece of work is man!" But you don't get such a speech from Faustus.
What you get from this humanist-scholar is a purely Christian impulse to renounce magic and
repent. Can God forgive him, hardened sinner that he is? As Faustus debates this vital question
with himself, the angels come on stage for the third time.
The Good Angel assures Faustus that God will still forgive him. But, as usual, the Evil Angel
has the stronger argument. God can't pity you, Faustus. You're a spirit, a demon. (Remember
the terms of the contract.) You're not even a human being any more.
God would pity me, even if I were the devil himself, Faustus retorts, using strange language for
an atheist. That is, God would pity me, if I'd repent. Ah, the Evil Angel throws out his parting
shot. "But Faustus never shall repent." It turns out to be an accurate prophecy. Why doesn't
Faustus repent? It's one of the great puzzles of the play. This is his second attempt at
repentance and his second refusal. What is standing in his way?
Maybe Faustus isn't very sincere about repentance, and all this talk is lip service only. Some
readers feel this way. Certainly there are traits inherent in Faustus' character that make
repentance difficult for him. Pride is a problem. Faustus is too arrogant to readily admit his
errors. Appetite also trips him up. Faustus lusts after the gleam of silk and the whiteness of a
woman's arms. But God, in this still half-medieval world, demands austerity. For Faustus,
penitence would mean the hair-shirt under a monkish robe and sandals in the winter snow.
Maybe the contract is the big stumbling block, as Lucifer intended. Faustus has told the Evil
Angel that God can still pity him. But he doesn't really seem to believe it. Whenever Faustus
thinks about salvation now, he is thrown into despair. He contemplates suicide, as if to rush to
his inevitable fate.
All the while, Mephistophilis spins his web, pulling Faustus toward hell with his sweet magic
tricks. The spirit gives Faustus just enough pleasure to keep him wondering if there's more. As
the angels depart, Faustus relishes the memory of beautiful, ghostly concerts in his study. By
Mephistophilis' arrangement, the great bards of ancient Greece have strummed their lyres for
Faustus alone.
Perhaps, Faustus reasons, there's something to this diabolic life after all. Come, Mephistophilis,
he says, throwing off his mood of depression, tell me about the stars.
NOTE: MEPHISTOPHILIS' ASTRONOMY
In the discussion that follows, Mephistophilis presents Faustus with the common medieval view
of the universe. It is known as the Ptolemaic system, in contrast to the Copernican view that we
still accept today. In the Ptolemaic system, the Earth stood at the center of the universe, with
the sun, planets, and stars circling around it. The universe was thought to be made up of nine
concentric spheres, ascending from the Earth right up to God's Heaven. The spheres were
those of the moon, Mercury, Venus, the sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the stars, and the primum
mobile or first mover, the sphere which set all the other spheres in motion. Each sphere was
supposed to have an angel presiding over it. In the text of the play, Faustus refers to the angel
as a "dominion or intelligentia," a ruling power or intelligence. Beyond the spheres was God's
empyrean, a heaven bathed in light. Some people believed (it is the meaning of Faustus'
question, "Is there not coelum igneum, etc.?") that there were eleven spheres, adding a heaven
of fire and one of crystal to the scheme. It was a nice, orderly universe, with the spheres nestled
in each other's arms, making sweet music as they turned. What Mephistophilis can't help
describing to Faustus is a majestic sweep of stars and spheres that could only have been
imagined by the mind of God.
Notice that Mephistophilis volunteers very little information about the heavens. Faustus must
pry for information from the spirit. "Tush! These are freshmen's suppositions," the scholar
protests. What Mephistophilis makes such a great show of disclosing, Faustus has learned years
ago in a course called Introduction to Astronomy. Ask yourself why the spirit is being so
evasive. Does he begrudge Faustus a share of his secret knowledge? Or does he sense that the
stars may be a dangerous topic of conversation?
Faced with this coy cosmic voyager, Faustus feels a tremendous sense of frustration. Imagine a
modern scientist talking to a visitor from outer space who knows- but who won't say- what a
black hole really looks like or what kinds of life exist among the stars. Faustus wants to know,
for example, why such phenomena as eclipses occur at varying intervals, if the whole system of
spheres turns on a single axle-tree. The sun and the moon, he reasons, should always be in the
same relative positions, as they spin around the earth.
Mephistophilis hedges. He retreats into Latin and reels off a pat academic formula, arguing that
the spheres turn at different velocities.
"Well, I am answered," mutters Faustus, meaning that he isn't answered at all. Here is hell
again, dealing with him in half measures and half-kept promises. But Faustus grasps the real
point of this lesson in astronomy. He's been wondering in silence how this whole great system
of spheres came into being. And now he asks Mephistophilis, "Who made the world?"
The spirit has seen this coming, and he absolutely refuses to answer the question. But Faustus
hardly needs Mephistophilis to tell him. God made the world, the God he doubted, the God
whose existence is proven by the spirit's grim silence. If there is no God, why should His name
be banned in the kingdom of hell?
Forget about Heaven, Mephistophilis warns. Think about hell, Faustus. That's where you're
going. "Remember this!" he calls out while waving the blood-signed contract in Faustus' face.
But Faustus has finally, inevitably, broken down. He falls to his knees calling to Christ, his
Savior. Only it isn't Christ who answers Faustus' call. It is Lucifer who emerges from a trap
door on stage, with Belzebub by his side. You're mine, Faustus, the monarch of hell proclaims.
You gave your soul to me, and I have come to claim you.
Lucifer's appearance comes at a highly sensitive moment. Just as Faustus cries out to God, the
arch-fiend arrives. Some spectators might wish that Marlowe had sent the Good Angel flying to
Faustus' side, but instead he sends Lucifer, restless with purpose.
What's the message? Is Marlowe saying that people who play with matches get burned?
Faustus has chosen to unleash the forces of hell. And now he falls victim to powers beyond his
control. Or is Marlowe making a broader and more devastating statement about the presence of
demons and the absence of God in this world? Men cry out in need. And God stays in his
heaven silent, while the devil pays house calls.
Faustus takes one look at his visitors and caves in. This man, with dreams of being a king,
trembles like a slave before the regent of hell. Faustus starts to babble outrageous things about
pulling down churches and murdering priests.
Lucifer is pleased. Now that he is again sure of Faustus, he arranges some entertainment to take
the unhappy scholar's mind off himself. This is the second diversion hell has created for
Faustus. In this play, diversions are like tranquilizers. They are hell's handy remedy for sorrow
and stress.
Lucifer and Faustus witness a pageant of the Seven Deadly Sins. Pride, the sin which felled the
angels, is the leader of the pack. The rest follow in a grimly comic review of human vice.
NOTE: THE SEVEN DEADLY SINS
The Seven Deadly Sins are Pride, Avarice, Envy, Wrath, Gluttony, Lust, and Sloth. These were
called "the deadly sins" because, in church dogma, all other sins were supposed to stem from
them. Marlowe borrowed the idea of the Seven Deadly Sins from the medieval morality plays.
Often, in medieval drama, the sins provided a comic interlude, as they do here. At the very
least, they were human traits which all spectators could identify in themselves.
Faustus converses with all the sins, but especially with Gluttony. Can you imagine why
Gluttony might be his favorite? After hearing their stories, he dismisses them with a wave of
the hand, as if he saw in this parade of vices no particular application to himself.
In spite of their crassness, the Seven Deadly Sins are a thorough delight to Faustus. "O this
feeds my soul!" he exults, when the last of them goes from the stage.
Why do some regard this pageant as a turning point for Faustus? One clue to help you phrase
your answer is that we hear no more about God from Faustus until the very end of the play.
ACT II, SCENE III
Robin has stolen one of Faustus' conjuring books and is feeling very self-important. His job is
to care for the horses at the inn, but he can't be bothered with such trifles. He orders Dick,
another clown, to walk the horses for him. (In some editions of the play, Dick is called Rafe or
Ralph.)
The semi-literate Robin pores over his book, breaking into a sweat as he tries to figure it out.
"A by itself," he drones, repeating a child's formula for learning the alphabet. Then he manages
to recognize a word. "T... h... e." Robin is making progress, when Dick saunters over to see
what the book is all about. A conjuring book, ha, says Dick. I bet you can't read a word of it.
Can't I though? Robin retorts. I'll work such magic that I won't need a job. I'll live like a king,
and I'll get you free wine in every tavern in Wittenberg.
This is magic Dick can understand. He's won over by Robin's grand promises. The two clowns
go off together to get roaring drunk, leaving the horses unexercised and the devil to pay the
bill.
Magic, you see, has a strange effect on people. In Act I, when Wagner learned how to conjure,
it was no longer good enough to be Faustus' servant. Wagner wanted to have a servant of his
own. Now Robin has similar ideas. He doesn't see why he should slave for an innkeeper when
he can summon a demon to provide all his wants.
ACT III
THE CHORUS
The Chorus returns to fill you in on Faustus' activities over the years. Go back for a moment to
the Chorus' speech in Act I. Has his attitude toward Faustus changed? In the opening speech of
the play, the Chorus seemed to disapprove of Faustus. Now you just may hear a note of
admiration in his voice.
Look at the exploits the Chorus has to relate. Faustus- who couldn't get a straight answer from
Mephistophilis about the heavens- now flies among the stars himself in a dragon-powered
chariot. Faustus soars higher than an astronaut, right up to the ninth sphere of the universe. And
while he's up there, he gets a chance to correct the maps of Earth. These are high adventures,
indeed. For once, hell has lived up to its promises.
Marlowe now maneuvers Faustus' chariot into a landing pattern and brings the scholarmagician
skimming down over the Alps into Rome.
ACT III, SCENE I
NOTE: ROME AND THE ELIZABETHAN ENGLISHMAN
In Elizabethan England, Rome was the target of many criticisms. In those days, the Vatican
wasn't just a religious institution. It was a political power and a hotbed of European Catholic
plots against Protestant England. For years, Rome had incited English Catholics to rebel
against Queen Elizabeth and to place the Roman Catholic, Mary, Queen of Scots, on the
throne. Rome had also been involved in Philip of Spain's 1588 attempt to invade England by
sea. Not surprisingly, Elizabethan audiences roared their approval whenever Catholic
clergymen were portrayed as greedy monsters or as stuttering idiots. This scene, then, offers a
sample of Catholic-baiting. But first, Marlowe provides an interesting exchange between
Faustus and Mephistophilis in their airborne chariot.
Faustus is calmer now than when you saw him last. He has come to terms with his situation. He
intends to make the best of a bad bargain. He tells Mephistophilis that all he wants is to get the
most pleasure possible out of his remaining time on Earth. The spirit approves. He praises
Faustus' attitude. There's no use, he agrees, in crying over spilt milk. Mephistophilis has known
for centuries that life means the graceful acceptance of limits. Now, Faustus seems to know it
too.
What kind of relationship do you sense between Faustus and Mephistophilis in this scene?
Faustus calls the spirit, "Sweet Mephistophilis, gentle Mephistophilis" in a way that could
mean affection- or fear. And the spirit seems happy, in an austere way, to be sightseeing at
Faustus' side. Is there a real bond between the two? Or only a false camaraderie that dissolves
the instant Faustus defies the spirit's authority? What evidence can you offer in support of your
opinion?
Faustus and Mephistophilis have come to Rome at a time of papal festivities. The Pope is
celebrating his victory over a rival. (The collision between the Pope and Bruno, described in
this scene, belongs only to the 1616 text.) A magnificent papal procession enters. The redrobed
cardinals carry great jewelled crosses. The dark-robed monks and friars chant their
prayers. The Pope follows, leading a prisoner in chains. The prisoner is Saxon Bruno, a
German pretender to the papal throne. In a ruthless display of power, the Pope climbs to his
throne on his conquered rival's back.
NOTE: ON POPES AND KINGS
During the Middle Ages, Roman Catholic pontiffs were often at war with secular monarchs and
with each other. Sometimes there were two rival candidates for the papacy, and neither was
willing to back down gracefully. So the question was settled by force of arms, with secular
kings backing one candidate or the other. That's what happens in Doctor Faustus. King
Raymond of Hungary has supported Pope Adrian, while the Holy Roman Emperor (a German
king despite his fancy title) has backed the Antipope Bruno. When a ruler like the Holy Roman
Emperor defied the Pope, the pontiff had a weapon to use. It was called the "interdict," a papal
curse laid upon rulers and all the people in their domains. While the interdict lasted, all church
sacraments were denied throughout the entire kingdom. That meant no one could be married
by a priest, no one could receive holy communion, and none of the dying could receive last
rites. After a few grim years of this treatment, kings sometimes bowed to the pressure of their
people and submitted to the church. When Adrian arrogantly threatens to depose the Emperor
"and curse all the people that submit to him," he is talking about using the interdict.
Faustus decides, for sheer mischief's sake, to intervene in this clash of the pontiffs. He will
prick a hole in proud Adrian's balloon. As the cardinals troop off in solemn conclave to decide
Bruno's fate, Faustus sends Mephistophilis to put them all to sleep. While the cardinals snore
away, Faustus and Mephistophilis tiptoe among them and steal two of their gowns. Disguised
as cardinals in brilliant red silk, Faustus and the spirit appear before the Pope. Dolefully they
declare Bruno to be a Lollard (a Protestant heretic) and recommend that he be burnt at the
stake.
The Pope agrees. To Mephistophilis' glee, he and Faustus receive the papal blessing. "Was
never devil thus blessed before!" the spirit laughs. Faustus and Mephistophilis are given charge
of the prisoner Bruno and are told to lock him up in a tower. But they have other plans for the
papal pretender. They spirit him over the Alps to the safety of the Holy Roman Emperor's
court.
ACT III, SCENE II
As part of his victory celebration, the Pope is holding a banquet. Servants enter to lay out
sumptuous food. Faustus and Mephistophilis reappear on stage. They have shed their borrowed
cardinals' robes and now make themselves invisible in order to wreak havoc at the feast.
The Pope ushers in his guests of honor, King Raymond of Hungary and the Archbishop of
Reims. (In the 1604 text, the Pope's guest is the Cardinal of Lorraine.) One of the Vatican
cardinals timidly interrupts. Excuse me, your holiness, he asks. Don't you want to hear our
decision about the heretic Bruno? I've already heard it, the Pope answers, dismissing the
cardinal with a wave of his hand. When the poor cardinal persists, the Pope suspects treachery.
What do you mean you didn't pass sentence on Bruno? And what do you mean you can't
produce the prisoner? the Pope demands.
The Pope has good reason to be upset, but being the perfect host, he has the cardinal hauled off
in chains without interrupting the feast. Graciously, he offers a choice bit of meat to King
Raymond, explaining that the beautiful roast had been sent to him by the Archbishop of Milan.
As Raymond reaches out with his fork, the meat suddenly disappears. It is snatched away from
the Pope's hand by the invisible Faustus. The startled pontiff looks around, but of course he
sees nothing. He tries again with another "dainty dish," then a cup of wine. Both disappear in
the same astonishing way.
"Lollards!" screams the Pope. (Those wicked Protestants are capable of anything.) The
Archbishop suspects a ghost, and the Pope agrees. To exorcise the evil spirit, the Pope
frantically crosses himself.
Faustus, annoyed by the holy sign sprinkled like salt all over his food, boxes the Pope on the
ear. The Pope, wailing that he has been slain, is carried off by a group of distracted cardinals.
The feast breaks up in disarray. The friars come on stage to curse the unseen spirit in their
midst with bell, book, and candle.
NOTE: THE FRIARS' DIRGE
Bell, book, and candle were the symbolic elements of the rite of excommunication. They
reflected the last words of the solemn ceremony: "Do the book, quench the candle, ring the
bell." The friars' dirge that closes this scene is a grimly comic echo of the Black Mass
performed by Faustus in Act II, Scene I. Faustus turns the phrase bell, book, and candle
"forward and backward," just as he has done earlier with the letters that make up the name of
God.
The Vatican banquet is sheer slapstick comedy, and many readers are disturbed by its presence
in the play. You have moved from the flickering hell fires of the early scenes into the world of
Laurel and Hardy. After making you shudder at his black magician, Marlowe suddenly invites
you to guffaw.
What is Marlowe's purpose? Is he demeaning Faustus, deliberately making his hero trivial in
your eyes? Look, Marlowe may be saying, here's a man who bargained away his soul for
superhuman power. And what does he do with that power, once he gets it? He uses it to play
silly tricks on the Pope.
If this is Marlowe's message, then this scene has a Christian moral. Faustus takes up with the
devil and is debased by the company he keeps. You can trace Faustus' decline, within the act
itself, from the pursuits of star travel to his mindless clowning at the Vatican feast.
Other readers see a different interpretation of Marlowe's sudden change from seriousness to
farce. The real clown of the Vatican banquet, they note, isn't Faustus at all. It's the Pope. If
anything, Marlowe is making an anti-Christian statement. He's saying that churchmen are
pompous fools. He uses a Roman Catholic example because it was open season on Catholics in
the England of the 1590s. But the truth is, he means all churchmen, Catholics and Protestants
alike.
ACT III, SCENE III
At last sight, Robin was in search of a tavern where he promised his sidekick Dick to conjure
up spirits, both the kind you work magic with and the kind you drink. Now you find the two
clowns fleeing for their lives, with the vintner (or wine-seller) in hot pursuit. Robin has stolen a
wine cup which he pawns off, in a bit of stage fooling, on Dick. When challenged by the
vintner, Robin is outraged and plays innocent. Cup? Never saw your cup in my life. Frisk me,
if you like. Like Faustus, Robin has acquired the art of making wine cups vanish into thin air.
The vintner, sure of his man but cheated of his evidence, grows angrier by the minute. Feeling
the situation get out of hand, Robin whips out his conjuring book. Abracadabra, he mutters (or
the Latin equivalent). The spell works, and Mephistophilis appears.
Robin feels a rush of elation, but Mephistophilis is thoroughly disgusted. Here he is, servant to
the great prince of hell, whipped around the world at the whim of these ruffians. He will teach
the clowns a lesson. With a wave of his wand, Mephistophilis turns Robin into an ape and Dick
into a dog. The pair will make up a circus act, the ape riding on the dog's back and performing
silly tricks.
There are penalties for meddling with the powers of hell, though the clowns are too thoughtless
to feel them. Robin and Dick scamper off stage, apparently delighted with their fate.
ACT IV
THE CHORUS
The Chorus gives you a glimpse of the human side of Faustus. His friends have missed him
while he's been away- which may seem odd since Faustus has seemed like a loner.
After his travels abroad, Faustus stops home for a rest. All this flying about the world has
proved to be bone-wearying. Magic or no magic, Faustus is tired.
Faustus' friends greet him with affection and awe. Here's a man who knows the heavens firsthand.
Faustus walks the streets of Wittenberg with an aura of star dust about him. His fame as
an astrologer (astronomer) spreads throughout the land. He is even invited to the Holy Roman
Emperor's court.
ACT IV, SCENE I
The court is in a state of excitement. The Anti-pope Bruno has just materialized from nowhere.
(Remember Faustus and Mephistophilis whisked him out of Rome.) And Faustus follows hard
on Bruno's heels with the promise of some fabulous entertainment.
Faustus has told the Emperor he will raise the shade (that is, ghost) of Alexander the Great.
Faustus intends to summon from the underworld the ghost of the greatest conqueror the world
has ever known.
NOTE: ALEXANDER THE GREAT
Alexander was king of Greece and Macedonia in the fourth century B.C. He was called
Alexander the Great because, during his brief reign, he extended Greek rule all the way to
Egypt and India. He was a young, handsome, and fearless ruler, considered by the ancient
world to be almost a god. Darius of Persia was Alexander's enemy. The two kings clashed in
battle when Darius' army blocked Alexander's path to conquest in the East. Alexander's
paramour or lover is unnamed. But she is apparently the lovely Thais, whose beauty was
celebrated in ancient Greek poetry and song.
Martino and Frederick, two gentlemen-in-waiting, are bursting with expectation. Nothing like
this has ever been seen in Germany before. But there are skeptics about the court. Benvolio, in
a nightcap, recovering from a hangover, yawns at the whole business. Haven't they all had
enough of magic lately, what with Bruno's whirlwind arrival from Rome? How can you bear to
miss the show? Frederick asks Benvolio. Well, I suppose I'll watch it from my window here,
Benvolio replies without enthusiasm. That is, if I don't go back to bed first. (The entire
Benvolio episode is found only in the 1616 text of Doctor Faustus.)
ACT IV, SCENE II
The Emperor praises Faustus abundantly for his role in Bruno's rescue. "Wonder of men,
renowned magician, / Thrice-learned Faustus, welcome." The Emperor speaks the flowery,
extravagant language of the court, and Faustus responds in kind.
The magician promises the Emperor that his magic charms will "pierce through / The ebon
gates of ever-burning hell." Benvolio, at his window, sneers at Faustus' words. What a silly,
transparent boast! Admittedly, Faustus' language is pompous. But is he really boasting? He
does mean to raid the underworld for Alexander's ghost. (Faustus, you recall, makes no
distinction between the classic underworld, Elysium, and the fiery Christian hell.)
When the Emperor asks to behold Alexander the Great and the fabulous Thais, Benvolio yawns
again. If Faustus can produce these two, he mutters to himself, let me be turned into a stag.
Benvolio's remark is meant as an aside. But Faustus overhears it. He promises the skeptical
knight that he shall get his wish.
Faustus holds everyone in court but Benvolio in a state of breathless expectation. Trumpets
sound. Alexander the Great and Darius enter with drawn swords. Alexander slays his enemy
and places Darius' crown on Thais' lovely brow.
The Emperor is ecstatic. He jumps up from his throne and rushes over to embrace Alexander.
Before he can do so, he is stopped by Faustus' cautioning hand. The figures he has summoned,
Faustus warns, are "but shadows, not substantial." They can be seen, but not touched, nor can
they be spoken to. (Remember Faustus' warning when Helen's spirit appears in Act V.)
The Emperor wants to prove the reality of these ghosts. Since he cannot touch them, he has
another test in mind. He has heard that Thais had a single imperfection, a mole on her neck.
May he look? Yes, the mole is there. Faustus has raised Thais as she was, warts and all,
accurate to the last detail.
Yet these shades seem only half real. Although they are Alexander and Thais to the life, they
are airy things which cannot interact with flesh-and-blood human beings. They play their silent
parts as if they were inside a thick glass cage. So perhaps they have entertainment value only,
and Faustus is wasting his vast power on a fairly trivial trick.
The Emperor is impressed. Are you? You will have to decide whether this feat of Faustus' is
just a circus act or a display of power worthy of a great wizard.
Faustus now turns his attention to Benvolio. Look, he points at the knight, snoring at his
windowsill. Benvolio's head is weighed down by a heavy pair of stag's horns.
NOTE: BENVOLIO'S HORNS
In Elizabethan England, horns on a man's head were a sign that he was a cuckold. In other
words, his wife had been unfaithful to him. The Elizabethans did not sympathize with cuckolds.
They regarded wronged husbands as figures of ridicule. Benvolio's plight is terrible, indeed.
Not only has he lost his normal appearance, he's become an object of raillery for the entire
court. Those horns are Benvolio's punishment for skepticism. Faustus, a skeptic himself on
certain subjects, does not take it kindly when people disbelieve his magic.
As Benvolio awakes and feels his head with horror, Faustus addresses him with icy mirth. "O,
say not so, sir. The Doctor has no skill, / No art, no cunning" to put a pair of stag horns on your
head. Faustus is really rubbing it in, when the Emperor intervenes. He requests that Faustus (an
Emperor's request is a command) restore Benvolio to his normal shape.
ACT IV, SCENE III
Benvolio promises to take revenge on Faustus. He convinces his friends, Martino and
Frederick, to help him. They lay ambush for Faustus in a wood.
Either Faustus guesses their plans or his demons tip him off, for he enters the wood wearing a
false head on his shoulders. The ambushers attack and strike off what they assume to be
Faustus' head. They admire their grisly trophy and plan to wreak all sorts of indignities on it.
Faustus, of course, isn't dead at all. He's merely lying in wait for Benvolio, Frederick, and
Martino to make complete fools of themselves. Then he picks himself off the ground, keeping
his hood pulled down over his shoulders, and speaks to the terrified conspirators. Where, they
wonder in panic, is his voice coming from?
The "headless" magician informs the appalled knights that their efforts to kill him have been in
vain. For twenty-four years, until his contract with the devil expires, he can't be killed or
injured. He leads a charmed life.
Faustus summons his spirits (notice there are three of them now) to drag the ambushers through
the wood. Throw Martino into a lake, he orders. Drag Frederick through the briars. Hurl
Benvolio off a cliff.
As you've probably noticed, there's a lot of roughhouse and ghoulish stage business in this
scene. What do you think is the point of it all? This second encounter with Benvolio doesn't
advance the plot, and it doesn't tell you anything new about Faustus. You've seen him get the
better of Benvolio before. If you can't think of a point, then you'll understand why some readers
suspect this scene isn't Marlowe's. The mindless horror, plus those additional demons, may
point to a collaborator's work.
ACT IV, SCENE IV
Benvolio, Martino, and Frederick have taken quite a beating at the hands of Faustus' spirits.
They drag themselves out of the mud and briars to find that each of them now wears a pair of
stag horns on his head. They steal away to Benvolio's castle, where they can hide their shame
and live unobserved by the world. The horns are permanent now, since there is no merciful
Emperor around to make Faustus take them off.
NOTE: ON MAGICAL TRANSFORMATIONS
If you have read Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, you may want to compare
Benvolio's fate with that of Bottom the weaver. In Shakespeare's play, the mischievous fairies
give Bottom an ass' head to wear through the long summer night. But in the morning, they
restore Bottom to his original appearance. In contrast, Benvolio and his friends are left to
wear their stag horns forever. Shakespeare, with his love of harmony and his tenderness even
for fools, restores the world to normal. Marlowe, perhaps a crueler spirit, leaves undone his
magician's devilish work.
ACT IV, SCENE V
A horse-courser, or horse-trader, approaches Faustus with an offer to buy his horse. In
Elizabethan times, horse-traders were known for being cheats and sharp dealers. The trader
offers Faustus forty dollars (German coins) for his horse but apparently the price is low.
Faustus suggests fifty, but the horse-trader pleads poverty, so Faustus agrees to the deal.
As the trader starts to lead the horse away, Faustus stops him with a warning. Ride the horse
anywhere, but not into water. Why not? asks the suspicious trader. Faustus offers no
explanation, but the reason is simple. The horse is a demon spirit which will vanish in water.
The trader suspects some hidden power in the horse that Faustus didn't want to reveal. He rides
the animal into a pond. Two seconds later, he's left sitting on top of a wet bundle of hay.
So the sharp dealer is outsmarted. Was Faustus being honest with the man when he told him
not to ride the horse into water? Or was he deliberately arousing the trader's curiosity, knowing
full well the man would take the first opportunity to satisfy it? The question is of interest
because it makes you wonder how much humanity is left in Faustus. As soon as the trader
departs, Faustus has one of those moments of introspection which occur so rarely now. "What
art thou, Faustus, but a man condemned to die?" Possibly, Faustus has remembered that we are
all human beings condemned to die. Perhaps he has felt a fleeting sense of brotherhood with
the poor trader.
More likely, however, Faustus has intended all along to cheat the horse dealer. He's devised
this elaborate trick to distract his thoughts from approaching death. The faster Faustus runs, the
less time he has to think. Whenever he stops his feverish activity, as he does for a moment
now, the terror comes upon him. Faustus escapes his fear this time by falling asleep.
The wet horse-trader returns in a rage to demand his money back. He finds Faustus asleep on a
chair, and he tugs at the magician's leg to wake him up. To the trader's horror, Faustus' leg
comes off. (Remember, Faustus has a demon's body now, and he can play macabre tricks with
it.) The trader flees in terror with Faustus yelling "Murder!" at the top of his lungs. Faustus
roars with laughter at his joke. He has the trader's money, and the trader has no horse.
Is this scene funny? Are you supposed to laugh with Faustus at the horse-trader's rout? Or are
you supposed to be shocked and saddened at the level to which Faustus has sunk?
ACT IV, SCENE VI
The horse-trader meets the clowns, Robin and Dick, in a nearby tavern. (This episode is found
only in the 1616 text.) The trader is still fuming about his vanished horse. He tells his story, but
he changes a few details to make himself out a hero.
Know what I did to pay Faustus back for his nasty trick? the horse-trader confides. I attacked
him while he was sleeping, and I yanked off his leg. No kidding? says Dick. I'm glad to hear it.
That damn demon of his made me look like an ape.
A carter or cart driver joins the party. He has a weird tale of his own to tell. The carter has met
Faustus on the road to Wittenberg, where the magician offered him a small sum of money for
all the hay he could eat. The carter, realizing that men don't eat hay, accepted the sum,
whereupon Faustus devoured his whole wagon-load. It's really a grotesque story. Faustus'
runaway appetites seem to have turned him into a fairy-tale monster, like a troll.
The carter, the horse-trader, and the clowns continue to drink ale. Full of false courage, they
decide to find the magician and give him a rough time about his missing leg.
ACT IV, SCENE VII
Faustus has been summoned to the Duke of Vanholt's castle, where he's busy showing off his
magic arts. He asks the Duchess, who is pregnant, if there is any special food she craves. The
Duchess admits she has a yen for grapes. Only it's January, she sighs. Snow covers the ground,
and the grapes have long since vanished from the vines.
Faustus replies graciously that grapes are no trouble at all. He sends Mephistophilis whizzing
around the globe to warmer climates. The spirit returns in a twinkling of an eye with a ripe
cluster of grapes.
This scene asks you to exercise some historical imagination. In the twentieth century, we have
electric freezers for storing summer fruits and vegetables during the winter. But the
Elizabethans didn't. In their eating habits, the Elizabethans were strictly subject to the seasons.
With that point in mind, what do you think of Faustus' latest trick? Is it just some good-natured
hocus-pocus that you shouldn't take too seriously? Or is Faustus doing something rather
impressive by thumbing his nose at the calendar?
The issue at stake, as you've probably guessed, is Faustus' dignity. Either he retains the heroic
stature he had in the early scenes, or he deteriorates as he wades deeper and deeper into eviland
into the illusions of Lucifer's hell.
You can make an argument for Faustus' steady decline that runs something like this. In Act II,
Faustus wanted knowledge and questioned Mephistophilis about the stars. In Act III, Faustus
opted for experience and enjoyed the delights of travel. But by Act IV, Faustus has become
obsessed with food. All he can think about is something to eat- hay for himself, "dainties" for
pregnant women, and so on. In other words, Faustus began with noble aims, but under the
influence of demons, he's gone steadily downhill. This leads you back to the play's Christian
moral.
The rowdy crew from the tavern descends on the castle of Vanholt. They bang on the gates and
loudly call for Faustus to show himself. The Duke is shocked and wants to call the police. But
Faustus says no. Let the louts be admitted. We'll all have a good laugh at their expense.
The noisy, snow-splattered group invades the quiet stone halls of the castle. They are drunk,
and the horse-trader calls loudly for beer. Then he starts ribbing Faustus about his supposed
wooden leg. (Remember, the trader boasted in the tavern about the way he injured Faustus by
pulling off his leg. The horse-trader, the carter, and the clowns all believe Faustus is crippled.)
The trader wants to humiliate Faustus by publicizing his deformity. Stop denying you have a
wooden leg, he explodes. I know I pulled your leg off while you were asleep. Faustus lifts his
robe to reveal two very healthy limbs. The tavern crew breaks into noisy protests. Faustus
decides it's time to silence the fools. With a wave of his hand, he strikes each of them dumb in
mid-sentence.
ACT V, SCENE I
A puzzled Wagner appears on stage. He suspects his master is dying. Faustus has made a will
leaving Wagner all his property. What troubles Wagner is that Faustus doesn't behave as if he
is dying. He doesn't lie in bed, for instance, and send for the priest. Instead, he drinks the night
away with his cronies from Wittenberg. What's Faustus up to?
The scholars who are Faustus' guests this night beg him for some after-dinner entertainment.
They have heard of Faustus' reputation for raising the shades of the dead. They want to see the
most beautiful woman who has ever lived- Helen of Troy.
NOTE: HELEN OF TROY
Paris, son of King Priam of Troy, fell in love with Helen, wife of the Greek king, Menelaus.
With the help of the goddess of love, Paris stole Helen from her husband's side. The enraged
Menelaus called upon the other Grecian kings to help him avenge his honor and win back his
wife. The Greeks set sail for Troy, and for ten years, laid siege to the city (this was the Trojan
War). Finally, unable to win a decisive battle, they entered Troy by treachery (hidden inside
the Trojan Horse) and burned the city to the ground. The Trojan War was the subject of
Homer's epic, The Iliad. The Renaissance admired Homer above all other poets. In this scene,
Faustus acts like a truly great teacher by bringing the greatest epic of the classic world to life.
As Helen walks across the stage, the scholars sing her praises. She is incomparably beautiful,
"the pride of Nature's works." As the scholars' words suggest, Helen represents the glories of
this world, set against the glories of the next. With her bright eyes and radiant hair, she is
Nature's ultimate challenge to God.
An Old Man comes on stage now to present God's side of the case. You must imagine what he
looks like to understand what he means to Faustus. The Old Man is stooped over and walks
with a cane. He has wrinkles, gray hair, and weary eyes.
Though Faustus is twenty-four years older now than he was at the start of the play, he shows
none of these signs of age. His contract with the devil has protected him. Faustus' demon body
is untouched by the indignities of time.
Yet the Old Man's eyes shine with a light of faith that captures Faustus' attention. When the
Old Man speaks, Faustus listens respectfully. There is no scoffing from the magician now.
The Old Man gently scolds Faustus for the magic which has lured him away from God. So far,
he tells Faustus, you have sinned like a man. "Do not persevere in it like a devil." He means
that Faustus still has a human soul and can be forgiven by God.
The Old Man's words tear through the veil of illusion that magic has created in this Wittenberg
house. They set off a final struggle in Faustus, though, as in Act II, Faustus at first despairs at
the very idea of salvation.
You might imagine how he feels after all those years of denying God and serving Lucifer- all
the favors he has had from hell. How can he back out of his bargain now? "Hell claims its
right," a right which Faustus acknowledges. And he will do hell right by killing himself.
NOTE: ON SUICIDE
Suicide is a mortal sin which will damn Faustus just as surely as the expiration of his contract
with Lucifer. As Faustus is well aware, hell is not at all fussy about the manner in which it
acquires his soul.
Faustus reaches for the dagger which Mephistophilis- no friendly spirit now- puts in his hand.
The Old Man intercedes. He tells Faustus not to despair and to remember God's mercy. He
points to the sky overhead. Look, an angel hovers there, ready to fill your soul with grace.
Faustus looks up. Does he see an angel too? Or is the air vacant to his eyes?
Whatever he sees, Faustus calms down and thanks his advisor for his good counsel. The Old
Man shuffles off, leaving Faustus to his conscience- and to Mephistophilis.
The spirit is right there to threaten Faustus with torture if he so much as thinks of repentance.
"Revolt," he orders Faustus (he means from these thoughts of God), "or I'll in piecemeal tear
thy flesh." Courage has never been one of the scholar's strong points, and he pales at the threat.
He urges Mephistophilis to turn on the Old Man. Torture him. Him! Not me! Faustus pleads.
Mephistophilis shrugs his shoulders. I can hurt the Old Man's body, I suppose, but I can't touch
his soul. However, anything to please.
And may I have Helen? Faustus asks, his thoughts abandoning the grace he has been offered
for the beautiful shade who has just crossed the stage. I'll be back with her, Mephistophilis
promises, "in a twinkling of an eye." (That phrase again suggests a magician's sleight of hand,
when the audience barely blinks.) The caresses of the most beautiful woman in history will be
Faustus' last diversion and the final payment hell will make for his soul.
As Helen returns, Faustus greets her with a speech that makes you wonder if she isn't worth the
price:
"Was this the face that launched a thousand ships
And burnt the topless towers of Ilium [Troy]?"
Did Helen cause the destruction of a city, the agonies of war, the death of ancient heroes? Who
can doubt it? For such beauty as this, Troy was well lost.
Helen dazzles Faustus. Her radiance seems to bring tears to his eyes, so that he describes not a
woman but the shimmering effect of light. Helen outshines the evening stars. She is brighter
than flaming Jove, the king of the gods, when he dallied in the arms of nymphs whose very
names (Semele and Arethusa) sound like all the pleasures of love.
"Sweet Helen," Faustus murmurs in ecstasy, "make me immortal with a kiss." He moves to
embrace her. As Faustus kisses Helen, he cries, "Her lips suck forth my soul!" Possibly this is a
lover's rhapsody, or a disturbing hint that Helen may be a succuba (demon).
NOTE: A SUCCUBA
A succuba was a demon spirit who assumed human form to have intercourse with men.
Intercourse with demons was an unpardonable sin in the eyes of the church. If Helen is a
succuba, then Faustus, by claiming her as his lover, is beyond redemption. When he says, "Her
lips suck forth my soul!" he is being quite literal. That's just what her lips are doing.
The Old Man, who has been watching this romantic interlude from the wings, hurls damnation
at Faustus like an Old Testament prophet. He is set upon by devils. Torture is the test of his
faith which he passes with flying colors. Heaven opens its gates to welcome him.
Faustus sweeps Helen off stage in his arms. At best, he has chosen worldly beauty over
otherworldly
grace. At worst, he holds a creature whose fairness disguises an ugly moral reality. As
the Old Man enters heaven by the straight and narrow gate, Faustus takes the primrose path to
hell.
Yet, you should ask yourself how deeply you quarrel with Faustus' choice. Suppose a religious
advisor warned you against a passion for the loveliest woman or the handsomest man in the
world. What would you do about it?
Admittedly, Faustus doesn't love Helen in any meaningful sense. He is infatuated with physical
looks. But is Faustus' response to Helen a sign of gross physical appetite- or of a moving
sensitivity to beauty? That's an important question because whichever it is, it's what damns
Faustus in the end.
ACT V, SCENE II
In the 1616 text, Lucifer and Belzebub enter to watch Faustus' final hours. They stand on a
balcony above the stage, looking down at the scene to come. The two princes of hell make a
suggestive picture. The devils are on top of the world, running the show.
Faustus comes from his study, where he has completed a new will. The scholars of Wittenberg
greet him with concern. They have come expecting the usual food and good cheer. Instead,
they find a white-faced Faustus, the somber testament of a will in his hand.
Are you sick? they ask Faustus. Maybe it's only a bit of indigestion, one scholar suggests.
("Surfeit," the word he uses, means overindulgence of the appetite. Not a bad diagnosis of
Faustus' trouble.)
Part of Faustus yearns toward these companions. "Ah, my sweet chamber-fellow," he turns to
one of them who, years ago, shared his dormitory. "Had I lived with thee"- had I stayed with
the common herd of scholars- "then had I lived still."
But part of Faustus insists on isolation, exclusivity. He takes a certain pride in the enormity of
his sin. The serpent who tempted Eve may be forgiven, he says, but not Faustus. The magician
will be great to the last, if great only in his offense.
The scholars give Faustus the usual advice. Pray, man. Turn to God. But these are really just
platitudes. The scholars lack the wisdom to rise to the occasion. Finally, they withdraw into the
next room, leaving Faustus alone to die. As in the morality plays, the friends of Everyman
abandon him on the path to the grave.
In the 1616 text, there is a last exchange between Faustus and Mephistophilis. Faustus accuses
the spirit of having put temptation in his way. "Bewitching fiend," he cries. "You're the one
who's robbed me of paradise."
Faustus made this accusation once before (see II, iii), and Mephistophilis had denied it. But
now the spirit freely admits the charge. Yes, it was all my doing, Faustus. And one of my most
brilliant jobs. You almost slipped away from me while you were reading the Bible. But I made
sure you found no hope there. (Remember those two Biblical passages which, when read
together, seemed to prove to Faustus that he was doomed? Mephistophilis is saying he made
sure Faustus read those passages back-to-back.)
This is quite an admission on the spirit's part. And for some readers, it casts long shadows over
the play. If Mephistophilis stood unseen (and as yet unsummoned) at Faustus' elbow, turning
the leaves of the Bible, who knows what other nasty tricks he has played? Switched a succuba
for the shade of Helen, no doubt. Perhaps even sent Valdes and Cornelius to call. Is Faustus
responsible for any of his actions? Or has he been just a puppet all this time, with
Mephistophilis pulling the strings?
To what degree, after all, has Faustus been in control of his fate? It's not an easy question. You
can cite plenty of evidence in the play for free will. The Old Man's warning, for instance,
makes sense only if Faustus is free to accept the grace he is offered, free to choose the Old
Man's way. But you can also argue that Faustus is right in his feeling that he's been doomed all
along. Mephistophilis' speech points in this direction. So does Lucifer's unexpected arrival (II,
ii), when Faustus desperately calls on Christ.
Still in the 1616 text, Faustus is now shown the heaven he has forfeited and the hell he has
earned. As sweet music plays, a heavenly throne descends toward the stage. The Good Angel
appears and tells Faustus, Ah, if you had only listened to me, there you would be seated like the
saints in glory.
The throne hovers above Faustus' head, within his vision, but forever out of reach. And now, a
trap door on stage opens, revealing hell. The Evil Angel makes Faustus look down into the
burning pit, where grinning devils are torturing the damned. As Faustus turns away in horror,
the clock strikes the eleventh hour of Faustus' last day on earth.
Faustus' final soliloquy runs fifty-nine lines, one for every minute of the hour that remains.
Time is the subject of the speech, as Faustus tries frantically to stop time or at least to slow it
down. He calls to the stars to halt in the sky and to the sun to rise again in the west, bringing
back the precious day.
The poignant speech replays the heroic themes of Act I, only this time in a sad minor key.
Faustus wanted to be a god, to command "all things that move between the quiet poles." But
the stars wheel in the heavens now in response to far different commands than his. Faustus' cry
of protest is grand, and grandly futile. Like every human being since Adam, Faustus finds he is
trapped in time.
NOTE: "RUN SLOWLY, SLOWLY..."
A classicist to the last, Faustus recalls a line from Ovid, the Latin love poet. "O lente, lente
currite noctis equi." Run slowly, slowly, horses of the night. The line falls ironically in the
midst of Faustus' death scene, for the difference in Faustus' situation and the original speaker's
is great. In Ovid's poem, the lover longs for night to last so that he may continue to he in the
arms of his beloved. Faustus, of course, wants the night to endure because the sun will rise on
the dawn of his torment. The Latin words sound like a last attempt to cast a spell. But it doesn't
work. if anything, the pace of time speeds up. "The stars move still, time runs, the clock will
strike."
Faustus has a vision. Far off in the night sky, he sees the streaming blood of Christ. You
remember when Faustus signed a contract with the devil, his own blood refused to flow. He
asked Mephistophilis, "Why streams it not?" And the spirit brought coals to set it flowing
afresh. Christ's blood streams in the heavens now as a sign of divine mercy, withheld from
Faustus because of his own denial of God.
The clock strikes eleven-thirty. The seconds are ticking away much too fast. And yet, time
stretches away before Faustus in that dizzyingly endless expanse we call eternity. Faustus will
burn in hell a billion years- only the beginning of his torment. Faustus wanted immortality, and
he has found it in an unlooked-for way.
The clock strikes midnight. The thunder roars. Leaping devils come on stage to carry Faustus
away. Faustus makes his final, frantic plea. "I'll burn my books," cries this seeker of forbidden
knowledge. Well, he will burn for them, at any rate. And then a shriek, "Mephistophilis!" A cry
for help? An accusation? A shock of recognition? Then Faustus disappears through the trap
door into the yawning mouth of hell.
If you are reading the 1604 text, the play ends here.
ACT V, SCENE III
After a dreadful night, a quiet morning dawns. The scholars find Faustus' torn body, and
though they deplore his fate, they honor his great learning. Wittenberg will hold a stately
funeral.
The Chorus returns for a final word. He speaks like a Christian moralist now. The Chorus has
severe qualms about all this classic learning. One has only to look at its effect on Faustus.
NOTE: ON THE IMAGE OF THE BURNT LAUREL BOUGH
The laurel was the sacred tree of Apollo, the Greek god of intellect. When the Chorus says,
"Burned is Apollo's laurel bough / That sometime grew within this learned man," he means that
Faustus, the avid classicist, followed the classics too far. Spurred on by the freedom of ancient
Greek thought, Faustus delved into knowledge forbidden by the church. As a result, he found
the searing Christian hell, never imagined by the Greeks.
Let Faustus' fall be a lesson to everyone, the Chorus continues, not to practice magic. There is
nothing wrong with curiosity, but for God's sake, don't touch.
The great disturbance at Wittenberg is over. The scholars return to their studies. The professors
give their everyday lectures, unassisted by ghosts. And peace returns to the university. Or does
it? Look again at the Chorus' last words:
Faustus is gone: regard his hellish fall,
Whose fiendful fortune may exhort the wise
Only to wonder at unlawful things
Whose deepness doth entice such forward wits
To practice more than heavenly power permits.
Faustus may be roasting in hell, but magic has lost none of its appeal. Its very deepness testifies
to its enduring fascination.
The old men of Wittenberg may have won the day for now. They have succeeded, for the time
being, in clamping down on the questionable practice of wizardry. But the "forward wits," the
young scholars, are still champing at the bit, waiting for their chance to rush into necromancy.
As long as young men have adventurous spirits, the university hasn't heard the last of black
magic. Not by a long shot.
A STEP BEYOND
THE STORY
[Doctor Faustus Contents] [The Study Web Home Page]
© Copyright 1985 by Barron's Educational Series, Inc.
Electronically Enhanced Text © Copyright 1993, World Library, Inc.
Doctor Faustus
Christopher Marlowe
A STEP BEYOND
TESTS AND ANSWERS
TEST 1
_____ 1. Faustus sells his soul to the devil primarily for
A. immortality
B. limitless knowledge
C. Helen of Troy
_____ 2. The Vatican banquet is an example of
A. Faustus' great appetite
B. Marlowe's atheism
C. satire on the Catholic Church
_____ 3. One thing Faustus does not request of Mephistophilis is
A. a golden crown
B. a wife
C. information about the stars
_____ 4. When Faustus dies, the scholars of Wittenberg
A. deny him Christian burial
B. foreswear (give up) the practice of magic
C. plan a stately funeral
_____ 5. Robin the clown agrees to serve Wagner because he
A. needs money
B. is frightened into it by demons
C. wants to learn about magic
_____ 6. Faustus' contract with the devil specifies that Faustus will
I. visit the heavens
II. have Mephistophilis to serve him
III. take on the attributes of a demon
A. I and II only
B. I and III only
C. II and III only
_____ 7. "Then be thou as great as Lucifer" is an example of
I. blank verse
II. poetic imagery
III. irony
A. I and II only
B. I and III only
C. II and III only
_____ 8. Lucifer calls for the parade of the Seven Deadly Sins in order to
I. reward Faustus for his surrender
II. divert Faustus' thoughts
III. show Faustus his future in hell
A. I and II only
B. I and III only
C. II and III only
_____ 9. "Was this the _____ that launched a thousand _____"
A. woman... heroes
B. face... ships
C. angel... warriors
_____ 10. The proverb that best applies to Faustus is
A. pride goeth before a fall
B. a little learning is a dangerous thing
C. eat, drink, and be merry, for tomorrow we die
11. Is Mephistophilis Faustus' friend or his deadly enemy?
12. Why doesn't Faustus repent?
13. What role do diversions play in Doctor Faustus?
14. How does magic affect the comic characters, Wagner and Robin?
15. What does the Chorus think of Faustus?
TEST 2
_____ 1. In Doctor Faustus, hell is not described as
A. a burning pit
B. psychological pain
C. an old wives' tale
_____ 2. Faustus is tempted to take up magic mostly by
A. Valdes and Cornelius
B. the Evil Angel
C. himself
_____ 3. During the final hours of his life Faustus tries to
A. make his peace with God
B. stop the clock from striking midnight
C. hide from the devils who will come for him
_____ 4. The setting for Doctor Faustus can best be described as
A. Germanic
B. collegiate
C. cosmic
_____ 5. Faustus' next-to-last words are
A. "I confound hell with Elysium"
B. "I'll burn my books"
C. "Make me immortal with a kiss"
_____ 6. The episode with the horse-courser can be called
I. a bad joke
II. a diversion
III. highway robbery
A. I and II only
B. II and III only
C. I, II, and III
_____ 7. "What will be, shall be" is Faustus' argument for
I. disregarding the Bible
II. taking up magic
III. becoming the lover of Helen of Troy
A. I and II only
B. II and III only
C. I, II, and III
_____ 8. Faustus leaves Wagner his money because
I. Faustus is a lonely man
II. Wagner has been loyal
III. the scholars have proved to be fair-weather friends
A. I and II only
B. II and III only
C. I, II, and III
_____ 9. The emperor wants to see if Thais has a mole because
A. he doesn't believe in perfect beauty
B. the mole is hereditary, and Thais is his ancestor
C. he wants to make sure Thais is real
_____ 10. One of Faustus' saving graces is
A. responsiveness to beauty
B. a sense of humor
C. manly fortitude
11. What is the definition of hell in this play?
12. Faustus dreams that magic will bring him limitless power. To what extent do his dreams
come true?
13. How do the Old Man and Helen function as dramatic opposites in Act V?
14. Is Faustus a Renaissance or medieval hero? Justify your response.
15. Find three examples of hyperbole (exaggeration), and discuss Marlowe's specific
techniques.
ANSWERS
TEST 1
1. B
2. C
3. A
4. C
5. . B
6. . C
7. . B
8. A
9. B
10. A
11. If you take the position that Mephistophilis is Faustus' friend, you'll want to prove that
Mephistophilis cares for Faustus and would spare him hell's torments, if he could. You'll find
your best ammunition in the third scene of the play. Point out that, here, Mephistophilis
specifically warns Faustus against any involvement with hell. He is honest and moving in his
description of the suffering that awaits Faustus. It is the arrogant Faustus who ignores the
spirit's danger signal.
When you deal with Mephistophilis in the later scenes- the Mephistophilis who holds Faustus
firmly to his agreement- be sure to mention that the spirit isn't free. He is Lucifer's servant and
must obey his master's orders, however distasteful he finds them.
If you decide that Mephistophilis is Faustus' enemy, you will argue that the spirit is eager for
Faustus' damnation and plans for it all along. In this interpretation, Mephistophilis' "friendly"
warning in Scene III is just a trick to get Faustus to trust him. And once he has that trust, the
spirit lies shamelessly to Faustus. Mephistophilis cons Faustus into signing the contract with
hell under the totally false promise that Faustus will be "as great as Lucifer." After Faustus has
signed the contract, the spirit holds him to it relentlessly. Mephistophilis bars Faustus' way to
repentance with daggers and threats of torture. If you are reading the 1616 text, you can clinch
your argument with the spirit's jeering speech in Act V, Scene II, where he rejoices in Faustus'
fate and boasts that he has brought it about single-handedly.
12. There are two ways to attack this question. You can argue that Faustus doesn't really want
to repent. His failure to do so stems from a lack of motivation. Or you can argue that Faustus
wants repentance, but isn't permitted it. All the forces of hell stand between Faustus and God.
If you believe that Faustus is insincere in his talk of repentance, you can marshall the following
evidence: (1) Faustus is a skeptic. He can't turn to God with any real feeling because he doesn't
believe in God. (2) Faustus is too easily distracted from thoughts of repentance in order for his
contrition to be genuine. Just mention wealth to Faustus (II, i) or show him a beautiful woman
(V, i), and he forgets all about God. (3) Faustus is too proud and too sensual a man to repent.
He's just not the type to lead a penitent's life of humility and self-denial.
If you believe that Faustus is sincere about repentance, then you'll have to prove that he's
trapped in sin by forces beyond his control. You can mention (1) Lucifer's dramatic appearance
(II, ii) when Faustus is on his knees, calling to Christ. It would take a martyr to stand up to the
fury of the monarch of hell, and Faustus is no martyr. (2) The Evil Angel's all-too-cogent
argument. Marlowe seems to have stacked the deck by giving the Evil Angel the persuasive
words and the Good Angel the weaker arguments. (3) Mephistophilis' threats of torture, when
the Old Man has all but converted Faustus. Poor Faustus doesn't have the courage to face being
torn apart. But then, who does?
13. Diversions are hell's way of keeping Faustus' mind occupied, so that he doesn't think about
death and damnation. You should choose at least three examples of diversion in the play and
explain what purpose each one serves. For example, you might discuss (1) Mephistophilis' adlib
show in Act II Scene I, which distracts Faustus' attention from the warning inscription on
his arm and gets the scholar to hand over the contract. (2) Lucifer's pageant of the Seven
Deadly Sins in Act II, Scene II, which captures Faustus' interest after his abortive attempt at
repentance and makes him wonder what other marvels hell has in store. (3) The trick Faustus
plays on the horse-courser in Act IV, Scene V, which takes the magician's mind off thoughts of
his approaching death. Faustus, well trained in the ways of hell, provides this diversion for
himself.
There are many other examples from which to choose. You might discuss the elaborate feasts
Faustus holds for the scholars of Wittenberg (V, i); the journey to Rome (III, i); and the most
wonderful diversion of all, Helen of Troy.
14. To answer this question, you'll need to focus only on two or three scenes in the play.
In Act I, Scene IV, Wagner has learned how to conjure. Being Faustus' servant is not good
enough for him any more. Wagner now wants a servant of his own. Heady with the sense of his
new powers, Wagner summons two devils to impress the clown, Robin, into his service.
By Act II, Scene III, Robin has caught on to the idea. He has stolen one of Faustus' conjuring
books and plans to learn magic, so that he can tell his master off and live on the devil's handouts.
For both these lower-class characters, magic means new ambitions, aspirations above their
station in life. You might want to mention that Robin's swelled head gets him into trouble. The
clown manages to summon Mephistophilis, who turns him into an ape.
15. To answer this question, you will have to analyze carefully the Chorus' language in his four
appearances. (See the beginning of Acts I, III, IV, and the end of Act V.) You may decide that
the Chorus has ambivalent feelings toward Faustus- that he admires Faustus' achievement but
deplores his godless beliefs. Or you may feel that the Chorus changes his mind about Faustus
over the course of the play. In your essay, be sure to discuss the Icarus image and that of the
burnt laurel bough.
TEST 2
1. B
2. C
3. B
4. C
5. B
6. C
7. A
8. A
9. C
10. A
11. This is a tricky question because Marlowe makes use of three different concepts of hell. (1)
Though Faustus avails himself of hell's services, at times he denies the existence of hell. In Act
II, Faustus calls hell "a fable" and claims that there is no hell at all. (2) Mephistophilis, an
apparent expert on the subject, describes hell as a real, if unlocalized place. The spirit says hell
is where the damned dwell, forever banished from the light of God. (3) Faustus is sent to a hell
which is a very tangible pit of fire. This is the hell suggested by the setting of Doctor Faustus,
where a smoking trapdoor is a constant reminder of flame just below the stage.
There is perhaps a fourth definition of hell implied in the play. Hell exists, but it is here and
now. Hell is the human condition. It is life itself because in life we are subjected to the
frustration of our dreams and to the terrors of death and old age.
Do you find one definition of hell more convincing than the others? If so, develop this in your
essay and explain your choice.
12. Most readers of the play sense a large gap between Faustus' original hopes for magic and
the realization of those hopes. The inspiration is grand, the price is terrible, and the stage
business verges on the ludicrous.
If you agree with this interpretation, you can prove your case by comparing Faustus' glowing
dreams in Act I with his trivial magic tricks in Acts III and IV. Faustus envisions fabulous
riches, but ends up robbing a working man of his coins. Faustus dreams of power over Nature,
dominion over the winds and the clouds. Yet all he has to show for it is a bunch of out-ofseason
grapes. Curiously, Faustus seems smugly pleased with himself as he pulls off these silly
stunts. Somewhere along the line, the dreamer has vanished and the showman in Faustus has
taken over.
You will find it a little more difficult to argue that Faustus realizes his dreams and becomes a
great wizard after all. But you can do it. You will want to point out the limits of Elizabethan
stagecraft and mention that Elizabethan audiences took the word for the deed. In their eyes, a
bunch of grapes stood for all of Nature, as a pot stood for a kitchen or a bush for the Forest of
Arden.
You should also mention that the Holy Roman Emperor, a sophisticated ruler, is left speechless
when Faustus summons the ghost of Alexander the Great. And you will point to Faustus' truly
impressive feats of magic in the play- his trek among the stars, described by the Chorus in Act
II, and his raising of the most exquisite of Homeric shades.
13. In the last act of the play, the Old Man and Helen are two rival contenders for Faustus' soul.
Of the two characters, the Old Man is undoubtedly real. His gray hair and wrinkles are the
harsh results of life. Helen, on the other hand, is eternally young and beautiful. Thousands of
years after the Trojan War, she is as radiant as she was on the day Paris stole her from her
husband's side. But Helen is a shade, a ghost, an airy thing not made of flesh and blood.
Point out in your essay that the Old Man is a spokesman for faith. In the entire play, he's the
only human being who believes profoundly in God. The Old Man fervently pleads with Faustus
to turn from magic and its illusory delights. By precept and example, he tries to persuade
Faustus to accept heaven's grace.
Helen does not open her mouth. Nonetheless, she's an effective spokesman for worldly
pleasure. With her exquisite beauty, Helen is a walking argument for love.
In your essay, you will have to take a position for or against Helen's authenticity. If you think
Helen is the real Helen, then talk about her as Nature's supreme creation- this world's answer to
the next. If you think Helen is a demon spirit, then describe her as a sort of watch dog for hell,
brought on by Mephistophilis to guard Faustus' soul against the Old Man's persuasions.
14. This is a difficult question, and one you can't answer by reading Doctor Faustus alone. You
will have to draw on your knowledge of Shakespearean drama. You should also get a copy of
Everyman, so that you will have some first-hand information about medieval morality plays.
(You will find Everyman in many anthologies, like the Norton Anthology of English
Literature.)
The question is included in this guide because it's a popular essay, and one you should be
prepared to answer if you're studying Doctor Faustus in a college-level drama course.
To argue that Faustus is a Renaissance hero, you'll want to point out that, unlike Everyman, he
is very much an individual. Faustus has a well-documented background, a hometown, and an
Alma Mater. In this, Faustus resembles Hamlet, for example, whose upbringing in the Danish
court and whose scholarly pursuits are germane to Shakespeare's play. Faustus also has
distinctly Renaissance aspirations. He wants to take advantage of the possibilities of knowledge
and sensations that were just opening up in the sixteenth century. The emerging sciences
fascinate Faustus. And his yen for New World fruits reflects his interest in the recent voyages
of discovery.
To argue that Faustus is a medieval hero, you will want to talk about the many holdovers in
Marlowe's drama from the medieval morality plays. Faustus lives in a world of angels and
demons, supernatural beings who belong to the medieval stage. Like a medieval hero, Faustus
has direct dealings with heaven and hell. (God is a character in Everyman, but divine
intervention vanishes entirely from the English Renaissance stage.) Finally, Faustus pays a
medieval hero's penalty for his sin. Because of his overbearing ambition, Faustus is sent to an
eternity of torment in hell. (Macbeth, for a similar transgression, suffers agonies of mind in the
here and now.)
Still a third possibility is to portray Faustus as a man caught between two worlds. For help with
this kind of answer, see the sections on Characters and Setting. 15. The best examples of hyperbole can be found in Acts I and V. If you choose as one
example the Helen of Troy speech, you would point out that the speech begins with a rhetorical
question in which Faustus implies that the whole world would be well lost for Helen's love.
The speech goes on to include highly poetic and exaggerated comparisons. ("O, thou art fairer
than the evening air," etc.) In addition, it draws on Trojan War heroes to heighten Faustus'
nobility. You might mention, however, that an undercurrent of irony in the speech works
against the high notes of a lover's rapture. For more help on hyperbole, see the section on Style.
[Doctor Faustus Contents]
TERM PAPER IDEAS AND OTHER TOPICS FOR WRITING
l CHARACTER ANALYSIS
1. Is Faustus a hero?
2. What kind of relationship exists between Faustus and Mephistophilis?
3. Why is Wagner Mephistophilis' heir?
4. Does Faustus choose to be damned? Or is he forced into it by demons?
5. What role do Valdes and Cornelius play in Doctor Faustus?
6. Of all the things that Faustus desires, what does he desire most?
7. How does Benvolio resemble Faustus?
8. Write an entry in Wagner's diary, and date it from the last month of Faustus' life.
9. Wagner tells Robin to follow in his footsteps. How does Robin carry out the
order?
10. Contrast the characters of the Pope and the Old Man.
11. Why do the central relationships of Faustus' life involve spirits and shades, not
human beings?
l LITERARY TECHNIQUE
1. What is the point of the Icarus image in the prologue?
2. What examples of hyperbole (exaggeration) can you find in Faustus' speech to
Helen of Troy?
3. Why is there so much Latin in the play?
4. How does Marlowe change the verse line to show frustration or uncertainty in
Faustus?
5. Find three examples of irony in Doctor Faustus and explain what purpose the
irony serves.
l SETTING
1. What do you learn about Faustus from his study?
2. Why is the University of Wittenberg in a state of unease?
3. What use does Marlowe make of the trapdoor on the Elizabethan stage?
4. Compare the world of Doctor Faustus to a medieval painting.
l THEMES
1. Would Marlowe agree with this statement: "A man's reach should exceed his
grasp, or what's a heaven for?" (The quotation is from Robert Browning's
"Andrea del Sarto.") Why?
2. Does Doctor Faustus have a Christian moral? What is it?
3. According to Marlowe, hell is _______________. Finish the sentence, and
explain your answer.
l BEYOND THE PLAY
1. What do Marlowe and Faustus have in common? Is Doctor Faustus an
autobiographical play?
2. Faustus and Macbeth are two men of ambition. How are they alike? How are
they different?
3. Is Doctor Faustus a tragedy or a morality play? Explain.
REFERENCE
THE STORY, continued
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Doctor Faustus
Christopher Marlowe
REFERENCE
THE CRITICS
ON FAUSTUS
Proud Faustus is the most uneasy of men, the frailest conqueror, the most sorrowful of atheists,
uncertain of his uncertainties. Here indeed is the weak man, terror-stricken by his own
audacity, irresolute at the very moment when he boasts of his inflexibility, hurling defiance at
God and Devil, but immediately mad with terror, choosing now the soul, now matter; incapable
of grasping the unity of the world, of making a synthesis between this soul which he cannot
repudiate and this matter which imposes on him its laws. He hopes, then renounces; summons,
then rejects; brags and trembles.
Henri Fluchere, Shakespeare and the Elizabethans, 1967
If pity mixed with condemnation were the only feeling that Marlowe's audience can have for
Faustus, then he would still be a poor sort of figure, tragic perhaps but only in a rather weak,
pathetic sort of way; an Edward II in fact. But again the experience of reading and seeing the
play tells us quite plainly that he is not that. There are also a kind of strength and a kind of
attractiveness. Both reside in the quality of his imagination. "Megalo-manical fantasy" is [the
critic] Kirschbaum's phrase for this imagination, and it is a fair objective analysis of the
"diseased ego," a "case" in the psychologist's notebook: but it is also remarkably deaf or blind
to the beauty of the lines in which the "case" expresses himself. Let us take the most famous
speech of all, Faustus' address to the spirit-Helen of Troy.... What is in the foreground is poetry
of exceptional radiance and beauty: moreover, a fervour of spirit and responsiveness to the
presence of beauty that are powerful and infectious.
J. B. Steane, "Introduction" to Christopher Marlowe: The Complete Plays, 1969
ON FAUSTUS AND MEPHISTOPHILIS
After the scholars have left, the mockery of Mephistophilis administers a last turn of the screw:
"'Twas I, that when thou wert i' the way to heaven, Damned up thy passage; when thou tookst
the book To view the scriptures, then I turned the leaves And led thine eye." Faustus weeps. It
is a terrifying speech, recoiling on our whole experience of the play. But without it the
exploration of the mystery of evil would not be complete; it is the dramatic equivalent of the
gospel's equally disturbing, "Then entered Satan into Judas." From one point of view the play's
devils are only symbols of "aspiring pride and insolence," and it is simply Faustus's wilful
pride that turned the leaves and led his eye.
J. P. Brockbank, Marlowe: Dr. Faustus, 1962
Faustus has in Mephistophilis an alter ego who is both a demon and a Damon. The man has an
extraordinary affection for the spirit, the spirit a mysterious attraction to the man.
Mephistophilis should not be confused with Goethe's sardonic nay-sayer; neither is he an
operatic villain nor a Satanic tempter. He proffers no tempting speeches and dangles no
enticements; Faustus tempts himself and succumbs to temptations which he alone has conjured
up. What Mephistophilis really approximates, with his subtle insight and his profound
sympathy, is the characterization of Porfiry, the examining magistrate in Dostoevsky's Crime
and Punishment.
The dialogues between Faustus and Mephistophilis resemble those cat-and-mouse
interrogations in which Porfiry teaches the would-be criminal, Raskolnikov, to accuse and
convict himself.
Harry Levin, The Overreacher, 1964
ON THE MESSAGE OF THE PLAY
If he had lived longer, perhaps Marlowe might have written a play of true Christian
affirmation, but he did not do so in Doctor Faustus... though in that play, he seemed to be
moving closer than ever to traditional Christianity.
Ronald Ribner, "Marlowe's 'Tragicke Glasse,'" 1961
No doubt, he (Marlowe) yearns all the more avidly with Faustus, but with Faustus he condemns
himself; the Good Angel and the Old Man are at liberty, while Mephistophilis is in perpetual
fetter. Yet, it is just at this point that Marlowe abandons his preoccupation with unfettered
soaring, and seems to submit himself to ideas of durance, torment, and constraint. If he is
imaginatively identified with any character, it is no longer Faustus; it is Mephistophilis, who
suffers with Faustus like a second self yet also plays the cosmic ironist, wise in his guilty
knowledge and powerful in his defeated rebellion.
Harry Levin, The Overreacher, 1964
[Doctor Faustus Contents]
ADVISORY BOARD
We wish to thank the following educators who helped us focus our Book Notes series to meet
student needs and critiqued our manuscripts to provide quality materials.
Sandra Dunn, English Teacher
Hempstead High School, Hempstead, New York
Lawrence J. Epstein, Associate Professor of English
Suffolk County Community College, Selden, New York
Leonard Gardner, Lecturer, English Department
State University of New York at Stony Brook
Beverly A. Haley, Member, Advisory Committee
National Council of Teachers of English Student Guide Series
Fort Morgan, Colorado
Elaine C. Johnson, English Teacher
Tamalpais Union High School District
Mill Valley, California
Marvin J. LaHood, Professor of English
State University of New York College at Buffalo
Robert Lecker, Associate Professor of English
McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
David E. Manly, Professor of Educational Studies
State University of New York College at Geneseo
Bruce Miller, Associate Professor of Education
State University of New York at Buffalo
Frank O'Hare, Professor of English and Director of Writing
Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
Faith Z. Schullstrom, Member of Executive Committee
National Council of Teachers of English
Director of Curriculum and Instruction
Guilderland Central School District, New York
Mattie C. Williams, Director, Bureau of Language Arts
Chicago Public Schools, Chicago, Illinois
[Doctor Faustus Contents]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FURTHER READING
CRITICAL WORKS
Bakeless, John. Christopher Marlowe. The Man and His Times. New York: Washington
Square Press, 1937.
Boas, F. S. Christopher Marlowe. A Biographical and Critical Study. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1940.
Brockbank, J. P. Marlowe: Dr. Faustus. London: Edward Arnold Ltd., 1962.
Eliot, T. S. Selected Essays. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1964.
Fluchere, Henri. Shakespeare and the Elizabethans. New York: Hill and Wang, 1967.
Gregg, W. W. "The Damnation of Faustus," in The Modern Language Review, 1946.
Kirschbaum, Leo. "Marlowe's Faustus: A Reconsideration," in Review of English Studies,
1943.
Leech, Clifford, ed. Marlowe: A Collection of Critical Essays. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall, 1964.
Levin, Harry. The Overreacher. Boston: The Beacon Press, 1964.
Ribner, Ronald. "Marlowe's 'Tragicke Glasse,'" in Furman University Studies, 1961.
Sachs, Ariel. "The Religious Despair of Doctor Faustus," in Journal of English and Germanic
Philology, 1964.
Steane, J. B. Christopher Marlowe: The Complete Plays. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1969.
Tillyard, E. M. W. The Elizabethan World Picture. New York: Vintage Books, 1959.
Weil, Judith. Christopher Marlowe. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1977. AUTHOR'S OTHER WORKS
Dido, Queen of Carthage (Date unknown, probably the earliest play)
Tamburlaine the Great, Part I, 1587
Tamburlaine the Great, Part II, 1588
The Jew of Malta, 1591?
Edward II, 1592
The Massacre at Paris (Date unknown)
Hero and Leander, 1593 (Unfinished)
[Selected Poetry by Christopher Marlowe]
A STEP BEYOND
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© Copyright 1985 by Barron's Educational Series, Inc.
Electronically Enhanced Text © Copyright 1993, World Library, Inc.
Faust: Parts I and II
Johann Wolfgang Goethe
1808
by Ruth Mitchell
Download Entire Booknote to Disk (250k)
SERIES COORDINATOR
Murray Bromberg
Principal, Wang High School of Queens
Holliswood, New York
Past President, High School Principals Association of New York City
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Our thanks to Milton Katz and Julius Liebb for their contribution to the Book Notes series.
CONTENTS
l THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES
l THE PLAY
m The Plot
m The Characters
m Other Elements
l THE STORY
l THE STORY, continued
l A STEP BEYOND
m Tests and Answers
m Term Paper Ideas and other Topics for Writing
l REFERENCE
m The Critics
m Advisory Board
m Bibliography
[List of Barron's Booknotes] [The Study Web Home Page]
© Copyright 1985 by Barron's Educational Series, Inc.
Electronically Enhanced Text © Copyright 1993, World Library, Inc.
BARRON'S BOOK NOTES (tm) on CD-ROM Windows (tm) Ver. 2.0
Faust Johann Wolfgang Goethe
--------------------------------------------------------1808
JOHANN WOLFGANG VON
GOETHE'S
FAUST: PARTS I AND
II
by Ruth
Mitchell
SERIES
COORDINATOR
Murray
Bromberg
Principal, Wang High School of
Queens
Holliswood, New
York
Past President, High School Principals Association of New York
City
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Our thanks to Milton Katz and Julius Liebb for their
contribution to
the Book Notes
series.
(C) Copyright 1985 by Barron's Educational Series,
Inc.
Electronically Enhanced Text (C) Copyright 1993, World Library,
Inc.
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
SECTION............................ SEARCH
ON
THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES.............................
GFAUAUTH
THE
PLAY
The Plot.............................................
GFAUPLOT
The Characters.......................................
GFAUCHAR
Other
Elements
Form and Structure..............................
GFAUFORM
Setting.........................................
GFAUSETT
Themes..........................................
GFAUTHEM
Style...........................................
GFAUSTYL
Sources.........................................
GFAUSOUR
THE PLAY.............................................
GFAUPLAY
A STEP
BEYOND
Tests and Answers....................................
GFAUTEST
Term Paper Ideas and other Topics for Writing........
GFAUTERM
The Critics..........................................
GFAUCRIT
Advisory Board.......................................
GFAUADVB
Bibliography.........................................
GFAUBIBL
AUTHOR_AND_HIS_TIMES
THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES
(GFAUAUTH)
Faust and its author, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, developed
side
by side. The work is not an autobiography, but it reflects
Goethe's
intellectual development. (Goethe did write an autobiography,
called
Poetry and Truth, about his early life.) He began Faust when he was
in
his twenties, continued it at intervals- sometimes neglecting it
for
years at a time- until his seventies- and then worked intensively
on
it until just before his death, at eightytwo.
When you hear the name "Faust," you probably think of the story of
a
man who sells his soul to the Devil in return for supernatural
powers.
It's a story that depends on the Christian tradition for its plot,
for
Faust is a learned man who wants to know more than God allows man
to
know, and to gain superior knowledge, Faust makes a bargain with
the
Devil. Faust enjoys magical powers for many years, is entertained
by
an emperor, and lives with the most beautiful woman in the
world,
Helen of Troy. In the end, however, he has to go down to Hell with
the
Devil, who comes to claim Faust's soul, in accordance with
their
bargain. This traditional Faust story is a Christian
cautionary
tale- it warns that you will lose your eternal soul if you try
to
outsmart God. It's also a German story. There was a real
Dr.
Faustus, who lived in Wittenberg in the fifteenth century, but
the
truth about his life is impossible to disentangle from the legend.
The
Faust legend has been used by many writers, including
Christopher
Marlowe, whose Doctor Faustus was published in the early
seventeenth
century.
Goethe's Faust is very different from other Faust stories. His
Faust
is sometimes seen as opening up a whole new era of Western
thought.
Modern people, say some writers, have been cut adrift and
are
wandering aimlessly in a technological world, searching for meaning
in
life and striving for fulfillment. In previous eras people
could
find meaning and achieve salvation through religion. In the West
it
was through Christianity. But Faust, these writers assert,
achieved
his own salvation through
action.
Goethe was born into a well-to-do family in Frankfurt am
Main,
Germany in 1749, in the middle of a century known as the Age
of
Reason, or the Enlightenment. Classical values dominated thought
and
taste in Goethe's youth. This means that the influence of Greek
and
Roman thought was strongly felt in education and culture.
Goethe's
early education, therefore, stressed Greek and Roman literature
and
the predominance of reason over feeling. There was no emphasis
in
Goethe's family on Christian value- Goethe's father did not
consider
himself a Christian- although the culture was steeped in
religious
tradition, and Goethe knew the Bible very well. Goethe's father
sent
him to the University of Leipzig at sixteen, to study law and
absorb
the values of the
time.
But the young Goethe returned home after two years, suffering
from
mental strain. It may be that he was beginning to rebel
emotionally
and intellectually against Classical restraints, for he spent the
next
year or two in his Frankfurt home investigating some
very
unclassical ideas. His mother had taken up Pietism, a kind
of
fundamentalist Christianity that stressed the individual
believer's
direct contact with God. In addition, Goethe discovered the works
of
medieval mystics, who were sometimes described as magicians
because
they believed in a secret knowledge accessible only to those who
had
been initiated. These studies led Goethe to alchemy, which,
in
medieval times, had represented a genuine attempt to understand
the
world scientifically. In Goethe's time, the study of alchemy was
in
part a means of re-creating the
past.
When Goethe returned to university studies, he went to
Strasbourg,
where he met a young theologian and philosopher named Johann
Gottfried
von Herder (1744-1803), who was beginning to make a mark in
German
intellectual circles. Under Herder's influence, Goethe became
part
of the Sturm und Drang ("storm and stress") literary movement
that
emphasized naturalistic, individualistic, anti-Classical
feeling.
(Classicism stresses form, structure, logic, and rational
thought.)
The Sturm und Drang writers were obsessed with the idea of
liberated
genius, sure that feelings were more important than intellect,
and
impressed with the simplicity of folk poetry. They believed in
the
natural goodness of man, admired William Shakespeare, and
saw
literature as a means of searching for the Absolute, or that
which
underlay all of existence. Most intellectual historians see
the
Sturm und Drang movement as a forerunner of Romanticism
(which
stressed feeling and nature) in the nineteenth century, but in
its
search for originality and abstract truth, the Sturm und
Drang
movement still had much in common with the Enlightenment. Bear
in
mind, however, that much of Goethe's writing, especially Part I
of
Faust, is usually thought of as
Romantic.
In the early 1770s, Goethe wrote a novel in the form of letters,
The
Sorrows of Young Werther, which indulges in emotions to a point
you
may find difficult to tolerate now. At the end of the story,
Werther
kills himself because he cannot live with the woman he loves,
who's
already engaged. Werther, together with a play about a German
outlaw
hero, Gotz von Berlichingen, brought Goethe fame and established
him
as one of the leaders of the Sturm and Drang
movement.
Almost incidentally, Goethe qualified as a lawyer during these
years
and practiced in Frankfurt, where he witnessed the tragic case of
a
young maidservant condemned to death for the murder of her
baby.
Goethe felt deep compassion for the girl, who suffered from
the
injustice of a social order that allowed men of the upper class
to
ruin girls casually. He may have had a pang of guilt
himself,
because he was something of a ladies' man. Throughout his life,
from
his teens to his seventies, he either fell passionately in love
with
women who attracted him physically or worshipped women with whom
he
felt a platonic (spiritual) affinity. When he finally married,
in
1806, he was fiftyseven.
The young maidservant whose life was ruined became Gretchen
in
Part I of Faust. You can understand why he began writing it in
the
early 1770s, about the same time as his Sturm und Drang works.
Faust
was a rebel against authority who strove constantly to know
and
experience everything. He had immense courage, which the Sturm
and
Drang followers admired, and he was a figure straight out of
German
history. Another noted German dramatist, Gotthold Ephraim
Lessing
(1729-1781), had called for a play on the Faust theme and had
even
composed a scene himself. The addition of the Gretchen story
brought
to the work an element of folk
simplicity.
But Goethe's Faust is no simple updating of the legend. His
hero
does not sell his soul to the Devil- he makes a bet with him,
and
the Devil, Mephistopheles, loses. Faust does not disobey
God's
commands, as he does in the legend. Goethe's God has
complete
confidence in Faust's good sense and gives His permission
for
Mephistopheles to tempt Faust in order to keep him on his toes.
Goethe
wrote a Faust that is definitely not a Christian cautionary
tale.
What, then, is it? You'll want to keep the question in mind as
you
read the
work.
In 1775, Goethe's life was swept in another direction and
he
didn't return to Faust for many years. He was invited to live at
the
court of the young duke of Weimar, who wanted Goethe as a
central
attraction for the intellectual and artistic life of Weimar.
Goethe
was to spend most of the rest of his life there, writing,
becoming
involved with the theater, pursuing private scientific studies,
and,
as a favor to his patron, serving as an administrator for the
tiny
duchy. Goethe's friend Herder (who may have been a model
for
Mephistopheles) settled in Weimar, along with other writers
and
thinkers, who, with Goethe, made Weimar an intellectual center for
the
next half-century or
so.
In 1786, Goethe did something surprising. He left the Weimar
court
abruptly and journeyed to Italy. He spent much of the next two
years
in Rome, where he studied the art of the Classical
period,
completing more than one thousand drawings of Classical statues
and
buildings. During his journey, about which he later wrote,
Goethe
immersed himself in the Classical style, but he did not turn
away
completely from Romanticism. Some of his works display a tension,
an
uneasy balance between the two styles. A drama such as Iphigenie
in
Tauris (1787) is unmistakably Classical, in theme as well as in
form
and style, but what about Faust? In Faust, Part II, a work of
his
later years, Goethe attempts a union of the Classical and
Romantic
in the marriage of Faust and Helen of
Troy.
Goethe's Classical side gave him a love of order- social,
political,
as well as personal- that prevented him from admiring the
French
Revolution, which broke out in 1789, the year after he returned
from
Italy. While Romantic writers were hailing the new spirit in
France,
Goethe shuddered at its excesses. Safe and secure at Weimar,
he
published the first portions of Faust, called Faust: Ein
Fragment
("Faust: A Fragment"), in 1790. He continued to write plays
and
novels, as well as some of the poetry that has earned him the title
of
the greatest lyric poet in the German
language.
In 1794, Goethe began a friendship, almost a collaboration, with
the
poet and dramatist Friedrich von Schiller (1759-1805).
Goethe
invited Schiller to live at Weimar, where they worked together
until
Schiller's death. Under Schiller's prodding, Goethe took up
Faust
and by 1808 completed what we know as Part I. Goethe,
however,
realized that what he had to say would require a second part, but
he
didn't immediately begin Part II. Faust languished again,
until
1825. Pressure to return to it came this time from Johann
Peter
Eckermann (1792-1854), who had become Goethe's literary secretary
in
1823 and immortalized himself by recording and publishing
their
talks together on literary and other subjects (Conversations
with
Eckermann, 1836-1848). Goethe wrote Part II of Faust between
1825
and 1831. He was then in his late seventies and early
eighties.
It's not always easy to see Faust as a whole. Part I was the
only
portion of the drama published in Goethe's lifetime, and it became
the
basis for a popular opera by the nineteenth-century French
Romantic
composer, Charles Gounod, so that the general public began to
feel
that Faust consisted essentially of the Faust and Gretchen story
and
the bet between Faust and the Devil. The complete Faust was printed
in
1832, as the first volume of Goethe's collected works
published
after his death. It is recognized as his
masterpiece.
You now have the opportunity to take the same journey that
Goethe
took in composing Faust. Don't be afraid to make up your own
mind
about Faust, even if your conclusions differ from what others
have
thought. It is the mark of a masterpiece like Faust that
it
continues to yield new and exciting meanings as each generation
of
readers encounters
it.
THE_PLOT
THE
PLAY
THE PLOT
(GFAUPLOT)
The story of Faust begins in Heaven. Mephistopheles, the Devil,
is
visiting the Lord, complaining, as usual, about the Lord's
creation,
man. When the Lord asks him whether he knows Faust,
Mephistopheles,
saying he does, seizes the opportunity to bet with the Lord that
he
can lead Faust astray. The Lord is quite confident that Faust
knows
the right way; he's also tolerant of Mephistopheles, whose role
is
to keep prodding man into
action.
Faust is a very learned professor, who, however, is
dissatisfied
with human knowledge, which by its nature is limited. Using
magic,
he conjures up the Earth Spirit in his darkened study.
Regarding
himself as more than mortal, he tries to claim the Earth Spirit as
a
colleague, but the Spirit rejects him scornfully and
disappears.
Despairing, Faust contemplates suicide. He is saved by the sound
of
the bells welcoming Easter morning. He and his research
assistant,
Wagner, go out into the sunlight and enjoy the greetings of the
crowd,
which remembers the medical attention given to the people by Faust
and
his father. Faust is still depressed, denying the value of
medicine
and feeling torn between the two souls in him, one longing for
earthly
pleasures, the other seeking the highest spiritual knowledge. A
dog
follows Faust and Wagner
home.
Back in his study, Faust tries to translate the Gospel of
St.
John, while the dog becomes restless. Eventually, the animal
changes
shape so monstrously that Faust realizes he is dealing with the
Devil.
Presto! There is
Mephistopheles!
At this first meeting, Mephistopheles introduces himself and
his
powers to Faust; then he tricks Faust into sleeping so that he
can
leave. When he returns, magnificently dressed, Mephistopheles
makes
a bet with Faust. He agrees to do anything Faust wants, but if
Faust
ever says that he is totally satisfied, that the moment is
so
perfect he wants time to stop, then he will die and
Mephistopheles
will have his soul. They sign their pact in
blood.
Mephistopheles tries to please his "master." He takes him to
a
Witch's Kitchen, where Faust is magically transformed into a
young
man. When Faust meets Margarete- called Gretchen, the
shortened
version of her name- walking in the street, he is consumed
with
passion for her and orders Mephistopheles to arrange for him
to
possess her
immediately.
Mephistopheles, who has more sense than his master about how
to
conduct love affairs, takes Faust into Gretchen's room while she
is
absent. They leave a casket of jewels, but Gretchen's mother,
when
it is found, insists that it be given to the Church.
Mephistopheles
then leaves a second present of jewelry, which Gretchen this
time
conceals at a neighbor's
house.
From that point Gretchen is doomed. Faust seduces her and
makes
her pregnant. When Gretchen's brother, Valentine,
intervenes,
cursing her as a whore, Mephistopheles, with Faust at his
side,
kills
Valentine.
Mephistopheles takes Faust off to a witches'
celebration,
Walpurgis Night, on top of a mountain, where at first Faust
is
fascinated by the fantastic whirl of magical apparitions but then
is
disturbed by reminders of Gretchen. By the time he returns to the
real
world, Gretchen has been condemned to death for the murder of
her
illegitimate baby and has gone mad in her prison cell.
As
Mephistopheles drags Faust away, a heavenly voice calls out
that
Gretchen's soul is
saved.
Part II of Faust begins in a natural setting with Faust
recovering
from his horror. Mephistopheles is preparing to introduce Faust to
the
great world of politics and power. They appear at the Emperor's
court,
where Mephistopheles solves economic problems by suggesting that
the
court issue paper money against the value of gold hidden
underground.
Using his magic, Mephistopheles stages for the court a
magnificent
masque, a pageant of symbolic figures, in which Faust
appears
dressed as the god of wealth. The Emperor himself arrives,
dressed
as the Greek god Pan. The entire pageant dissolves in magic
fire,
which impresses the Emperor so much that he asks for more. He wants
to
see the famous beauty of Greek mythology, Helen of Troy, and
her
Trojan lover,
Paris.
Mephistopheles tells Faust that such a request will strain
their
powers, for Faust must go down to seek the help of the
Mothers,
mysterious beings who control the underworld. Mephistopheles
assembles
the court to witness Faust's evocation of Paris and Helen, in the
form
of visions. Faust is so overcome with Helen's beauty, and with
the
desire to possess her, that he faints as the visions
fade.
He is transported back into his study, which he had left
years
before and has not revisited since. Wagner, who has become a
doctor,
is trying to produce human life. Mephistopheles' presence adds
the
final spark. A tiny man, Homunculus, appears like a bright light
in
a test tube. Homunculus leads the way to the plains of the
Peneios
river in Greece, where the Walpurgis Night will take
place.
As they meet mythological figures from literature, Faust discovers
a
way to reach Helen in the underworld. Mephistopheles finds
a
disguise as one of the Phorcyads (three female monsters who
share
one eye and one tooth). And Homunculus discovers a way to
realize
his being by uniting with a sea goddess. He smashes his test
tube
against the chariot of Galatea (a goddess of beauty) in a blaze
of
light, symbolizing
creation.
Helen has come back from the underworld at the point where she
is
returning to her original home in Sparta, after spending ten
years
in Troy. She is frightened of the revenge that her husband,
King
Menelaus, is planning against her. Mephistopheles, in the shape
of
Phorcyas, points out that she can be rescued by walking to
a
medieval castle. There, Faust, dressed as a medieval knight,
greets
her. They unite to produce a son, Euphorion, who is the spirit
of
poetry (and a symbol for the English poet, Lord Byron,
whose
"unsatisfied nature" and striving for a heroic form of existence,
as
Goethe told Eckermann, epitomized the contemporary Romantic
poet).
Euphorion has a brilliant, though short, career but when he tries
to
fly he crashes to the ground. Helen returns to the
underworld,
broken by the tragedy that her beauty seems always to bring
about.
Faust is left only with her
garments.
Again, Faust must reconcile himself to being a failure. He
plunges
into a scheme to reclaim land from the sea and control it. In order
to
gain the land, he and Mephistopheles must help the Emperor
suppress
a rebellion. They bring to the battle the Three Mighty Men
who
fought with King David. They win the battle through magic, but
barely.
With Mephistopheles' help, Faust reclaims the land. He builds
a
magnificent palace overlooking the shore but is irritated because
he
has allowed an old couple, Baucis and Philemon, to keep their
tiny
cottage and a chapel on the land. He asks Mephistopheles to remove
the
couple to a small farm he has promised them. Mephistopheles
takes
the Three Mighty Men to do the job; they burn down the cottage and
the
chapel, killing the old couple and a traveler who was visiting
them.
Although Faust has failed again, he does not stop striving
and
planning. He is struck blind by Care, who tries to make him
worry
about his coming death. He dies reflecting that he has never found
any
moment so beautiful, so pleasant, that he wanted it to linger.
So
Mephistopheles loses his bet. The Devil cannot claim Faust's soul,
but
he tries to snatch it by trickery. He is outmaneuvered, however,
by
a chorus of angels, who are so sexually alluring that
Mephistopheles
becomes distracted by their charms and doesn't notice they
are
stealing away Faust's
soul.
Faust's soul is carried to Heaven by the angels and by the
souls
of children who have died young. The three penitent women
of
Christianity pray to the Virgin Mary to save Faust's soul.
When
Gretchen adds her voice to theirs, the Virgin Mary allows her
to
lead Faust's soul upward. His journey is completed and he is at
rest
in
Heaven.
THE_CHARACTERS
THE CHARACTERS
(GFAUCHAR)
The following is a discussion of the major characters in
Faust.
There are in addition many other interesting, if less
developed,
characters, and they are discussed at the appropriate places in
The
Play section of this
guide.
FAUST
While Faust has clearly recognizable human characteristics, he
is
larger than life. He embodies the best and the worst in man, and
in
many ways he is a symbol of all humanity. Faust is involved in most
of
the scenes, but he probably reveals himself most clearly through
his
monologues and through his conversations with Mephistopheles.
The
monologues show a man without satisfaction or inner peace,
always
striving. He is continually reaching for more knowledge, more
power,
more experience. He is also changeable, given to despair when he
can't
get what he wants. His striving leads inevitably to failure.
Some
readers have seen these failures as Faust's tragedy, for everything
he
touches turns to dust. But in these failures he represents
humanity,
for, as the Lord declares in the Prologue in Heaven, man must
make
mistakes while he
strives.
On one important score, Faust comes out ahead. He
bets
Mephistopheles that he will never find one moment so fulfilling
that
he will say to it, "Stay, Thou art so fair!" Faust never does. So
he
frustrates the Devil and justifies the Lord's confidence in him. It
is
for his striving, his never giving in, that he is finally saved
and
his soul carried
upward.
In Faust's relations with Mephistopheles you see an
arrogant,
impatient man, who uses any means available to get what he
wants.
Faust is absolutely clear about his relationship to
MephistophelesMephistopheles is a servant. In his other relations, you see
the
brilliance of Faust, why he has the genius to represent humanity.
He
is capable of passionate romantic love, of courageous action,
of
large-scale organization. He will probably win your sympathy,
even
in his ill-fated affair with Gretchen. Try to imagine what it
must
be like to pick up the pieces of your life after you have caused
the
destruction of a beautiful young girl and three other
innocent
people (her mother, brother, and baby). Faust does
it.
You may admire Faust more than you like him. It's hard to think
of
relating to him, although you may recognize parts of his
character
in your own actions and those of people around you. Because he
is
all of us, he isn't really any one of
us.
MEPHISTOPHELES
It may seem strange, but some think that Mephistopheles,
the
Devil, is more human than Faust. Mephistopheles is a cynic, and
cuts
things down to size with his quick wit. He calls the Lord an
"old
gent," satirizes the university faculty, teases the
mythological
creatures he meets on the Peneios River, and ends scenes with
comments
that puncture inflated sentiments. Several explanations have
been
given for Mephistopheles' name, including that it derives from
the
Greek, Me-phaustophiles, meaning "No Friend of Faust" and that
it
comes from the Hebrew Mephiztophel, "corrupter and
liar."
In Faust, Mephistopheles is the spirit of negation, "the spirit
that
always denies." In that respect, he is the exact opposite of
God,
who is the spirit of creation. Why did Goethe make Mephistopheles
seem
so human? Some readers believe that Goethe wanted to suggest that
this
spirit of negation is within man. Others believe that Goethe
didn't
think man was simple enough to fall for a stupid devil. Because
man
has intellect, they argue, the Devil must have intellect. Some
even
see Mephistopheles as the symbol of intellect without
feeling.
Mephistopheles is a servant, both of God and of Faust, and has
the
soul of a servant, of a person who must obey but resents it
and
takes every opportunity to assert what domination he can. He is
a
servant of God because he is a part of Creation; he has to exist
in
order for good to exist. He is a servant of Faust because God
allows
it. But he isn't always willing to do what his master
wants,
especially at critical moments. He messes up orders, often
with
disastrous effects on innocents like Baucis and Philemon. He thinks
he
knows better than his master how to woo women and takes over
the
wooing of Gretchen. At the same time, he exercises his own
authority
when he
can.
You're never quite confident that Mephistopheles can control
his
trickery and magic. For example, it's not clear whether the
Mothers
really do exist or are just invented on the spot to
cover
Mephistopheles' incompetence. During the battle with the
rebellious
emperor, it looks as if the real Emperor, who has
trusted
Mephistopheles, is going to lose. He isn't a trustworthy
Devil.
But no devil is trustworthy. You'll remember that the Lord
has
deliberately "paired" him with mankind to keep man on his toes.
The
Devil's job is to "play the deuce, to stir, and to entice." He's
there
to keep things off balance, so that man is always reaching for
what
the Devil seems to
offer.
Above all, Mephistopheles loses his bet. As the Lord foretold at
the
beginning, Faust would know the right way and never be satisfied
by
anything Mephistopheles could
do.
MARGARETE
(GRETCHEN)
Margarete, or Gretchen (a favorite name in German folk tales),
is
a more lifelike character than Mephistopheles and Faust; she is
a
person you would recognize if you met her. She is a sweet,
simple,
modest girl, who lives at home and helps her mother. She knows
right
from wrong (as you can see from her polite refusal of Faust's
advances
at first) and has an innocent religious faith of the kind idealized
by
Romantic
writers.
Her downfall is a puzzle to you only in the sense that all
similar
cases are puzzles. Why does such a girl give in to presents
and
flattery? Gretchen's mother is so strict that she gives the
first
casket of jewels to the Church. Gretchen then responds with
deception,
storing the second set of jewels in the house of her neighbor,
Martha.
Perhaps if her mother had been more understanding, or Martha less of
a
"pimp," or Gretchen morally stronger in herself, the
tragedy
wouldn't have
happened.
Gretchen is up against the Devil, who by definition has no
morals
and no mercy. He's been told to get her for Faust and he does.
From
the moment she gives in to Faust, she begins to lose herself.
She
seeks comfort in her simple religious faith but cannot
withstand
society's disapproval and her brother's curse. She becomes
mad,
kills her baby, and is condemned to
die.
Gretchen's sad story was based on a court case known to Goethe.
He
uses her story for social purposes, to make the point that she is
a
victim of an attractive man of a class higher than her own. Some
girls
might have been strong enough to resist the temptation or even
to
put up with the guilt, but they would not have been sufficient
for
Goethe the dramatist. He needed a fragile girl like Gretchen
who
trusted in a simple religious faith and her own
feelings.
WAGNER
Wagner is called Faust's "famulus," a combination of servant
and
research assistant who lives and studies close to Faust, his
mentor.
Wagner is the sort of person you feel you ought to admire but
can't
bear. He has his heart in the right place, and says all the
expected
things. Look at him trying to appease Faust with praise of his
father.
You can't object to what he says, but it doesn't reflect
Faust's
mood at
all.
It's appropriate that Wagner can't give the spark of life
to
Homunculus. He becomes a scientist after working hard and
developing
his abilities. But it takes the presence of Mephistopheles
to
produce Homunculus, who immediately shows all the
brilliant
intuition his "father," Wagner, lacks. Wagner is left alone
again,
deserted by Homunculus as he was by Faust years earlier, to live
the
conventional life he is fitted for. Wagner's soul cannot soar.
He
and his kind do the work of the
world.
STUDENTBACCALAUREUS
The only character besides Faust, Mephistopheles, and
Wagner
common to both Parts I and II of Faust is the Student
whom
Mephistopheles interviews in Faust's study and then meets again as
a
graduate. He begins timid and wide-eyed, eager to learn
from
Mephistopheles, who is disguised as Faust, and surprised when
his
mentor talks obscenely about a doctor's female
patients.
When you see him again, as Baccalaureus (a graduate), how changed
he
is! He knows everything, despises his elders, and sounds like
a
student radical of the 1960s when he says that anyone over thirty
is
as good as dead. He personifies, as Goethe told his
secretary,
Eckermann, the arrogance of youth. Mephistopheles backs away
from
him because he's so
obnoxious.
THE
EMPEROR
The Emperor is found only in Part II, where he appears in two of
the
five acts. The character derives from the traditional Faust
story,
which includes a visit to an Emperor's court, where Faust
and
Mephistopheles amaze the court with their magic
tricks.
Goethe's Emperor is an incompetent, vain ruler who seeks
personal
pleasure at the expense of his kingdom. The Emperor
permits
Mephistopheles to trick him into signing an order authorizing
the
printing of paper money, thus ruining the state economy. Then
he
allows a rival emperor to collect a rebellious army, and again
acts
helplessly until Mephistopheles uses magic to defeat them. When
you
see him for the last time, he is submitting to the blackmail of
the
Archbishop, while protesting under his
breath.
HELEN
Helen is not so much a character as an embodied myth, as she
herself
recognizes. She is the heroine of Homer's Iliad, a great Greek
epic
poem. (When Paris fell in love with her and stole her from her
husband
King Menelaus of Sparta, the Trojan War was ignited. Helen's
former
suitors had sworn an oath to defend her husband's rights.
They
formed an army that defeated the Trojans and reunited Helen
with
Menelaus.) In Faust, she is afraid for her own safety, as well
as
for that of the chorus. But she is courageous, as you see when
she
agrees to seek help from the medieval knight, who turns out to
be
Faust. She shows her queenly graciousness when she forgives
Lynceus,
the watchman, for not announcing her
arrival.
In the end, Helen is defeated by her own beauty. As she says,
beauty
and good fortune do not mix. You feel her intense emotion as
she
embraces Faust one last time and follows their son, Euphorion,
to
the
underworld.
FORM_AND_STRUCTURE
OTHER
ELEMENTS
FORM AND STRUCTURE
(GFAUFORM)
Faust is a verse drama in two parts. Part I has three
preliminary
sections (Dedication, Prelude in the Theater, and Prologue
in
Heaven) and twenty-five scenes, each with a name, usually
describing
the setting. Part II, like many conventional plays, is divided
into
five acts, and each act contains scenes with descriptive names.
The
total length of Faust I and II is 12,110 lines of poetry. It
would
take some twenty hours for the play to be performed
uncut!
Because the play does not have the usual act and scene
structure
throughout, the lines are numbered consecutively from beginning
to
end, like those in a
poem.
There are three major questions regarding the structure of Faust:
Is
it one play or two? Is it a play at all? Is it a
tragedy?
IS FAUST ONE PLAY OR
TWO?
You'll want to make up your own mind about the unity of
Faust.
Some readers argue that the two parts are separate and should
be
treated as such. It's true that the story of Part I is better
known
than anything in Part II, perhaps because of Gounod's opera,
Faust,
which is based on Part
I.
Other readers believe that the two parts form an essential
unity.
The parts are divided artificially, because they were composed
at
different times in Goethe's life. These readers believe that if
you
separate one part from the other, you'll miss major
themes.
The original Faust story had a fairly simple structure. Faust,
or
Faustus, as he was originally called- the Latin word faustus
means
"lucky"- made a bargain with the Devil and signed it in blood.
The
Devil takes Faust to a student tavern- where the two fool the
students
with magically produced wine- and then to the Emperor's court,
where
Faust magically calls Helen of Troy from the dead and falls in
love
with her. At the end of twenty-four years, Faust vainly calls on
God's
mercy as Mephistopheles drags him away to
Hell.
Some of the problems in Goethe's Faust are caused by the
different
structures of the two parts, as well as by the change in
subject
matter from Part I to Part II. Part I has no act divisions and
the
scenes are differentiated by names, not scene numbers. In it,
Faust
makes a bet with the Devil- the Devil will be his servant, and he
will
possess his soul at death unless Faust is never able to say he
is
satisfied. The rest of Part I concerns the seduction and ruin
of
Gretchen by Faust. In the end, Gretchen is
saved.
The atmosphere of Part I is gloomy. The action takes place in
and
around the German university town where Faust lives, except for
the
scenes in the Witch's Kitchen and on the mountain, where the
Walpurgis
Night celebrations are held. It is also unified by the
characters'
preoccupation with their relationship to God. Faust explains
his
religious faith in his Credo, and attempts to translate the
Gospel
of St. John. Mephistopheles has to admit that he is part of
God's
scheme, with a duty to stir up mankind. Gretchen has a
conventional,
simple faith that increases the pathos of her
suffering.
Part I, therefore, seems basically to consist of one piece.
The
impression of unity is even stronger if you interpret the last
few
lines to mean that Mephistopheles is taking Faust away to Hell
as
Gretchen is executed. Part I also was a product of the "Sturm
und
Drang" phase of Goethe's writing and is full of emotion, a sign
of
Romanticism.
Part II has a different structure and much more varied
subject
matter. It has the conventional five acts divided into scenes,
but,
again, these have names instead of numbers. In it, Faust serves
an
Emperor, marries Helen of Troy, becomes a successful man, and,
in
the end, gains redemption. The work for the Emperor and the
appearance
of Helen of Troy are from the original Faust story. But the union
of
Classical and Romantic, in the marriage of Faust and Helen and
the
birth of their son; the story of Homunculus; the Carnival masque
and
the making of paper money at the Emperor's court; the
Classical
Walpurgis Night; Faust's land-reclamation project; the tragedy
of
Baucis and Philemon; and the salvation of Faust, are Goethe's
own
inventions.
Some elements are clearly intended to produce unity. For
example,
the two Walpurgis Nights are balanced against one another.
In
addition, Gretchen and Helen are placed in contrast- the simple
German
maiden and the legendary Greek beauty. The Prologue has
its
counterpart in the final scene, where Faust's soul is carried off
to
Heaven.
There is no doubt that if you read the two parts separately you
will
have a different experience from what you would have if you read
Parts
I and II together. The question is, what kind of unity does the
work
have? You may find yourself on the fence, believing in a weak unity
of
the two parts but convinced that some sections are more
successful
than
others.
IS FAUST A
PLAY?
Faust doesn't have the structure you probably expect in a playa
rising action that reaches a climax, and then a falling
action
during which the plot is resolved. It has been called a "cosmic
vision
or dream," and readers have thought of it as a series of episodes
in
dramatic form- somewhat like an
epic.
An epic is a poem or narrative on the largest scale, dealing
with
national origins and heroes (as do Homer's Iliad and Odyssey
and
Virgil's Aeneid) or man's relation to God (as do Dante's Divine
Comedy
and Milton's Paradise Lost). Epics can have the structure of a
journey
(for example, the Odyssey is a journey). Faust is a journey
through
the life of a hero who is meant to symbolize Western man. Its
episodic
structure reflects the succession of events in Faust's
life.
Although Faust may seem to lack a governing form, certain
features
give it internal structure. The diagram shows a structure that
some
readers perceive as holding the whole drama
together.
(See illustration: Faust's
Progress)
Faust begins on the left side in despair. His spirits rise
with
his love for Gretchen but are dashed when she dies. He moves
from
the sphere of personal, subjective action to intellectual action as
he
achieves union with Helen. Again, he loses his love, but this
time
on a higher level- he is less overwhelmed than he was by
Gretchen's
death. Finally, his immortal part is taken to Heaven in a
mystical
ceremony of
salvation.
Notice that the diagram indicates no connection between Faust
and
Heaven at the beginning: Faust attains Heaven through the
jagged
upward progress of his life. You will realize, as you read
the
drama, that it isn't quite as neat as this diagram suggests.
The
intellectual and political actions overlap, and Faust's enjoyment
of
his reclaimed land occupies only a part of Act V. But the diagram
will
help guide you in the unfamiliar territory of Goethe's creation.
(See
illustration.)
IS FAUST A
TRAGEDY?
Goethe subtitled Faust "A Tragedy," thereby presenting his
readers
with a puzzle. In what sense is Faust a tragedy? To the Greeks,
who
developed the literary form called tragedy, as well as to
the
Elizabethans (Shakespeare and his contemporaries), tragedy meant
a
play dealing with the fall of a great man as a result of a
fatal
flaw in his character. But Faust is saved at the
end.
Since Faust represents mankind, is Goethe saying that man's
life
is tragic because man must always strive and err without
satisfaction?
If so, why is Faust carried off to Heaven at the end? Perhaps
Goethe
merely meant by "tragedy" a drama of serious and lofty subject
because
he wanted Faust to be treated as the highest form of art.
Tragedy,
like epic, has traditionally been regarded as the most
demanding
form for both writer and audience, dealing with the
deepest
philosophical and moral
questions.
SETTING
SETTING
(GFAUSETT)
If you're asked where the action of Faust takes place,
you're
justified in answering "Everywhere!" The action takes place in
Heaven;
in Germany and the Greek Islands; in the air above the earth;
in
mountains, forests, caves, rivers and river valleys, and the
sea.
Its settings are those required by the story as it moves, episode
by
episode, through the epic tale of Faust's
life.
As with space, so also with time. Faust is a Renaissance
scholar,
and the first few scenes retain a rough sense of that
historical
period. But the Walpurgis Night is timeless, especially in
its
relationship to Gretchen's story. The Emperor's court seems
roughly
contemporary with Goethe's time, for the introduction of paper
money
is discussed. But with Faust's journey down to the Mothers and
the
subsequent raising of the ghosts of Helen and Paris, things
become
hazy.
Time has no meaning in the Helen act, where Faust, who belongs
in
the sixteenth century, becomes a medieval knight from a period
three
hundred years earlier in order to meet a mythological queen from
the
times of classical Greek literature. Between them they produce
a
son, who resembles the poet Byron, Goethe's contemporaryall
without any break in the
action!
After this, nothing surprises the reader, not even the
onstage
transporting of Faust's soul to Heaven. The final scene has
no
possible historical time, for it combines the fathers of the
Church,
biblical characters, and Gretchen from Part
I.
Goethe felt free to place the story of Faust's life in such a
vast
setting because Faust represents all mankind. He has all the vices
and
virtues of mankind on a grand scale. He is supposed to be
larger
than life and you need to see him in a setting of cosmic scale.
He
is constantly striving to reach beyond the limits of the
physical
world and humanity, constantly striving for understanding
and
fulfillment- and he never gives
up.
THEMES
THEMES
(GFAUTHEM)
Faust has a general overarching theme- man's life on earth and
quest
for knowledge and power. Naturally, such an ambitious theme
must
include many subthemes. Some of these are listed below, and you
will
be able to add to the list as you read the
play.
1. CONSTANT
STRIVING
The stories on which Faust is based were cautionary tales
for
Christians: Man must not seek to go beyond the limits set by God.
In
those stories, the Devil promises Faust unlimited power for
a
limited time and then, as repayment, takes Faust's soul to
Hell.
Goethe's Faust does not contain such a bargain with the
Devil.
Instead, it has two wagers. The Lord bets Mephistopheles that he
won't
be able to make Faust deviate from "the appointed course," and
Faust
bets Mephistopheles that he won't be able to make any moment
so
pleasurable that Faust will cry out for time to stop. Thus, the
bet
between Faust and Mephistopheles concerns fulfillment. If Faust
is
ever tempted to stop reaching for something new, he will forfeit
his
soul. But he doesn't lose it, because he is never
satisfied,
emotionally, spiritually, or
intellectually.
You may have heard the expression "the Faustian spirit." It
refers
to the restless striving for knowledge and power. The
Faustian
spirit cannot stop. It is human to strive ever upward
and,
unfortunately, often to make mistakes in the process. The
striving
theme raises an important question: Does human striving
inevitably
lead to destruction and self-destruction, or is there some other
human
quality to balance these
effects?
2. CLASSICAL VS. ROMANTIC
SPIRITS
In Western thought since the eighteenth century there's been
a
conflict between the Classical and the Romantic. Romantic means
what
is emotional, subjective, spontaneous, springing from the
common
people, like Gretchen. Faust's relationship with her is intense
but
destructive, for both of them give way to uncontrolled emotions.
The
atmosphere of Faust Part I reflects the mood of Romanticism.
The
Classical spirit is associated with the aristocracy of
Helen,
traditional formality like that of Greek tragedy, restraint, and
the
subordination of the individual to the collective
good.
The marriage of Faust, representing Romanticism typical of
Germany
and Northern Europe, and Helen, representing Classicism typical
of
Greece and Southern Europe, shows the tension between the two
sides.
The marriage can take place only in the imagination, and
its
products are short-lived, like the poet
Euphorion.
Like the Faustian theme, the tension between the "Classical" and
the
"Romantic" spirits is a constant feature of our lives. A vivid
example
was the 1960s student movement, which in the name of
individual
freedom questioned social authority and
restraint.
3. "WOMAN ETERNAL / DRAWS US ON
HIGH"
Goethe believed that the guiding force of the universe is
love,
and he knew that throughout Western cultural history, woman has
been
the most tangible, understandable symbol of love. Think,
for
example, of the centrality of the "earth mother" or "mother
goddess"
to ancient cult religions. Or of the importance of the Virgin
Mary
to Christianity. And don't forget that Dante, in his Divine Comedy,
is
admitted into Paradise by his model of pure love, Beatrice.
In
Faust, Helen of Troy is the symbol of pure love and beauty,
while
Gretchen is actually Faust's savior. Even the mysterious,
primal
forces of the earth are called the Earth Mothers. Woman Eternal,
then,
seems to be the symbol of divine love and forgiveness and of
the
principle of creation. The symbol of Woman Eternal
triumphantly
leads man not to strive for the world beyond its reach, but
toward
creation, beauty, joy, and
love.
4. LIFE IS SIMULTANEOUSLY COMIC AND
TRAGIC
You may often wonder why Goethe called Faust a tragedy. Much of
it
is hilariously funny, especially when Mephistopheles is around,
but
also in the interludes like the Walpurgis Night's Dream and
the
carnival masque at the Emperor's court. Wagner and the
Student /
Baccalaureus are clearly figures of fun. Homunculus's wit
sparkles
like the light he sends out from his test tube. The comic spirit is
an
essential part of life and therefore of Faust. By making so much
of
Faust comic, Goethe is making a statement about his picture of
human
life. It is not tragic exclusively, any more than it is
Romantic
exclusively. It is comic even while it is
tragic.
5. PEACE AND SALVATION ARE FOUND IN THE NATURAL
WORLD
Faust expresses a mystical connection between humans and the
natural
world. The Earth Spirit is Faust's ideal. Some readers believe
that
Mephistopheles was sent by the Earth Spirit, so that he is
an
essential element of the natural world. Look at the settings
of
Faust's monologues in Part II- a landscape, a mountain top. Faust
is
carried up to heaven over mountain gorges. The Classical
Walpurgis
Night, with its earthquakes, meteor, and procession across
the
Aegean Sea, is a celebration of nature as the origin of human life
and
its continual
refreshment.
6. "GOD'S SOVEREIGN WORKS STILL
TOWER."
Although Faust does not convey a traditional Christian message,
it
does express Goethe's view of God's place in the universe. The Lord
is
a thoroughly tolerant "old gent," in Mephistopheles' words, who
has
set man in the right direction and knows he can't be lured from it.
In
this universe, the Devil is part of the scheme. He has an
essential
role- he keeps man from getting too "lax and mellow." This theology
is
directly opposed to the Christian view, which sees the Devil as
a
force dedicated to destroying God's good
works.
Because God is infinitely tolerant, man is saved so long as
he
strives. Gretchen is saved by God (it is a voice from above that
cries
"Redeemed!"), no matter how much she is condemned by her peers
and
by the law. Mephistopheles cannot touch her, just as he can't
touch
Faust's soul. He will always lose, but he will always keep
on
trying. That is the Devil's job. It is also important to remember
here
that, unlike in the traditional Faust legend, Goethe's Faust is
saved.
STYLE
STYLE
(GFAUSTYL)
The great variety of styles in Faust reflects the range of
the
poem's characters and settings. Some readers have said that
Faust
contains more poetic meters (measured, patterned arrangement
of
syllables) and forms than any other single work. Others think
that
it is stylistically too exuberant, that its large number of
styles
sometimes interferes with communicating a clear
message.
The styles include a sixteenth-century German form
called
Knuttelvers or Knittelvers (doggerel), which is irregular,
though
rhymed; ballads and songs, often as simple as folk songs; the
trimeter
(a line of verse with three measured feet) of classical tragedy,
as
well as the strophes (stanzas of the chorus as it moves to the
right
or the left of the stage) of the choruses; Shakespeare's
blank
verse; the Alexandrines (iambic line of twelve syllables) used
by
the seventeenth-century French playwright Jean-Baptiste Racine;
and
prose (for one memorable scene). Gretchen expresses her feelings
in
a series of ballads and lyrics, which convey the folk simplicity
of
her
character.
Faust contains numerous references to the Bible and
ancient
literature. It may be difficult for you as a modern student
to
follow these allusions, since the Bible and Greek and Roman
literature
no longer occupy the central place in school that they occupied
in
Goethe's time. Nevertheless, you may find yourself amazed at
how
modern a play Faust is. Respond to it as you would to a new work
by
a contemporary playwright- for, in spirit, Goethe is one of
us.
The translation of Faust used for this Study Guide is by
Walter
Arndt (New York: W. W. Norton, 1976). It was chosen because it
tries
to faithfully reproduce the different rhythms and verse forms of
the
original. Of course, a translation that tries to reproduce
the
original poetry must lead to compromises, because a translator must
at
times use words with slightly different meaning than the
original.
Also, expressions used to fit a meter may sometimes seem
artificial
and strange. Some readers, indeed, think that a verse translation
is
simply too difficult to do well, and they prefer a prose
translation
that conveys the meaning
accurately.
If you do not read German, the best way for you to get close
to
the meaning is to compare several translations. There are some
fifty
translations of Faust in English, the vast majority of
them
translations of Part I alone. Comparing three or four of them
is
time-consuming, so you shouldn't do it with every line; but
some
crucial lines need the perspective of at least two or more
versions.
All translation is also to some degree interpretation, because
the
word chosen in English is rarely exactly equivalent to the German.
The
choice of a word is influenced by the translator's view of
the
poet's
meaning.
To give you an idea of the variation in translations, here
are
versions by four translators of the Lord's important words in
the
Prologue in
Heaven.
Walter Arndt: Man ever errs the while he
strives.
Philip Wayne: For man must strive, and
striving
he must
err.
Carlyle F. MacIntyre: Man is doomed to err as long as
he
strives.
Randall Jarrell: A man must make mistakes, as
long
as he keeps
trying.
The differences between one English translation and another can
be
more a matter of style than of meaning. The feeling of one
translation
may be very different from another. Take, for example, lines 33839:
Of all the spirits of
negation
The rogue has been least onerous to my
mind.
(Arndt)
Of all the spirits of
negation
The rogue is least of burdens to be
borne.
(Wayne)
Of all the spirits of
denial
The joker is the last that I
eschew.
(Louis
MacNeice)
Of all the spirits that
deny
The mischief-maker weighs upon me
least.
(Jarrell)
All the translators refer to Mephistopheles as the spirit
of
negation or denial, and the basic meaning of the passage is the
same
in each translation, but the images of the Devil as a "rogue" and as
a
"joker" are very different. Your image of Mephistopheles as
a
"rogue" or as a "joker" can influence your interpretations of
the
play.
Because translations differ from the original you should
be
careful not to attribute to Goethe what may, in fact, be
the
translator's interpretation. Similarly, be careful not
to
overemphasize a few words or phrases as you interpret Faust,
because
you may be dealing more with the translator than with Goethe.
The
larger patterns of the drama, rather than the small details
of
language, will most likely give you a better idea of the
original
German
text.
SOURCES
SOURCES
(GFAUSOUR)
The Faust legends stem from the life of a real FaustJohannes
Faustus, a German student of dubious reputation who lived from 1480
to
1540. Some of his contemporaries spoke of him as a faker,
or
medieval con man, who lived by his wits. Others, however,
thought
him a magician in league with evil spirits. He was reputed to
travel
about with a little dog that was really a
devil.
Soon after his death, the real Dr. Faustus disappeared into
the
realm of legend. He became the scholar who sold his soul to
the
Devil in exchange for universal knowledge and magical power.
Martin
Luther, the leader of the Protestant Reformation, was, for
example,
one of those who believed Faustus had been in league with the
Devil.
The story was popular for its Christian moral: Faustus was
damned
for pursuing worldly knowledge instead of studying the
Scriptures.
By 1587 a Faustbuch (Faust Book) had appeared, a collection of
the
various tales being told about the wicked magician. The book
was
enormously popular, both in Germany and elsewhere. Later, Faust
became
a popular character in puppet shows filled with slapstick comedy.
But,
despite the comedy, the Faust plays always ended with Faust
being
dragged off by the Devil, damned because he sought
forbidden
knowledge. In addition, numerous handbooks of magic
appeared,
bearing Faust's name. Of course, they always had instructions on
how
to avoid the pact with the
Devil.
The German poet Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-1781) was the
first
to make Faust a hero who was saved rather than damned.
The
redemption was completed by Goethe, in whose great work
Faust
represents the virtue of human aspiration. In Goethe's play,
the
longing for knowledge that had once led to Faust's damnation
leads
to Faust's
salvation.
Goethe probably saw Faust puppet plays during his childhood
and
may have produced one of his own in a puppet theater that
his
grandmother had given him. Faust plays were a popular
folk
entertainment. They were not high art, not the kinds of plays to
be
found in court theaters. They owed their popularity to hellfire
scenes and magic tricks performed by the devils. The
literary
source- that is, written text- for these Faust plays was The
History
of Dr. Johann Faustus, published in Frankfurt in 1587, but it
is
unlikely that Goethe was familiar with it. He probably did
know
Christopher Marlowe's play, The Tragical History of Doctor
Faustus,
written about 1590, in which Dr. Faustus is dragged off to
Hell.
In these stories, Faust is a learned scholar who uses the arts
of
black magic to raise the Devil. He makes a bargain with the
Devil,
signing his name in his own blood. The Devil will have Faust's
soul
after a certain number of years, but during those years the Devil
will
do whatever Faust commands. The story was a moral tale for
Christians,
for it warned them against trying to have more than earthly
power.
In its frightening climax, it depicted Faust being dragged into
the
fiery mouth of Hell. Yet the story was also a great
audience
pleaser, because it offered opportunities for magic tricks at
the
expense of authority figures like the
Emperor.
The Gretchen story, which Goethe added from his own experience,
is
not part of the original Faust plays. But the Helen story
does
appear in the Faust legend. In some versions, Dr. Faustus raises
the
spirit of Helen and lives with her for twenty years. The Emperor,
too,
is part of the original story. Almost everything else comes
from
Goethe's extensive reading. The figures of the Walpurgis Night
come
from his study of alchemy, witchcraft, and magic. Those in
the
Classical Walpurgis Night come from Greek and Roman literature,
as
do Baucis and Philemon. The Three Mighty Men are found in the
Old
Testament, and the figures that conduct Faust's soul upward are
from
Christian
tradition.
Goethe derived not only his characters but also his style from
his
reading. You will find echoes of Shakespeare (the character Ariel
is
borrowed from The Tempest), Dante, and Byron, as well as a
direct
imitation of the Greek playwright
Euripides.
PART_I
THE PLAY
(GFAUPLAY)
-
PART
I
Part I of Faust is divided into twenty-five scenes. The
scenes
have descriptive names, not numbers. Most scenes are short.
Line
breaks are used in this guide where scenes are long enough to
be
treated in parts. The first three scenes stand outside the main
drama.
The most important of them for the meaning of Faust is the Prologue
in
Heaven.
PART_I|
DEDICATION
DEDICATION
Goethe worked on Faust intermittently throughout his long
life,
sometimes setting it aside for a number of years. The poem
that
constitutes the Dedication was written after Goethe had left
Faust
virtually untouched for more than twenty years, from 1775 to 1797.
The
Dedication reflects his mood as he speaks to the ideas, people,
and
emotions connected with the earlier manuscript. He is reminded
of
lovers and friends, most now dead, who had read the earlier version
of
Faust. These memories fill him with emotion and seem to make
the
present fade
away.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Faust contains numerous poetic rhythms, or meters. If
you
don't understand German, it's difficult to appreciate the meters
and
the contribution they make to the play's effect. A translation
that
follows the original German meters, with their different
fine
lengths and rhyme schemes, will give you some idea of
Goethe's
poetic genius. The Dedication is written in what is called
ottava
rima, because it has eight lines, the first six rhyming ababab and
the
last two rhyming with each other,
cc.
--------------------------------------------------------------------PART_I|
PRELUDE
PRELUDE IN THE
THEATER
There's an important message in this Prelude that you
shouldn't
miss. No matter how fanciful Faust may seem (its characters
include
animals, spirits, angels, witches, and God himself, while its
settings
include mountain tops, palaces, and Greek islands), and even though
it
is written as poetry, it is a play and Goethe intended it for
the
theater.
The three characters of the Prelude have three different views as
to
what makes a good play. The Director, who wants a
commercial
success, considers what the audience will pay for and what they
want
in the theater. He calls for plot, action, variety, and
spectacle.
In the Poet's remarks, you can see the Romantic theory of
poetry.
Poetry is the highest essence of things, he says, since it
is
concerned not with ordinary affairs, but with the most deeply
felt
emotions and the highest, most abstract principles which make the
play
meaningful for people in all times and
places.
The Merry Person (called Comic Actor or Comedian in
some
translations) laughs at the Poet's argument. Don't worry about
eternal
values and posterity, he says. The successful playwright draws
from
real life and makes people
laugh.
The Director cuts the debate short by calling for action. You
can
imagine him gesturing to include the whole stage as he promises
that
the entire universe, including Heaven and Hell, will be presented
on
his
stage.
PART_I|
PROLOGUE
PROLOGUE IN
HEAVEN
As if to prove that the Director isn't exaggerating, the
next
scene takes place in Heaven. God is enjoying the songs of
his
archangels who praise the wonders of His creation. You may
be
surprised to find Mephistopheles, the Devil, in Heaven as well,
but
remember that in Christian theology he is a "fallen angel." He is
a
cynic who shifts the conversation from the praises of God to
a
criticism of humanity. Men are unhappy, he says, because God has
given
them intelligence and reason. He compares them to grasshoppers
that
constantly jump about and stick their noses into
everything.
Abruptly, God asks whether Mephistopheles knows
Faust.
Mephistopheles does know him and thinks he's a strange man who's
never
satisfied. Mephistopheles asserts that Faust could easily be
turned
away from God. God is tolerant of Faust's confusion, saying
"Man
ever errs the while he strives." In other words, so long as
man
continues to search after truth, he will probably make
mistakes.
Mephistopheles wagers that he can corrupt Faust, and God says
that
as long as Faust lives, Mephistopheles may try to corrupt him.
Both
are confident of winning the wager. God even encourages
Mephistopheles
to corrupt
Faust.
After God and the angels have disappeared,
Mephistopheles
addresses the audience. You already know that he is a cynic and
that
there is probably a mocking tone in his voice when he refers to God
as
the "old gent" and comments on what a compliment it is for "a
swell
[an important person] like him [to be] so man-to-man with the
Devil!"
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: All the Faust stories tell of a bet between Faust and
the
Devil, but only Goethe's Faust includes a wager between God and
the
Devil. Does this scene remind you of the wager between God and
Satan
in the Old Testament Book of Job? In both Job and Faust, God,
the
creator, allows the Devil, the negator, to try to corrupt
an
"upright man." The Satan of the Old Testament tries to lure Job
away
from God by destroying his health and possessions, but you will
see
that Goethe's Mephistopheles will try to ruin Faust by
putting
pleasure in his reach. You might also contrast Goethe's Faust,
who
constantly searches and strives for understanding, with Job,
who
blindly accepts his fate. In fact, Goethe introduces you in
the
Prologue to the idea that man must be constantly striving. It
is
this striving toward absolute truth and satisfaction that leads
man
toward his highest development. The most dangerous sin is inaction,
or
accepting any condition of life as
satisfactory.
You will notice that Goethe uses a great deal of
Christian
symbolism, and many wonder about his religious attitudes.
His
religious philosophy is not traditionally Christian, but has
been
called "religious paganism," meaning that he has religious
feelings
but doesn't accept any specific
beliefs.
--------------------------------------------------------------------PART_I|
NIGHT
NIGHT
LINES 354520
This is your first view of Faust, in his dark and gloomy
study.
You'll recognize the Romantic atmosphere right away. Faust
is
wearing the black gown and square hat of the late medieval
scholar.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Although Faust is portrayed as a medieval scholar, he
is
voicing the preoccupations of the late eighteenth century.
Toward
the end of the century, a new movement, called Romanticism,
opposed
the rationality of the earlier generation, called the Age of
Reason.
The Romantics admired intensity of feeling and individual
insight.
They recognized that not all knowledge was based on logical
inquiry.
For them, the occult (which focused on casting spells,
conjuring
spirits, studying astrology, interpreting symbols in magic
books,
reading signs into natural events, and even taking drugs to
induce
hallucinations) represented sources of knowledge scorned
by
Classical
thinkers.
--------------------------------------------------------------------The original Faust story, published in 1587, established
the
tradition that Faust was a teacher in a fifteenthor
sixteenth-century university. He begins this way in
Goethe's
tragedy, but time and place soon become
unclear.
Faust is not satisfied with what his learning has brought him.
He
feels that he knows nothing and that teaching others is impossible.
He
wants to know what is not taught in books, to experience
direct
communion with the spirits of
nature.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: This monologue is the first in a series of speeches by
Faust
alone on the stage. Each of the speeches marks a different stage
in
Faust's understanding of his experiences. You should keep track
of
Faust's monologues so that you can trace his intellectual
and
emotional development. This scene in his study is a touchstone
against
which you can measure the later monologues, such as the
speech
addressed to the Earth Spirit in Forest and Cave in Part I or
the
monologue in Pleasing Landscape, Part II, Act
I.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Opening a book written by a magician of the Middle Ages, Faust
first
ponders a design representing the Universe, or Macrocosm, and
then
finds the symbol of the Earth Spirit. This spirit is
largely
Goethe's own invention and what it means is largely for you to
decide.
Some readers think that the Earth Spirit is the "guardian spirit"
of
life which actively lives within nature. Faust brings the Earth
Spirit
to life, apparently by pronouncing a magic spell, but then he
fails
miserably to impress the Spirit as an
equal.
Does this mean that the Earth Spirit doesn't want to deal
with
man, only with other spirits? Or does the Spirit think Faust is
a
companion worthy only for Mephistopheles, not for purer and
more
powerful spirits? The conversation between Faust and the Spirit
is
crucial. Faust exclaims that he feels close to the "spirit
of
deeds," but the Spirit scornfully rejects him, saying that while
he
may be close to the Spirit, he does not understand
it.
The rejection will have serious consequences, but for the
moment
Faust is distracted. Wagner, his research assistant, interrupts
the
scene.
LINES 521601
You'll recognize Wagner right away as the earnest student
who
works hard but never really gets the point. He and Faust talk past
one
another because Wagner insists on asking how to make
effective
speeches, while Faust is telling him that deep feeling alone
is
necessary and
sufficient.
Wagner is finally persuaded to go back to bed. He asks
Faust,
however, to continue the discussion tomorrow, Easter Day.
Wagner's
last line is typical of people like him: "Though I know much,
I
would know
everything."
LINES 602807
As Faust acknowledges, Wagner took his mind off his
bitter
disappointment at the Earth Spirit's rejection. In fact, you might
see
the two scenes as parallel. The Earth Spirit treated Faust much
as
Faust, on a lower level, treated
Wagner.
But now Faust has to face his despair. He is not a spirit but
a
man subject to emotions and death. As he becomes more and
more
upset, Faust looks for help in his books, his
scientific
instruments, and the manuscript he was studying. Looking around
the
room, he notices a small bottle of poison, which seems the answer
to
his restlessness. He takes down a beautiful cup that had been used
for
ceremonial feasts in Faust's family, fills it with the poison,
and
is about to drink it when the sound of bells bursts in from
outside.
In some Christian churches, Easter is celebrated with a
daybreak
service, so that the rising of Christ from the dead is symbolized
by
the rising sun. This service has just begun, and its joyful
choruses
intervene in time to stop Faust from committing
suicide.
You can imagine an antiphonal setting (one in which groups
or
individuals call and respond to one another) between Faust and
the
choruses. As they sing of the resurrection of Christ, Faust puts
his
cup of poison down and expresses his feelings about Easter. It's
not
so much that he responds to the religious meaning of the songs,
but
that the music reminds him of his youth. On this Easter morning,
Faust
is saved from
death.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: The Easter service is an example of Goethe's use
of
Christian symbols for his own purposes. Easter is a ceremony
of
rebirth, just what is needed to bring Faust back from despair.
The
choruses of angels, women, and disciples all express
Christian
promises of consolation and redemption through
Christ's
resurrection, but they are only symbols of spiritual renewal,
not
expressions of Goethe's
faith.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
PART_I|
OUTSIDE_CITY_GATE
OUTSIDE THE CITY
GATE
Imagine this as a scene in a movie, with the camera isolating
groups
of people in a large bustling crowd. As Faust moves to the
foreground,
the camera illustrates his speech, especially its effect on the
crowds
of brightly dressed people. Clearly, Faust is a new man, speaking
from
the heart when he exults with the crowd: "Here I am Man, am free
to
be!"
The peasants revere Faust because he and his father, a
physician,
had helped them during the plague. Faust says, however, that he
and
his father don't deserve much praise because their potions
caused
death as well as cured illness. Here is an early reference to the
main
theme, that the search for knowledge can cause destruction. Faust
is
very much aware of his
limitations.
His reference to the deaths caused by his potions reminds Faust
of
his feelings of futility. He tells Wagner that he feels a
division
within himself. He is pulled toward the world of action and his
fellow
man, and at the same time toward the ideals that go beyond time
and
place. He wants a magic cape that will transport him beyond
his
physical
limitations.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Conflict between two equally balanced sets of values is
part
of human life. As Faust expresses it here, the conflict is between
the
world of action and the world of thought. Faust wrestles
with
himself throughout the play as part of his endless striving. You
can
see the conflict in the contrast between, on the one hand,
Wagner's
learning for the sake of learning and, on the other,
Faust's
admiration for the "deed" and rejection of the people's simple
faith
in favor of the truth. Do you feel the same conflict in your
life?
Do you feel there are two forces at war in your mind? How do
you
resolve
them?
You'll remember that Mephistopheles described these two
driving
forces in lines 304-05 of the Prologue. You won't be surprised
that
Mephistopheles first appears to Faust shortly after Faust makes
his
"two souls" speech. Faust seems to be ready for
Mephistopheles.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Just as Faust expresses his wish for escape into a free life,
he
sees a black poodle. Faust senses that there's something strange
about
this dog, which follows him
home.
PART_I|
STUDY_1
STUDY
In his study, Faust decides to translate the Gospel of St. John
into
German. He has difficulties with the first sentence, "In the
beginning
was the Word." Faust doesn't think of the Word as the origin
of
things. Words are merely a means of expressing essence, and for
Faust,
essence is action, the Deed. His reasoning has led him back to the
Old
Testament idea of "In the beginning God created the world."
Creation
is action, the ruling force of the
universe.
The poodle is restless and growls while Faust translates
the
Bible. Faust is about to put him out when the dog suddenly
changes
shape and becomes a threatening monster. As other spirits cry
outside,
Faust casts spells on the monster. Nothing works until Faust
brings
out the sign of the Trinity. At this, a cloud of vapor obscures
the
monster, and Mephistopheles appears, dressed as a traveling
scholar.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: It is important that Faust is not just a passive
bystander
in Mephistopheles' efforts to claim him. The Devil didn't
reveal
himself to Faust, but Faust recognized him and conjured him up.
Is
it significant that Mephistopheles appears to Faust as a
traveling
scholar? Does this disguise make Faust feel comfortable with
him?
--------------------------------------------------------------------Although Mephistopheles doesn't reveal his identity, he refers
to
himself as part of a force made up of both good and evil. Faust,
who
imagines things as wholes, has trouble thinking of any being as
only
part of a greater scheme of
things.
After their talk, Faust discovers that Mephistopheles can't
leave
because of the magic sign by the door. Mephistopheles' respect
for
rules gives Faust the idea that he may be able to make a
bargain
with him. Faust becomes more and more excited because he has the
Devil
in his power, but Mephistopheles is anxious to leave.
Finally,
Mephistopheles calls up a choir of spirits who sing Faust to
sleep
while some mice help the Devil
escape.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Some readers observe that Faust's belief
that
Mephistopheles' appearance was only a dream means that the
Devil
represents hidden parts of Faust's nature. (The Romantics
believed
that the hidden or "other" side of man's nature was revealed
in
dreams.) If Faust's nature represents man's nature, then the
Devil
must represent hidden parts of all of us. What do you
think?
--------------------------------------------------------------------PART_I|
STUDY_2
STUDY
LINES 15291850
When Mephistopheles returns, ready to take Faust out on the town,
he
finds that Faust's mood has changed. His negative mood
of
frustration has returned. He talks of death, and Mephistopheles has
to
remind him that he didn't commit suicide when he had the
chance.
Faust's complaints merge in a horrifying curse on all
human
motivations, from thought through fame and riches to patience
itself.
The terrifying moment is intensified by mysterious voices
of
unseen spirits that first mourn for "beauty destroyed" and then
urge
renewal. Mephistopheles seizes his chance. He recognizes that a man
in
the depths of despair is ready for a bet with the Devil. He
offers
to become Faust's faithful servant and, when Faust wants to
know
what the Devil will get if he wins, Mephistopheles says that
he
wants "equal worth" after Faust's death. Presumably, he means
that
Faust will be his servant in
Hell.
Faust makes the famous wager with the Devil that will
allow
Mephistopheles to collect his soul if Faust loses. Faust,
however,
makes one crucial change in the wording of the bet.
If
Mephistopheles ever makes anything so pleasant that Faust cries
out
with desire to have time stop so that he may enjoy it, then Faust
will
lose the wager and die at that
moment.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: The idea of a totally fulfilled moment is central to
Faust.
Remember that when the Lord makes his wager with Mephistopheles,
he
says that man will always make mistakes while he strives. God
also
says that man must strive continually, and that a Devil
like
Mephistopheles functions to keep man moving. Mephistopheles'
advantage
lies in providing life's best experiences for Faust, so Faust may
be
tempted to call for time to stop and thereby lose to
Mephistopheles.
You might want to draw up a list of the experiences
Mephistopheles
provides and consider whether he left any out that might
have
satisfied
Faust.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Faust and Mephistopheles sign the pact in blood. Faust is anxious
to
experience all of life, to fulfill all of human potential, at
which
point he would be like God. Mephistopheles has to use
persistent
argument and exercise patience to get Faust away from
his
identification with "mankind's loftiest plane," which is
unattainable,
and down to human pleasures, which are
available.
At that moment one of Faust's students knocks on the door.
Since
Faust is in no mood for students, Mephistopheles offers to play
his
part.
LINES 18512072
The scene between the unsuspecting student and
Mephistopheles
pokes fun at university study and scholarship in
general.
Mephistopheles says that logicians and philosophers attempt to
analyze
and pin down thinking but don't understand its intuitive
components
and, therefore, produce students who can't think at all. The
student
shows signs of understanding the importance of the concept,
but
Mephistopheles smothers his objection in a stream of words
about
words. Mephistopheles then signs the student's book with the
words
"You will be like a god, and come to know good and evil." The
Devil
believes that man tries too hard to understand all of life, to be
like
God. And that is what makes man unhappy. Mephistopheles thinks
man
would be better off concentrating on physical pleasure. (Remember
this
scene with the student. He returns in Part II, and you'll be
surprised
at his development- or not surprised, depending on your view
of
academic
institutions.)
Mephistopheles and Faust now prepare to leave on their first
venture
together into the world outside Faust's study. When
Mephistopheles
says, "The small world, then the great we shall peruse," he
is
forecasting the shape of the drama. In the rest of Part I,
Faust
explores personal relationships, the small world. Then, in Part II,
he
moves into politics and technology, as well as an expedition to
the
time of the Trojan
War.
PART_I|
AUERBACHS_TAVERN
AUERBACH'S TAVERN IN
LEIPZIG
A group of students are drinking in a tavern, singing bits
of
traditional songs. Mephistopheles magically produces wine
by
drilling holes in the table. Finally, he sets them quarreling
with
each other and disappears with Faust, who is disgusted by the
whole
episode.
You may wonder why this scene is here. Some elements of Faust
belong
to the original legend. Among them are Faust's dabbling in the
occult,
the pact with the Devil written in blood, scenes with Wagner,
the
Emperor's court, the resurrection of Helen of Troy,
and
Mephistopheles' magic tricks with gullible students or
courtiers.
Thus, a scene where Mephistopheles reveals his powers
is
traditional. Furthermore, Auerbach's Tavern was a real place
that
had long been associated with the Faust legend, and its walls
were
decorated with paintings representing Faust's
adventures.
PART_I|
WITCHS_KITCHEN
WITCH'S
KITCHEN
Mephistopheles takes Faust to a Witch's Kitchen complete
with
boiling cauldrons and long-tailed monkeys. There, Mephistopheles
gives
Faust a potion that makes him look and feel much younger. As
Faust
walks around the kitchen, he comes upon a magic mirror and
finds
himself fascinated by it. In the mirror he sees the image of
the
loveliest woman he can imagine. At a distance the image is
clear,
but it becomes misty and remote when Faust approaches. By the end
of
this scene, the Devil has prepared Faust for the love affair that
will
dominate the rest of Part
I.
This is the first appearance of an important theme, the beauty
and
love of women and their influence on men. For Goethe,
women
represent an ideal that brings out the best in men. Sexual love
is
therefore a symbol of union, and the vision in the mirror
represents
the Feminine as an abstraction. You will see how that abstraction
is
embodied in the two women Faust falls in love with- Gretchen in Part
I
and Helen of Troy in Part
II.
Why does Mephistopheles make Faust thirty years younger? Is
it
only to make Faust more attractive and energetic and thus to
make
the rest of Part I believable? Or do you agree with readers
who
believe that Goethe makes Faust younger so that you may see how
he
evolves from a young man preoccupied with lust to a mature man
who
gains insight and
understanding?
PART_I|
STREET
STREET
As Mephistopheles has predicted, every woman looks like Helen
of
Troy to Faust, especially the woman Faust meets on the street. This
is
Margarete, usually called Gretchen, the German diminutive of her
name.
With great dignity, Gretchen refuses to be picked up by
Faust.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Most of the last half of Part I is concerned with the sad
tale
of Gretchen's seduction by Faust and her descent into madness
after
murdering her baby. This is possibly the most widely known part
of
Faust and some readers think it is the most effective. But don't
judge
it too quickly. The story of Gretchen falls into place and takes
on
a different meaning when it is read in the context of the
whole
play. Here, Faust strives- and fails- on a personal level, but it
is
not the whole
story.
The story of Gretchen is usually called a tragedy. But whose
tragedy
is it? Is it Gretchen's alone? Or is it Faust's tragedy too?
And
what causes the tragedy- character, situation, or
Mephistopheles'
meddling? Keep these questions in mind as you read
it.
--------------------------------------------------------------------The contrast between Faust's behavior in the scene in the
Witch's
Kitchen and this scene on the street is astounding. There, he
was
entranced by an idea of feminine beauty. Here, he is impatient
to
get into the girl's bed. He orders Mephistopheles to act, in
effect,
as his
pimp.
What do you think of Faust's passion? Is it understandable in
a
scholar who has just been made young and introduced to the real
world?
Or does it represent a universal male attitude toward women?
There
is no hint here of marriage. Faust's feelings are intense, but
they
have one object only. Can they be
condoned?
PART_I|
CLEAN_LITTLE_ROOM
A CLEAN LITTLE
ROOM
In this very dramatic scene, your sympathy and admiration
for
Gretchen deepen. She's an innocent young woman, no match for
an
upper-class suitor aided by a Devil who leaves caskets of jewels
in
her closet. The cleanliness of her room mirrors the cleanliness of
her
soul and contrasts with Mephistopheles'
lewdness.
Faust's fantasies while sitting in her chair and looking at
her
bed show that he is in love with his own idea of sexual
happiness
rather than with a real person. His feelings are deeply stirred,
but
his conscience is not very active. For a moment he seems to
have
second thoughts about the harm he may bring to Gretchen,
but
Mephistopheles quickly keeps him from thinking about
that.
The song Gretchen sings about the faithful lover is one
of
Goethe's most famous poems and was set to music by
Romantic
composers such as Franz Liszt and Hector Belioz. Another of
Gretchen's
songs, the spinning song from "Gretchen's Chamber," Part I, is
equally
famous and was set to music by Franz
Schubert.
PART_I|
ON_A_WALK
ON A
WALK
Gretchen has been persuaded by her mother and the local priest
to
give the jewels to the Church, thus making Mephistopheles
furious
and giving Goethe a chance to make fun of the greed of the
Church's
servants. You discover that Faust's "second thoughts" in
Gretchen's
room were not very sincere. Gretchen's mother and the Church
have
given him a chance to abandon his evil plan. He decides to go
ahead,
however, and commands Mephistopheles not only to get another set
of
jewels, but also to reach Gretchen through her
neighbor.
PART_I|
NEIGHBORS_HOUSE
THE NEIGHBOR'S
HOUSE
This is the first scene in which Faust does not
appear.
Mephistopheles shows what a good job he can do for his master, and
the
scene plays very well. It's funny, surprising, and full of
comic
devices. Mephistopheles invents a character for himself and carries
it
off so convincingly that he's afraid the widow Martha is falling
for
him. The scene also shows Gretchen beginning to give in to the
Devil's
seduction. With the help of Martha, she keeps the second casket
of
jewels concealed from her
mother.
PART_I|
STREET
STREET
Look carefully at this little scene to understand
Faust's
development. At first, Faust makes moral objections to
Mephistopheles'
suggestion that he should pretend he was a witness to the death
of
Martha's husband, but then he has to admit he intends to
deceive
Gretchen. Faust tries to argue that his intense feelings are
reason
enough for pursuing Gretchen. In the end, however, he admits
that
the Devil is
right.
PART_I|
GARDEN_GARDEN_PAVILION
GARDEN; GARDEN
PAVILION
In these two scenes Gretchen reaches the peak of happiness.
Faust
declares his love for her as they are plucking the petals off a
daisy,
and she in turn declares her love for him in the little
garden
pavilion where he has pursued her. Faust has won her confidence
by
listening sympathetically to her life story. You now know more
about
Gretchen, especially about her relationship to her mother.
This
knowledge will explain Gretchen's later actions, which might
otherwise
seem
inexcusable.
This scene is sometimes called the "quartet." As first
Gretchen
and Faust walk across the stage, then Martha and Mephistopheles,
you
see clearly the contrast between spiritualism and
idealism
(represented by Gretchen and Faust) and cynicism and
materialism
(represented by Martha and
Mephistopheles).
PART_I|
FOREST_AND_CAVE
FOREST AND
CAVE
This scene is an interlude in the progress of the Gretchen drama.
It
is outside the realistic time frame that has been set up. The
scene
focuses on Faust's feelings- you might say it's a glimpse into
his
mind. In his first monologue, Faust had addressed the Earth
Spirit,
which rejected him. He now feels that the Spirit has blessed
him
with insight into himself and into living things. It seems as if
the
experience of love has reconciled Faust to the Earth Spirit, so
that
he feels in harmony with
Nature.
Faust is beginning to hate Mephistopheles. He can't do
without
him, but he cannot stand his denial of strong emotions. Faust
senses
that his dependence on Mephistopheles will intensify as the
Devil
fulfills his desires and whets Faust's appetite for new
experiences.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: You will have noticed that Faust's speech is in blank
versethat
is five-stress lines that do not rhyme. It's the meter
of
Milton's Paradise Lost and of Shakespeare. Goethe deeply
admired
Shakespeare's works, which he read in English and in
German
translation. You will see the growing influence of Shakespeare as
Part
I comes to a
close.
--------------------------------------------------------------------The rest of the scene illustrates what Faust is beginning to hate
so
much about Mephistopheles- the Devil's contempt for both Faust
and
Gretchen, his lack of respect for intense feelings, and
his
coarseness. Perhaps most irritating of all to Faust is that he
has
to admit Mephistopheles is right about his relationship to
Gretchen.
Gretchen must be a sacrifice to the powers of Hell, and this
knowledge
inevitably shatters Faust's mood of harmony with the Earth
Spirit.
As Mephistopheles speaks to Faust, he makes so many
erotic
references to Gretchen that Faust hurries away to find
her.
PART_I|
GRETCHENS_CHAMBER_MARTHAS_GARDEN
GRETCHEN'S CHAMBER; MARTHA'S
GARDEN
Remember that Faust and Gretchen have had no opportunity
to
consummate their love yet. In her sad song over the spinning
wheel,
Gretchen mourns for her lost peace of mind. Now that she is in
love
with Faust, her entire universe has been reduced to her
relationship
with him. Love brings joy only in the presence of the beloved. When
he
is not there, her heart
aches.
Once you have seen the emotional states of both Faust
and
Gretchen, you see them together again in Martha's garden. The
carefree
young girl expressing her love has been replaced by a woman
worrying
over the spiritual health of her lover. Perhaps Gretchen
is
beginning to understand that Faust may not be trustworthy, since
he
does not accept the Christian faith. He answers her questions with
a
theological argument: God is indifferent about our belief in Him;
it
is enough that He gave us the capacity to relate emotionally to
the
world.
-
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Faust's reply to Gretchen goes beyond a speech
appropriate
to the character. It is an expression of Romantic theology. It
does
not matter whether we believe in God because God will perform
His
function in the universe without us and without the names we
invent
for Him. (Remember the Romantic preference for the idea and
action
behind the Word, not the Word itself.) Profound emotion sincerely
felt
represents an aspect of God. "Feeling is all," says Faustor
ratherGoethe.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Gretchen is consoled to some extent, though she now worries
about
Mephistopheles, whom she does not like. It was a common belief
that
the pure and innocent could sense the presence of the Devil,
which
Gretchen clearly does. She knows instinctively that
Mephistopheles
"cannot love a single soul." Faust, as you know from the
previous
scene, shares her feelings about Mephistopheles, yet he brushes
her
objections aside as
prejudice.
It is a stroke of psychological genius to place the
consummation
of Faust and Gretchen's love at a point where the relationship
is
troubled. Gretchen is insecure enough to agree to give her mother
a
sleeping potion. Despite what you have been told by Gretchen
herself
about her mother's harshness toward her, it is unlikely she
would
agree to risk her mother's life if she weren't desperately in
love.
The final exchange between Faust and Mephistopheles shows
the
Devil mocking Gretchen's simple Christianity and looking forward
to
sharing Faust's sexual pleasure. He also anticipates trapping
the
souls of Faust and Gretchen and thereby winning his bet with
God.
His coarse and crude expression disgusts Faust, who is by
now
tormented with conflicting
feelings.
PART_I|
WELL_CITY_WALL
AT THE WELL; BY THE CITY
WALL
These two scenes confirm what you might have expected- Gretchen
is
pregnant by Faust. She faces the public shame that her companion
at
the well- Lieschen- describes with such relish for the girl they
are
gossiping about, and she seeks comfort for her anxiety and
suffering
from the Virgin
Mary.
PART_I|
NIGHT
NIGHT
A cruel punishment is dealt Gretchen in this scene, where
Faust
and Gretchen's brother Valentine fight, and Valentine is killed.
Not
only does Gretchen lose a brother, but he dies cursing
her.
Valentine's vehemence seems out of proportion until you
remember
from his first speech how much his own honor and reputation had
been
bound up with Gretchen's virtue. Valentine cares nothing at all
for
her feelings- a dying brother's curse is an unbearable burdenbut
only for the injury done to him: "When you renounced your honor
first,
Then was my heart most sorely
pierced."
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Notice the song Mephistopheles sings as he and
Faust
approach Gretchen's house. It is a cruel song in which he
mocks
Gretchen. He sings that a girl shouldn't make love with a man
unless
she has a wedding ring from
him.
--------------------------------------------------------------------What are your feelings toward Faust at this point? Do you find
it
difficult to see him as a victim of the Devil's magic? Remember
that
he has contributed to the deaths of Gretchen's mother and brother,
and
that in this scene he speaks of Gretchen with indifference, as
if
she were a
prostitute.
PART_I|
CATHEDRAL
CATHEDRAL
This is the last time you will see Gretchen as a sane girl. She
is
tormented by spirits- the voice of her own conscience
whose
accusations are intensified by the Latin verses ["Day of
Wrath"]
sung by the choir during the Mass for her mother and brother. She
is
now totally ruined. Her mother has died as a result of the
sleeping
potion that Faust gave her; she is partly responsible for
her
brother's death; and she is pregnant by Faust, who has abandoned
her.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: You'll have to make up your own mind about what
caused
Gretchen's ruin. It's too simple to say that it was caused
by
Mephistopheles' tricks. Although he brought Faust and
Gretchen
together and supplied the jewels and the sleeping potion, he did so
on
Faust's orders. Did Faust, then, cause Gretchen's misery? In one
way
he did, because he slept with her. But he could not have done so
if
she had remained as firm in her refusal as she was when she
first
met him. There are other, less direct causes: The doctrine of
Romantic
feeling so eloquently expressed by Faust apparently leads
to
disaster after the feelings are indulged. The society in
which
Gretchen lives is harsh and unforgiving, as the scene with
Valentine
illustrates so horribly. (In order to make a social
criticism,
Goethe probably based the Gretchen tragedy on the execution
for
infanticide of a girl in his native
Frankfurt.)
--------------------------------------------------------------------PART_I|
WALPURGIS_NIGHT
WALPURGIS
NIGHT
As Mephistopheles and Faust were skulking under Gretchen's window
in
Night, they were discussing their intention to attend the
Witches'
Sabbath, or Walpurgis Night. Walpurgis Night, April 30, celebrates
May
Day (May 1) and takes place in the Harz Mountains in
central
Germany. It is traditionally a night when witches gather on a
high
mountain for crude, sexually explicit
celebrations.
Walpurgis Night represents Faust's deepest involvement with
the
Devil and his followers. In order to intensify your perception
of
Faust's degradation, Goethe has Walpurgis Night follow the scene
where
Gretchen, Faust's victim, faints in the Cathedral. Instead
of
showing you what Gretchen, in her madness, has suffered, he
shows
you how far Faust has fallen. The Walpurgis Night scene also gives
you
a sense of the unreality of the world Faust has entered
through
Mephistopheles' magic. Faust is not aware of Gretchen's
pregnancy.
Since she has killed the baby by the time he returns, he must
have
been gone about a year. The Walpurgis celebrations
represent
symbolically the way in which Faust passed his time during the
year.
You should read the Walpurgis Night scene without worrying
too
much about the obscure references. Goethe put his enemies among
the
witches and made jokes about them that are difficult to
understand
now. The important thing to remember is that this is a
Northern
Witches' Sabbath, in contrast to the Classical Walpurgis Night in
Part
II. Goethe is fascinated by the contrast between the gloomy
Romantic
North, represented by Germany and the sunny Classical
South,
represented by
Greece.
Mephistopheles and Faust journey to the mountain, led by
an
erratic Will-o'-the-Wisp, while overhead the witches fly in on
the
storm winds. They make such noisy confusion when they land and
greet
each other that Mephistopheles pulls Faust aside. He thinks it
odd
they should isolate themselves from what they came to see,
but
Mephistopheles offers him a tour of the groups assembled round
their
different
fires.
They visit a group of old men bemoaning modern times (these may
have
been modeled on Goethe's colleagues in the government of Weimar).
Then
they dance with witches to the accompaniment of lewd
jokes.
Suddenly, the fun goes sour for Faust. First, he finds
himself
disgusted with his dancing partner, a pretty young witch, because
a
mouse jumps out of her mouth as they dance together. Then, he
sees
an apparition that reminds him of Gretchen. He cannot take his
eyes
from her, gazing with horror at a thin red line across her throat.
You
can imagine Mephistopheles realizing that he must do something
quickly
or Faust will turn and run away. He grabs Faust and pulls him along
to
see a play that is just about to be
performed.
PART_I|
WALPURGIS_NIGHTS_DREAM
WALPURGIS NIGHT'S
DREAM
The play with which Mephistopheles distracts Faust serves as
an
interlude and has no real connection with the rest of the
play.
There is no plot and nothing happens. The scene is called
"The
Golden Wedding of Oberon and Titania" and refers directly
to
Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream. The four-line poems
are
recited by mythological characters and various other strange
figures
and most make fun of Goethe's contemporaries. This interlude serves
as
a transition between the frenzied Walpurgis Night celebration
and
the scene that will
follow.
PART_I|
DREARY_DAY
DREARY
DAY
This is the only scene in Faust written in prose rather
than
verse. Why does Goethe's style change here? Some readers
believe
Goethe switched to prose to highlight Faust's return to the real
world
from the fanciful world of Walpurgis
Night.
Faust is filled with anger and guilt. He learns that Gretchen
is
in prison and he accuses Mephistopheles of deliberately
distracting
him while Gretchen suffered. He asks Mephistopheles to help him
free
her, but the Devil refuses. After Faust finishes shouting at
him,
Mephistopheles accuses Faust of lacking the courage to accept
the
consequences of his actions. "Which one of us is most
responsible
for Gretchen's ruin?" he asks. Mephistopheles becomes
unaccountably
less powerful than Faust thought he was. "Do I have all the power
on
earth and in heaven?" He can't release Gretchen from prison, and
he
can't protect Faust from the police, who are looking for him
after
Valentine's murder. All he can do is trick the jailer so that
Faust
can seize the prison keys and take Gretchen
away.
PART_I|
NIGHT_DUNGEON
NIGHT;
DUNGEON
Faust and Mephistopheles ride magic horses to the dungeon
where
Gretchen lies imprisoned. On the way, they pass the stone where
she
will be beheaded (Faust had seen a red line round her neck at
the
Walpurgis Night dance), and where the witches are already
gathering
like
vultures.
The dungeon scene is heart-rending. As Faust approaches
Gretchen's
cell, he hears her singing an insane song much like the one
Ophelia
sings in Shakespeare's Hamlet (Act IV, scene v). She mistakes
Faust
for her executioner, and as she begs him to save her, Faust
realizes
she is mad. Faust is wracked with guilt, and as he calls her name,
she
recognizes
him.
Faust begs her to leave with him, but she refuses. In her
confused
state she rambles wildly about her baby's drowning and her
mother's
death, and about the details of the places where all the members
of
her ruined family are to be buried. She knows she doesn't want
to
escape punishment for her sins and believes only death will
bring
her peace of mind. Faust almost picks her up to carry her away but
her
refusal to flee deters him. As day breaks, the bells begin to peal
for
her execution, but she thinks they are wedding
bells.
This scene, which concludes Part I of Faust, ends in
frenzied
action. Mephistopheles tries to hurry Faust away, because the
magic
horses will disappear with daylight and they must be on their
way.
He pulls Faust away as Gretchen throws herself down in a final
prayer.
Mephistopheles coldly says she is condemned, but he is contradicted
by
a heavenly voice that announces, "Redeemed!" They leave as
Gretchen
calls Faust's name with her dying
breath.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Some readers believe that when Mephistopheles calls
"Hither!
To me!" he is dragging Faust away to Hell. Such an ending would
be
appropriate if Part I concluded the play. Certainly it creates
a
dramatic contrast between the heavenly voice redeeming Gretchen
and
the devilish one summoning Faust. You should take these last few
lines
into account when you argue for or against the unity of
Faust.
--------------------------------------------------------------------This is not the last you will see of Gretchen. She appears at
the
end of the whole drama when she pleads for Faust's
soul.
Faust has made a dismal failure of his first experiments
with
supernatural power. He has caused destruction and suffering to a
whole
family through the indulgence of his own feelings, aided
by
Mephistopheles' power. Yet perhaps he suffers more than all
his
victims, because he is left with the burden of guilt. Think back
to
the "Prologue in Heaven." The Lord said that man must always err
while
he strives. Faust has tried to satisfy his desires and has
caused
misery and destruction. But the Lord also had confidence that
man
understands the right way, no matter how dark his urges. Faust
must
now reconcile himself to the painful knowledge of "the
appointed
course."
PART_II
PART
II
In Part II of Faust the theme of striving also is
important.
You'll remember that at the end of Part I Faust was still not
happy;
he continues to need to satisfy his craving for
worldly
accomplishments and experiences. He will find that no experience
or
accomplishment will bring him lasting peace, but it is of
utmost
importance that he continue to strive, and that he believe there
is
something larger than
himself.
Faust continues to have new experiences and adventures in Part
II.
His pact with Mephistopheles is still in effect and will be
until
Faust's death. A difference between the two parts is that in Part
I,
Goethe bombards you with intense physical experience, while Part II
is
calmer as it explores your Classical heritage. For that reason,
Part
II is more representative of mankind's (particularly Western
man's)
striving for fulfillment than of an individual's
striving.
In Part II, Goethe creates a world of magic, filled
with
symbolism. At times it will not seem to make sense. But don't
worry,
time and space are meaningless in this part of Faust. The
important
thing for you to keep in mind is Faust's striving, his grasping
for
understanding.
ACT_I|
CHARMING_LANDSCAPE
ACT
I
CHARMING
LANDSCAPE
The first scene acts as a bridge between Part I and Part II
of
Faust. Faust, perhaps shortly after the emotional scene
in
Gretchen's prison cell, is at the point of nervous collapse. As
he
tosses and turns in a bed of flowers, kind spirits sing him
to
sleep. The spirits are led by Ariel, the air sprite of
Shakespeare's
The Tempest. Ariel sings about forgetfulness and healing, and
suggests
that when Faust wakes he will feel
refreshed.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Because Faust is about the striving of Western man,
and
because Goethe praises artistic and intellectual attainments,
you
shouldn't be surprised that he modeled much of the poetry in
this
scene after the works of two other great writers, Dante
and
Shakespeare. Ariel's song is similar to Ariel's lines in
Shakespeare's
The Tempest. Ariel is the voice of the air who is released into
nature
in Shakespeare's play. In Faust, Ariel speaks as the healing
voice
of
nature.
The meter of Faust's monologue is that used by Dante in the
Divine
Comedy. In the Divine Comedy, Dante travels from Hell to Heaven
in
search of understanding about God and salvation. The meter
Dante
used was called terza rima (third rhyme) and rhymed aba, bcb, cdc,
and
so
on.
--------------------------------------------------------------------The final stanza of the poem is an elaborate hymn to human
life.
Faust stands with the sun behind him- knowledge too powerful
for
man- watching a waterfall, which represents the rush of life.
The
water breaks into innumerable streams, just like the actions of
men.
But the downward force sends up a spray, "a soaring lacework,"
whose
droplets make a rainbow. "This mirrors all aspiring human
action,"
says Faust. The shining prisms flung upward represent art,
music,
philosophy- the best of human attainments. This is
Faust's
consolation. No matter how terrible man's mistakes may be, he
is
capable of the finest
achievements.
ACT_I|
IMPERIAL_RESIDENCE
IMPERIAL
RESIDENCE
Remember that in the second Study scene of Part I,
Mephistopheles
promised Faust that they would peruse first the small world and
then
the great. In this scene, you see the great world of the
Emperor's
court. Most of the Faust legends include a visit to the
Emperor's
court, where Faust astounds the Emperor with magic tricks. But
this
one is different. The Emperor is no single monarch but
a
representative of monarchy in general. You will notice that no
one
in this scene has a name, except Mephistopheles. The people are
all
types- the Chancellor (a high official, such as a secretary to
a
king), the Treasurer, and so on. The problems they complain of
are
universal. As Mephistopheles takes his place beside the Emperor,
the
crowd mutters its comments. Watch for these barely audible
remarks
throughout this scene and the next. They frequently express
the
commonsense view of what is going
on.
The Emperor doesn't seem very interested in affairs of state.
He
wants to get on with a planned Carnival celebration (see the
next
scene), but his court officers paint a picture of a kingdom in
ruinlawless,
in debt, its citizens
demoralized.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Goethe himself was a minister of state for the Duchy of
Weimar
and was familiar with court life and the administration of
a
country. He bases his generalizations about sound administration
on
his own experience, as you will also see when Mephistopheles
brings
paper money- and inflation- to the Emperor's
court.
--------------------------------------------------------------------The Emperor's shallowness is shown by his turning to
Mephistopheles,
now dressed as the Court Fool, for his opinion. Mephistopheles
answers
with blatant flattery, which the crowd immediately recognizes.
He
promises the court vast stores of money to solve the realm's
problems.
The court officials, however, are not all as foolish as the
Emperor.
The Chancellor senses that he is in the presence of an evil
power.
Notice in his speech the number of references to the Devil: "Mind
is
Satan"; "The black magician!"; and, finally, "The wizard and
the
fool live hide in hide." But he is brushed aside and never
speaks
again during the scene. Foolish trust in trickery entrances
the
court as Mephistopheles manipulates an Astrologer to promise hoards
of
gold and then describes how much gold there is to be dug out of
the
ground.
The Emperor is impatient to get the gold, but
Mephistopheles
apparently needs time. He uses the Astrologer as a mouthpiece
to
insist on the normal course of events, especially the Carnival. As
the
Emperor and his court take their places for the
Carnival,
Mephistopheles contemptuously scorns "This foolish
lot."
ACT_I|
SPACIOUS_HALL
SPACIOUS
HALL
This scene introduces Faust to the Emperor's Court, and the
Carnival
(which you learn later was directed by Faust) is a
convenient
opportunity for Faust and Mephistopheles to dazzle the court
with
magic. The entertainment is in the form of a masque, a court
spectacle
in which music and dancing accompany a pageant of symbolic
characters.
The Carnival, modeled on Roman carnivals that the Emperor (and
Goethe)
had seen, celebrates Mardi Gras, the Tuesday before the first day
of
Lent (Ash
Wednesday).
The masque portion of the entertainment proceeds much as
planned
by the Herald, who acts as the master of ceremonies and controls
it
from the side of the stage. Mephistopheles and Faust then give it
a
sinister turn, playing on the crowd's fascination with gold
and
magic power. At the culmination of the action, the entire stage
bursts
into flames, which can be quenched only by water magically
producedlike
the flames themselves- by
Faust.
LINES 50655455
The first part of the masque follows the Italian pattern
pretty
closely, with flowers, flower girls, gardeners, woodcutters, and
other
rustic figures. The mood becomes comic as stock characters
from
Italian comedy enter, wearing baggy pants and traditional
makeup.
There is a general drinking chorus, which leads into a procession
of
poets. At this point the masque becomes explicitly Classical.
The
Herald introduces, in turn, the three Graces, the three Fates, and
the
three Furies, who describe their respective functions. The climax
of
the masque comes with the entrance of Victory on the
elephant.
LINES 54565986
With the entry of Mephistopheles, dressed as two vulgar
characters
from Greek literature, the Herald loses his grip on the
pageant.
When he strikes Mephistopheles with his stick, the Devil becomes
first
an egg, then a snake, and then a bat, alarming the spectators,
who
scatter in
fear.
The Herald is reduced to asking for help in order to explain
the
chariot which now appears. It is driven by a boy who
represents
poetry, and carries Faust, disguised as Plutus, the god of
wealth.
Mephistopheles now personifies Greed, one of the seven deadly
sins
in medieval Christian
belief.
The boy charioteer's tricks with jewelry and flames,
and
Mephistopheles' disguise, indicate the theme- greed for gold.
Faust,
as Plutus, shows great chests of gold to the crowd, who try to
rush
for them. They are beaten back, however, by flames from the
Herald's
mace (a club; sometimes a symbol of authority), magically
produced
by
Faust.
Mephistopheles transforms the gold into a giant male
sexual
symbol. The Emperor and his lords enter, dressed as the Greek
god
Pan (who ruled over nature) and his followers, bringing with
them
the expectation of unrestrained indulgence in sensual pleasure and
the
threat of uncontrolled
violence.
Finally, everything goes up in flames as the Emperor's beard
catches
fire. You can imagine the Herald standing to one side,
describing
the horror of the scene as the entire hall lights up.
Faust
magically douses the flames with water, bringing calm to a
terrible
scene.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Does the light-hearted Carnival depict the tone of
the
Emperor's court? Does the masque represent the self-indulgence
of
the court? The Emperor, responsible for an entire kingdom,
seems
only to be interested in entertainment. Is Goethe suggesting that
this
is true of all Emperors? What is the significance of the references
to
Greek mythology? Is it to differentiate the Romantic [Germanic]
world,
in which the mood is serious, and the more light-hearted
Classical
[Italian] world? The fact that the boy charioteer (who
represents
poetry) accompanies Plutus (the god of wealth) may suggest that
poetry
adds spiritual meaning to the comforts of material wealth. Faust's
and
Mephistopheles' use of gold and fire, important to the survival of
any
society, might suggest that if these elements are not
handled
properly, they can destroy the society that needs
them.
--------------------------------------------------------------------ACT_I|
PLEASANCE
PLEASANCE
Because of their brilliant success with the Carnival Masque,
Faust
and Mephistopheles are in great favor at court. The Emperor
even
orders Faust to secure all future entertainments. Mephistopheles
and
Faust further prove their usefulness when the court officials rush
in,
declaring that all the problems of the kingdom have been solved by
the
introduction of paper money. Even the skeptical Chancellor
seems
convinced as he reads a proclamation that the paper
currency
represents gold waiting to be
mined.
Mephistopheles sounds like a huckster peddling a new gadget as
he
describes the convenience of paper money. Faust is more
serious,
pointing out that because the paper money is based on gold, it
is
secure. The light-minded Emperor believes them both and rewards
them
with the "inner soil" of his realm, the ground beneath the
surface
where the gold is supposedly hidden. He gives paper money to all
his
courtiers, who promptly exit to spend it on their own
concerns.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Goethe's original audience would have been more
interested
in the problems caused by paper money than you might be. Paper
money
had been introduced in France in the eighteenth century, and
Louis
XV's use of it (and the subsequent inflation it caused)
helped
create the financial crisis that contributed to the French
Revolution.
The French Revolutionary government had also used paper money,
which
became practically worthless in just a few years. Because
this
entire episode with the Emperor is a satire, do you think Goethe
might
be poking fun at those who thought that the introduction of
paper
money would solve all their problems? Could Goethe be pointing out
the
greed of the Emperor, his officials, and his subjects? Don't
forget
that all of the circumstances surrounding the issuance of
paper
money at the Emperor's court are magical and therefore
fraudulent.
It is Mephistopheles who devised the plan and the
Emperor's
signature had been obtained the night before at the Carnival, where
he
had been unaware of what he was
signing.
--------------------------------------------------------------------ACT_I|
DARK_GALLERY
DARK
GALLERY
Faust is beginning to find the Emperor's constant demands
for
amusement trying. Now he must produce Helen of Troy and her
lover,
Paris, who stole her from her Greek husband, King Menelaus
of
Sparta, and thus provoked the Trojan
War.
Mephistopheles can't help Faust much. Notice that when Faust faces
a
crisis, Mephistopheles backs off. In Part I, his magic could
not
save Gretchen, and now he contends, "I have no commerce with
that
pagan clutter"- an excuse that depends on Mephistopheles' origins
in
Christianity. The only way Mephistopheles can show Faust is through
an
encounter with mythic figures called the Mothers. Faust must
descend
into the underworld, where the Mothers live, with a magic key in
his
hand. He will see a tripod (three-legged stool) in the middle of
the
Mothers; he must touch the key to the tripod and bring it back.
The
key will then have the power to summon mythological
characters.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: This adventure will differ from Faust's previous ones.
The
influence of the Devil is less evident as Faust moves from the
world
of flesh and blood to that of spirits. Mephistopheles tells him
that
he must reach into emptiness and limitless space to find what
he's
looking for. Some readers think this scene illustrates the
limits
and superficiality of Christianity. Do you think Goethe is
arguing
that Christianity has no power over the basic elements of
life?
The Mothers seem to be Goethe's own invention. He suggested in
a
letter that they might be based on a cult of mother goddesses found
in
Chapter 20, "The Life of Marcellus," of Plutarch's Lives. Some
readers
think Goethe might be punning on the similarity in sound between
the
German words for mother ("Mutter") and myth ("Mythe"). No matter
where
Goethe got the idea for the Mothers, they seem to
represent
something primeval, the source of all
life.
--------------------------------------------------------------------ACT_I|
BRIGHTLY_LIT_BALLROOMS
BRIGHTLY LIT
BALLROOMS
In this light and cheerful scene, Mephistopheles stalls
while
Faust goes down to the Mothers. Mephistopheles is helped by
the
court ladies, who want his magic powers to help them cure freckles
and
a lame foot, as well as to recover a straying lover. Mephistopheles
is
losing his usual confidence. He prays to the Mothers to let Faust
go
and then looks fearfully into the Hall of Chivalry, where
the
Emperor and his court are assembling. The hall is dark
and
mysterious enough to frighten even Mephistopheles with spirits
that
"find their way all by
themselves."
ACT_I|
HALL_OF_CHIVALRY
HALL OF
CHIVALRY
Chivalry refers to the medieval code of knightly conduct,
which
includes courage, loyalty, courtesy, fairness, respect for
women,
and protection of the
poor.
This is one of the most theatrical scenes in Faust. Imagine
the
stage in two parts: an inner stage on which Faust, who has
just
returned from the Mothers, presents Paris and Helen; and an outer
one,
where the Emperor and his court are arranged on each side,
watching
the action and at the same time addressing their remarks to each
other
and to the audience. The fun in this scene comes from the chatter
of
the court ladies and gentlemen as they criticize the apparitions
of
Paris and Helen, treating them as if they were real people,
almost
their colleagues at court. Contrast this chatter with the
deep
reverence of Faust, who is stilled to his soul by Helen's
beauty.
The action cuts from one to the other as the tension
mounts.
When Helen emerges, Mephistopheles shows his coarseness in
his
comment: "She's pretty, yes, but not my cup of tea."
Nevertheless,
Faust is
overwhelmed.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: From its beginning, the Faust story included the raising
of
Helen from the underworld. It is regarded as the ultimate magic
trick.
Marlowe's Doctor Faustus contains a famous line spoken by Faust
as
he first sees Helen: "Is this the face that launched a
thousand
ships?" This is, of course, a reference to Helen's central role as
the
cause of the Trojan War, according to the ancient Greek epic The
Iliad
by
Homer.
The magical appearance of Helen is especially important
in
understanding Faust's quest. She represents the essence of
female
beauty, eternal and always guarding its ultimate mystery. She
is
also a Classical heroine, who brings with her the authority of
great
poetry from the age of Homer. But this Helen is a "shade,"
a
reflection of real beauty. Faust wants to acquire the real
Helen,
not the apparition in this scene. His pursuit of Helen
symbolizes
Faust's desire to unite in himself the Classical and the
Romantic
spirits.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Look carefully at the terms by which Faust worships Helen, so
that
you can understand the difference in his attitude toward Gretchen
in
Part I and Helen in Part II. He sees Helen as the ideal of beauty
that
he could only imagine "deep within my breast." He felt mostly lust
for
Gretchen and he had treated her indifferently. Seeing Helen marks
a
watershed in his life. From here on, he will take on a
"new
priesthood," worshipping Helen and undertaking a "dread quest"
in
search of her. In pursuing Helen and vowing to devote the
energies
of sexual passion to her, Faust is trying to unite the ideal,
or
Classical (symbolized by Helen), and the real, or Romantic
(symbolized
by passion). You will see that ultimately he fails. Excess
emotion
brings ruin and
grief.
As the apparition of Helen approaches the sleeping Paris, you
follow
the action through the comments of the watching courtiers. But
Faust
has become obsessed. He tries to rescue Helen as Paris sweeps her
up
in his arms, flourishes his magic key at the apparition, and
invokes
the Mothers to help him gain what he cannot live without. The crowd
of
courtiers rise from their seats terrified as a loud explosion ends
the
show. Faust loses consciousness and is carried off by
Mephistopheles.
PART_II|
ACT_II
ACT
II
Goethe has to bring Faust and Helen together. Faust is still
far
from his goals, but he will have to find new ways of reaching them.
In
his search for the reality that the shade of Helen represents,
Faust
must go to the world of Persephone, the queen of the underworld.
As
you already know, Mephistopheles can't lead Faust into the world
of
the spirits of Classical antiquity, so Homunculus ("little man"),
a
spirit in a glass bottle, will be his guide. Mephistopheles,
Faust,
and Homunculus will, through participation in a Classical
Walpurgis
Night, enter into the Classical world. Homunculus finds bodily life
by
jumping into the ocean, Mephistopheles finds a new disguise, and
Faust
finds a spirit that will lead him to the underworld. The first
two
scenes of Act II serve as a transition from the Emperor's court to
the
Classical Walpurgis
Night.
ACT_II|
NARROW_GOTHIC_CHAMBER
NARROW, HIGH-VAULTED GOTHIC
CHAMBER
Mephistopheles has taken Faust, unconscious, back to his
original
study and the Romantic Gothic gloom. It all remains exactly the
same
as it was four years earlier- four years, because the student
who
asked Mephistopheles' advice then is now a graduate. You
will
realize the point of returning to the study when you notice
the
contrast between the dull, unchanged life there and the
profound
changes that experience has brought to Faust
himself.
Goethe's sense of fun is never far away. As Mephistopheles
shakes
out Faust's fur gown, a cloud of insects rises from it. They
burst
into song, calling Mephistopheles their
father!
Mephistopheles wants someone to recognize that he is "the
Dean,"
in his moth-eaten fur robe. So he pulls the bell, which
literally
threatens to shake the whole place apart and symbolically signals
a
new era in Faust's old
study.
The first visitor is a replacement for Wagner, who has now
become
a doctor. The famulus (student) stresses that everything has
been
preserved as Faust had left it, thus preparing you for the entrance
of
the Baccalaureus. Impressed with his own accomplishments, the
formerly
timid student now scorns the "pickled wisdom" of his teachers
and
calls himself "a different
specimen."
He attacks Mephistopheles- whom he thinks is the professor
because
he is wearing the moth-eaten old gown- until Mephistopheles edges
away
from him. You'll probably be surprised to hear the Baccalaureus
say:
"One who is thirty years or older / Already is as good as
dead."
Mephistopheles mutters in reply that one has to be old
(experienced)
to understand the
Devil.
ACT_II|
LABORATORY
LABORATORY
The bell that shook the building signals success for Dr. Wagner
in
his laboratory. He has been trying to produce human life in a
test
tube, but as you might expect from his plodding character in Part
I,
Wagner lacks creative
genius.
Mephistopheles' appearance provides the creative spark Wagner
needs.
As he arrives, a tiny human figure takes shape in the test tube,
and
the Homunculus speaks to Wagner, his "father," and
to
Mephistopheles, his
"cousin."
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Homunculus, which means "little man," owes part of
his
origin to Goethe's interest in alchemy and early science, which
was
just as concerned with the creation of life as with the changing
of
lead into gold. He represents pure spirit or mind without shape
or
form, and this makes him independent of Mephistopheles. This
pure
spirit, who leads Faust into the Classical world, seeks to
become
material, to be alive within the world of nature. Do you find
his
search comparable to that of Faust? Some readers suggest
that
Homunculus represents intellect, others the vital life-spirit
in
man. Whatever he represents, like Faust he is driven by an
intense
desire to find the secrets of the
universe.
Homunculus eavesdrops on Faust's dream of Leda and the Swan
and
suggests taking him to Classical Walpurgis Night.
Classical
Walpurgis Night, he says, is joyous and reflects southern
Europe
(remember that Goethe had recently returned from a trip to
Italy),
whereas the Germanic (Romantic) Walpurgis Night is indicative of
the
gloomy north. Mephistopheles has never heard of such an event and
is
not certain he wants to attend, but when Homunculus describes
some
of the erotic pleasures he will experience, the Devil decides to
go.
Mephistopheles lifts Faust and follows
Homunculus.
In Greek myth, Helen- whose abduction by Paris caused the
Trojan
War- was the daughter of Leda and Zeus, the supreme god of the
Greeks.
Zeus made Leda pregnant when he took the form of a swan. Thus,
Helen
had more than earthly beauty because her father was a
god.
--------------------------------------------------------------------ACT_II|
CLASSICAL_WALPURGIS_NIGHT
CLASSICAL WALPURGIS
NIGHT
You are now facing about 1480 lines of poetry containing
many
names that you may not have heard before. Don't be put off by
all
the classical allusions. Even readers with a wide knowledge of
Greek
literature will find many of Goethe's mythological figures
obscure,
because he alludes to research and theories about early Greek
religion
that were current in the late eighteenth century and have
been
disproved
since.
As a guide, remember that Mephistopheles, Faust, and
Homunculus
are all seeking something in these scenes, and you follow each of
them
in turn. Faust is seeking Helen, so you can monitor the thread
of
his search. Mephistopheles is looking for a figure- the
more
horrible the better- whose shape he can borrow for a
disguise.
Homunculus is trying to become a person; his search ends in
the
spectacular climax to the Classical Walpurgis Night, which becomes
a
great song of praise to the sea as the origin of
life.
ACT_II|
PHARSALIAN_FIELDS
THE PHARSALIAN
FIELDS
As you read this scene, compare it with the similar
one
introducing the Walpurgis Night in Part I. In the
Classical
Walpurgis Night, Erichtho, an ugly enchantress, describes the
scene
and explains why the celebration begins on the field of
Pharsalus,
in Thessaly, where Caesar defeated Pompey in 48 B.C., thus
paving
the way for the creation of the Roman Empire. Here, where
the
ancient world yielded to the modern one, the mythological
creatures
gather annually to remember their former glory. Here, too, and on
this
night, Faust will find a way into that earlier
world.
Watch for the parallels between the two Walpurgis Nights. Each
needs
a light to guide visitors. In Germany, however, the light is
an
erratic Will-o'-the-Wisp, and here the light, from Homunculus'
test
tube, is so bright that Erichtho thinks it is a meteor. In the
first
Walpurgis Night, Mephistopheles conducts Faust around the fires,
but
here he suggests that "each should range the fires alone" and
then
meet again when Homunculus flashes his
light.
Mephistopheles sets Faust on his feet, and Faust immediately
asks
where Helen is. He is renewed, refreshed by standing on Greek soil
and
breathing the air that "spoke her native
tongue."
ACT_II|
UPPER_PENEIOS
ON THE UPPER
PENEIOS
This is a humorous scene, in which Mephistopheles
exchanges
riddles with sphinxes and teases the griffins. His approach to
the
mythological creatures is quite different from that of Faust, who
acts
like a visitor to a museum, connecting the exhibits to his
reading.
When Faust asks the sphinxes about Helen, they tell him
that,
historically, she is more recent than they are, so they don't
know
anything about her. They refer him to Chiron the Centaur,
who,
half-man and half-horse, will be found prancing around at
the
Walpurgis Night. He can tell Faust about Helen, because he tutored
her
halfbrothers.
ACT_II|
LOWER_PENEIOS
ON THE LOWER
PENEIOS
In this scene, Faust succeeds in his search for a way down
to
Helen in the underworld. As the scene begins, Faust is listening
to
the noises of the water lapping on the banks of the river
Peneios.
He then looks across the river and sees the same scene he dreamed
of
while lying unconscious in his old study. The maidens are bathing
with
Leda when Zeus approaches in the form of a swan. The other
swans
distract the maidens' attention while Zeus makes love to
Leda.
Chiron appears and invites Faust to ride on his back. As
conceived
by Goethe, Chiron is a level-headed fellow, an old schoolmaster
who
knows what to expect and how to judge character. He remembers
with
special pleasure how young Helen thanked him for saving her
life:
"So charming- young, an old man's joy- was she!" He thinks Faust
is
a little carried away with passion, so he offers to introduce him
to
Manto, a sorceress with magic healing
powers.
When they arrive at her temple, Chiron and Manto
exchange
affectionate greetings, as they do each year (remember, this is
a
reunion of old gods and demigods). After committing Faust to
Manto's
care, Chiron is off again. Manto understands at once what Faust
needs.
She leads him to the entrance of the underworld and pushes
him
through, as she did with Orpheus when he was seeking
Eurydice.
While the rest of the Walpurgis Night continues above
ground,
Faust is in the underworld releasing Helen from Persephone's
reign.
You won't find this out until Act III, but you should be aware
of
the simultaneous action because it helps you to understand
what
happens to
Homunculus.
ACT_II|
UPPER_PENEIOS_AS_BEFORE
ON THE UPPER PENEIOS, AS
BEFORE
Meanwhile, on the Upper Peneios River, an earthquake, Seismos,
is
giving birth to a mountain, in a comic scene that is intended
to
lighten the atmosphere after the intensity of Faust's
passion.
Mephistopheles is stumbling around trying to return to
the
sphinxes when he comes upon Homunculus, "Sparkleface." Homunculus
is
desperately trying to find help in "becoming": "I cannot wait to
smash
my glass and flare." He is following Thales and Anaxagorastwo
important Greek philosophers of the sixth and fifth centuries B.
C.whom he thinks will be able to advise him, although
Mephistopheles
tells him to trust his own efforts
instead.
Still grumbling about the inferiority of these mountains to
his
German ones, Mephistopheles stumbles onto the cave of the Graeae,
whom
he calls the Phorcyads (three daughters of Phorcys, an old sea
god,
and Ceto; in Greek, graeae means "old women," or, as in this
instance,
"old hags"). They are the most horrifying witches of all, living
in
complete darkness and passing among them a single eye and a
single
tooth. Mephistopheles' humor never deserts him. Calling himself a
"far
relation" of the Phorcyads, he asks permission to approach as he
falls
"silent now in ecstasy" and continues to flatter them in the
most
disgusting terms. Mephistopheles seems to find satisfaction
only
with the ugly
spirits.
It is no wonder that they agree to let him assume their shape
and
even show him how to twist his face to look like them: "Just close
one
eye, 'twill do it even so." Apparently, he has lent them one of
his
eyes and a tooth in exchange, for they are left chuckling
with
witchlike glee over their extra
organs.
ACT_II|
ROCKY_INLETS_AEGEAN_SEA
ROCKY INLETS OF THE AEGEAN
SEA
This scene belongs to Homunculus. Thales guides Homunculus to
Nereus
(son of Pontus, the deep sea, and Mother Earth), calling him
a
"cantankerous old vinegar." Like Chiron, Nereus is given
a
recognizable character by Goethe. He complains at length that no
one
takes his advice, which could have saved the world
several
disasters, including the Trojan
War.
From the cliffs, the Sirens see that the sea nymphs are bringing
the
ancient Cabiri, whose number seems a bit uncertain. Homunculus
doesn't
think much of the Cabiri, but Thales remarks that anything
ancient
is highly prized. Proteus thinks he'll play games with them
and
changes his shape several times, until he sees Homunculus.
Proteus
doesn't hesitate to urge Homunculus to begin his life in the
sea.
From the cliffs, Nereus and Thales watch the procession on the
waves
below. Nereus' daughters, the Dorids, float by with their
sailor
lovers, and then Galatea, a goddess of beauty, appears. You
will
marvel at the beauty of this scene. Nereus greets his daughter
just
this once each year. It is one of those moments of intense life
for
which Faust yearns, a moment worth all the others: "Yet a
single
loving gaze / All the empty year outweighs." The procession goes
far
out to sea, as Nereus and Thales struggle to catch a glimpse
of
"Galatea's throne... shell-bedecked." Homunculus greets the
"lovely
damp," and then, as Thales reports the action to Nereus,
Homunculus
crashes his test tube at Galatea's feet. Blinding light fills
the
whole scene as fire, earth, air, and water mingle in the unity
of
creation.
Magnificent though it is, Homunculus' end leaves a pang of loss.
But
he is no longer necessary, for at this moment Faust has released
Helen
from the underworld. The celebration by the Aegean Sea marks
the
beginning of life for Helen, born again through Faust's
love.
PART_II|
ACT_III
ACT
III
To help understand Act III, you should review the Walpurgis Night
in
Part I. It is followed immediately by the Walpurgis Night's Dream,
a
satyr play. You will see the parallel with the Classical
Walpurgis
Night, which is followed by this act, written in the form of a
Greek
tragedy. A satyr play, ribald and coarse, suited the Walpurgis
Night's
activities. A Greek tragedy is poetic and sublime, a fitting sequel
to
the Classical Walpurgis
Night.
You get a bonus from Act III, known as the Helen Act, because
you'll
learn about the form of Greek tragedy as you read it. The first
part
is an exact imitation of a play by the Greek dramatist Euripides,
even
to the meter of the
verse.
Greek tragedy does not set out to be realistic. It has formal
rules:
there should be no more than three actors in a scene (usually
only
two); most of the action should take place off stage, reported in
long
formal speeches, with many references to mythological figures;
and
there should be a chorus. The chorus is both involved in the
action
and a commentator on it. The members of the chorus are
often
citizens or servants, people whose lives will be affected by
what
happens to the kings, queens, and heroes who are the leading
figures
in the
tragedy.
ACT_III|
PALACE_OF_MENELAUS
BEFORE THE PALACE OF MENELAUS AT
SPARTA
LINES 84888696
You find Helen before the doors of her own palace in Sparta.
The
Trojan War is over after ten years of fighting, and Helen has
been
brought back by her husband, Menelaus, king of Sparta. There is
no
sign that Helen knows she has just been released from the
underworld
by Faust. The action has shifted back to the times of ancient
Greece.
Helen goes into Menelaus' palace, "long missed and longed-for
much,"
while the Chorus praises the gods for Helen's return to Sparta.
But
Helen rushes back onto the stage, horrified at what she has
found.
Crouched beside the fireplace is Phorcyas, who, you will
remember,
is Mephistopheles in disguise. Read Helen's speech aloud to
experience
the horror of Phorcyas, who has only one eye and one tooth and
is
"Of stature gaunt, and hollow, bloody-blear of
eye."
LINES 86978881
You can imagine the dramatic shock of seeing the dreadful
figure
of Phorcyas / Mephistopheles, wrapped in gray rags, with a
hideous
face shrouded by a hood. The Chorus is deeply shaken and
identifies
the monster, correctly, as one of "Phorcys' daughters," which
provokes
a furious retort from
Phorcyas.
You should remember that Phorcyas is a woman, while
Mephistopheles
is a man- or at least has male form. Just to remind you whom
we're
talking about, the pronoun "he" will be used for
Phorcyas.
Helen defends the Chorus with dignity, but Phorcyas turns his
fury
on her, telling her that, if she's mistress of the palace,
she
should do her job and keep her serving women in order. The
quarrel
develops into a slanging match, which takes the form
of
stichomythia, a component of Greek tragedy in which the
combatants
take one line each. The tension increases with each line until
Helen
intervenes,
distraught.
The noise and the furious feelings have disoriented Helen.
Now,
for the first time, she has some hint that she may have been in
the
underworld. She turns to Phorcyas, sensing that the monster has
the
authority of a mythical creature that moves between the human
and
the mythical spheres. Phorcyas and Helen begin a dialogue, two
lines
each, which recounts Helen's past
history.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: You may be a bit confused by all the events that seem
to
have happened to one woman. Helen was the most beautiful woman
in
the world, so it was natural to associate her with every hero
from
Theseus to Achilles. One story regarding Helen and the Greek hero
of
the Trojan War, Achilles, said that after death, Helen and
Achilles
met on the island of Leuce, in the Black Sea, and there produced
a
son, Euphorion. Myths about Helen are basically folk tales, as
are
most of the Greek legends. They arise in different places and
tend
to be associated with a famous name. You can see myth-making in
action
in your own social group, school, or college. An outstanding person
is
frequently discussed and stories are told about him or her.
Before
long, it becomes impossible to separate the truth from what
is
commonly said about the
person.
--------------------------------------------------------------------The discussion of her past has made Helen even more unsure of
her
own reality. She faints, unable to face the dizzying sense that
she
has become a myth to
herself.
LINES 88829126
The Chorus tends Helen, reproaching Phorcyas for the
unintended
effect of digging up the past. There is worse news to come about
the
future. Helen has been puzzled about the lack of a
sacrificial
animal for the ceremony she has been told to prepare. Now
Phorcyas
tells her that she, Helen, is to be killed for the sacrifice. As
the
Chorus and Helen stand transfixed with horror, Phorcyas summons
his
nasty little dwarves, who prepare the sacrifice, making the
details
even more
vivid.
All this is Phorcyas/Mephistopheles' way of presenting Faust
as
Helen's rescuer. In his next speeches, he spans a thousand years
of
time to bring together Homeric Helen and the Crusaders, who
built
castles in Greece on their way to the Holy
Land.
Helen has only to command, says Mephistopheles, and she will be
safe
in one of the castles. But she cannot believe that Menelaus
will
harm her. Phorcyas not only tells him more tales of horror but
also
arranges for a trumpet to sound, convincing Helen and the
Chorus
that Menelaus is coming. There is a dramatic pause. Everything
on
stage is silent and still. Then, Helen decides. Although she
senses
that Phorcyas is "a froward demon" and that everything may not
be
pleasant in the future, she will go to the
castle.
ACT_III|
INNER_COURTYARD_CASTLE
INNER COURTYARD OF A
CASTLE
LINES 91279356
As they enter the castle, their spirits rise. The mist clears,
and
Phorcyas has gone. They enjoy their welcome, as servants prepare
a
throne and canopy for Helen. When Faust appears- for the first time
in
this act- he is dressed as a knight at court, with a long
cloak
covering ceremonial
armor.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Anachronism, the placing of historical events in the
wrong
time period, is usually considered a fault. But the mixing
of
historical periods is one of the glories of Faust. Here you have
a
legendary figure from Homeric Greece meeting a Renaissance
scholar
in a medieval castle with knights in armor! Such a mingling
of
times, places, and people can happen only in the imagination. A
new
entity is created. This scene also provides a transition from
the
world of antiquity to the world of
Faust.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Observe how cleverly Goethe sets up the first encounter
between
Helen and Faust. Faust drags before her a watchman, Lynceus
(the
lynx-eyed pilot of the ship Argos in Greek mythology), who
was
supposed to warn Faust of Helen's approach so that he could
greet
her properly. Helen asks Lynceus to speak in his own defense, and
he
replies with a medieval ballad of love, a lyrical poem to
Helen's
beauty, which blinded him so that he forgot his
duty.
Of course, Helen forgives Lynceus. Faust then expresses his
own
devotion to her: "What choice have I but to consign myself, /
And
all I owned in fancy, unto thee?" Lynceus' song accompanies
the
presentation of all the jewels he accumulated during the battles
the
Crusaders fought, but Faust will not allow him to leave them
at
Helen's feet. Instead, Lynceus must adorn the interior of the
castle
so that it shines in "supreme lucence" (light). Lynceus'
final
speech sums up the reaction of all men to Helen's beauty- the sun
is
wan and cold in comparison with
it.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Some readers argue that Faust, in this scene, represents
the
northern (barbarian) conqueror who destroyed Greek
civilization.
Others argue that he symbolizes the northern peoples who
absorbed
Classical culture during the Renaissance. What do you
think?
--------------------------------------------------------------------LINES 93579573
In this scene, Helen and Faust are symbolically united. You
could
say that it is one of the high points, perhaps the highest point,
of
the drama. It's a scene of joy and laughter. It begins with
Helen
asking Faust about rhyme. He teaches her how to do it, and, of
course,
they make love to each other as they rhyme. This symbolizes
the
union of the Classical style, which did not have rhyme, and
the
Romantic style, which used rhyme in the simple poems imitated
from
folk poetry. Notice how calm and relaxed this scene is. Faust is
no
longer on a frantic quest. His striving is now directed toward
more
down-to-earth
goals.
LINES 9574-
9678
While they are secluded, protected by Phorcyas, Faust and
Helen
produce a child, Euphorion. The birth and development of this
fairy
child are described by Phorcyas, who tells a story of his
apparent
disappearance and then his reappearance dressed as a young
Apollo
(Greek god of music and poetry). Euphorion represents
poetry,
especially Romantic
poetry.
LINES 96799907
The best way to understand this extraordinary scene is as part of
an
opera. If you know The Magic Flute, by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart,
you
will have a good idea of the effect Goethe intended. The music and
the
poetry themselves produce change, so that it doesn't seem
ridiculous
but magical for a boy to grow up, chase girls, and die all
within
the course of a
song.
Euphorion erupts on the stage like a dancing star,
whirling
through the Chorus and pulling them into a dance. He leaps up
a
mountain, carrying a girl who proves to be the spirit of fire
and
who entices him higher up the cliff. Helen and Faust behave like
all
parents, worrying about a possible fall, and they are deeply hurt
when
Euphorion seems to be leaving
them.
The climax comes as he reaches the top of the cliff and
spreads
his clothes like wings. He falls, but you don't see his
twisted
body. Everything disappears, and only a pathetic heap of clothes and
a
lyre are left behind. Euphorion's voice calls to his mother, who
is
shattered, from the underworld, begging her not to leave him
there
alone. The idyll is
over.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: The fate of Euphorion (the name means "agile one" or
"light
one") shows the tragedy brought about by excess enthusiasm. He
wants
to experience great passion, to fly away into the realm of
ideal
beauty. This desire to fly really makes him a son of Faust, who
also
wants to break free of the restraints that a bodily,
finite
existence places on the human spirit. Euphorion has the
highest
spiritual qualities of man- but he has no wings. Do you think
Goethe
is saying that man has to be content with life around him?
That
neither the Classical nor the Romantic is sufficient by
itself?
Remember that Goethe saw the universe as a whole in which
all
aspects of being were
related.
Some readers suggest that this scene represents the process
of
poetic creation. Helen, Euphorion's mother, is timeless, and
the
child, who also represents poetry, is godlike and develops outside
the
usual course. Some readers argue that Euphorion's short
and
brilliant career symbolizes the spirit of poetry and its ability
to
make hearts lighter and lift mankind from its cares. Poetry
concerns
love and the flames of love. But as a human artifact, it
cannot
entirely escape human limitations. Like Icarus, the
mythological
figure who flew too near the sun, so that the wax holding
his
artificial wings together melted and he fell, the spirit of
poetry
falls when it defies its limitations. Euphorion is Goethe's tribute
to
Lord Byron (1788-1824), who exemplified the Romantic poet. Byron
lived
like Euphorion- committed to feeling, enthusiasm, and love- and
died
in Greece fighting for Greek independence from the
Turks.
--------------------------------------------------------------------LINES 990810,008
Helen recognizes that her beauty once again has brought
disaster
after causing brief delight. She holds Faust in one last
embrace,
returns to the underworld, from which he had released her,
and
leaves only her robe and veil in his arms. These garments will
allow
Faust to leave this painful scene. Phorcyas tells him to hold onto
the
robe, which, dissolving into a cloud, lifts him and takes him away.
In
the next act you will find out where Faust
goes.
The leader of the Chorus tries to persuade the women to follow
her
down into the underworld, where Helen has gone, but they
aren't
interested in being stuck behind Helen in Hades. They choose
instead
to become part of nature. The first three groups become nymphs
of
the trees, the mountains, and the river, while the last
group
becomes nymphs of the vine and
grapes.
With their speech, the tone changes. It is no longer a song
of
mourning for the tragedy that has just concluded, but takes on
the
faster rhythms first of a wine pressing and then of a drunken
revel.
The wine god, Dionysus, is greeted as the song whirls to a climax.
The
curtain abruptly cuts off the orgy. Mephistopheles reveals
himself,
throwing off his Phorcyas
disguise.
Think about the fact that Mephistopheles is the last figure
you
see in the Helen Act. He certainly played a similar role here as
in
the story of Gretchen, pandering to Faust's desires, but to
what
extent? What do you think caused the failure of Faust's union with
the
most beautiful woman in the
world?
ACT_IV|
HIGH_MOUNTAINS
ACT
IV
HIGH
MOUNTAINS
LINES 10,04010,233
This scene parallels the first scene in Part II. The
devastation
of a passionate love affair leaves a void, a need for
healing.
Impelled by such a need, Faust turns from love to public affairs,
just
as he did in Act I, and becomes involved with the Emperor
again.
Faust is carried to the mountains of Germany by the cloud
that
developed out of Helen's robe. He looks at the clouds around him
as
they form shapes, and sees first an imposing, "godlike female
form"
whose majesty makes him remember the pleasures he had recently
enjoyed
with Helen. The shape, however, soon disintegrates. It is
replaced
by a little cloud, which rises from vapor around Faust. The
cloud
represents Gretchen, his first love, "most cherished boon [favor]
of
earliest youth." You may be surprised at how deeply he still
feels
about her, for as the cloud dissipates he declares that it is
taking
with it "the best my soul contains." Women for Faust have now
become
mere shapes in the sky, heavenly beings that he can hardly
recognize
before they begin to float away. You will now see that Faust
turns
away from the quest for women, beauty, and idealism and turns
toward
practical
matters.
Mephistopheles appears to see what Faust wants to do next. You
may
sometimes forget that Mephistopheles is Faust's servant, and
that
his power is at Faust's disposal. The two play a guessing game
about
Faust's desires. He wants power, but not the "hero's fame," which
is
all that Mephistopheles can think of. Notice that Faust, the
true
Romantic, says "the Deed is all." The Deed, in this instance, is
the
reclaiming of land from the sea, and he challenges Mephistopheles
to
help
him.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: In the final two acts of Faust, you'll find Faust engaged
in
practical activities. Some readers believe that Goethe is
suggesting
that activity is man's natural element, that he is most likely to
find
satisfaction and fulfillment in work. What do you
think?
Goethe, as an administrator at Weimar, had worked on schemes for
the
maximum use of land. He was also interested in tides and the
movements
of bodies of water, as well as in geology. Why did Goethe
include
the conversation between Mephistopheles and Faust regarding
the
origins of mountains? Some believe that he was trying to develop
the
theme of order being created from chaos. Is Faust's plan to
reclaim
land from the sea part of that
theme?
Notice the change in Faust. He is rejecting
Mephistopheles'
suggestion that life should be filled with pleasure, and he
is
planning a project that requires work and that will accomplish
good.
Do you think this change is a result of his experiences in
Greece
and his exposure to noble
ideals?
--------------------------------------------------------------------Faust is interrupted by the sounds of war behind him, and
the
project is temporarily postponed. Mephistopheles tells him that
the
Emperor has squandered his kingdom's riches in personal pleasures,
and
now he is facing rebellion by his subjects, who want to be ruled
by
someone "who can give us peace." Faust liked the Emperor for
his
openness- expressing the Romantic admiration for honesty and
sincerity
of feeling. As they set off to see the Emperor,
Mephistopheles
suggests a respectable motivation for helping the beleaguered
ruler:
If they can put the country on its feet again, the people will
support
him
again.
Now, however, he points out a second, self-seeking motivation
for
helping the Emperor: If they win the battle, then Faust can ask
for
the sea coast that he wants to reclaim. Faust prefers
Mephistopheles
to fight the battle, saying that he has no knowledge of
military
affairs. Mephistopheles assures him that he will do the real
work
while Faust carries the title of Generalissimo. He has already
made
arrangements by bringing in the Three Mighty Men (who fought
with
David and the Israelites against the Philistines),
apparently
summoning them from
Hell.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Allegorical figures, such as these three, are not
real
characters as such, but representations of the qualities
suggested
by their names. As Mephistopheles presents each of them, they make
a
speech displaying those qualities. Pugnacious declares that he
attacks
before he's attacked; Rapacious greedily goes for what he can
steal;
and Tenacious hangs on to what he has. You may know of
other
allegorical figures, such as the Seven Deadly Sins in
medieval
plays. You certainly know our national allegorical figure,
the
Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor, who symbolizes, with her
lamp,
the ideals of the United States. The three allegorical figures
also
represent a shift in Goethe's allusions. These figures share
a
biblical background. You will notice that, in Acts IV and V,
the
number of biblical references increases. In the original edition,
they
are marked in the margin with the appropriate name and number of
the
biblical chapter and verse that Goethe used as his
source.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Why does Goethe use so many biblical references in Act IV?
Some
readers say they function as a commentary on the cooperation
of
earthly rulers (the Emperor and his court) with the powers of
evil,
represented by Mephistopheles. Is Goethe suggesting that the
rulers
should be working with God, but
aren't?
ACT_IV|
FOOTHILLS
IN THE
FOOTHILLS
LINES 10,34410,546
The Emperor prepares his army for battle and receives reports
from
his scouts. He learns that a rival emperor is challenging his right
to
reign. The Emperor reacts with bluster, declaring that he
will
personally fight now that he has a rival. Faust must have
overheard
these words as he entered with the Three Mighty Men. He offers
the
Emperor the assistance of magic, but the Emperor still wants
to
fight his rival. Faust argues against his desire to fight in
person,
and the Emperor agrees. The Emperor's decision gives Faust
an
opportunity to assign his three allegorical figures to the
battle
array.
LINES 10,54710,782
When Mephistopheles first appears, he says that he has summoned
a
phantom army of old armor to make a fearful noise that will
frighten
the enemy forces of the rival emperor. But the enemy isn't
falling
back. Instead, it is beginning to advance toward the watching
group.
Even Mephistopheles is
afraid.
Defeat seems so certain that the commander-in-chief resigns
his
office, and the Emperor seems to give up completely. Left
to
themselves, Faust and Mephistopheles arrange a dubious victory
by
magically flooding the mountainsides and then frightening the
enemy
with lightning in the bushes. The empty armor that
Mephistopheles
conjured up now joins in, as the battle becomes a victory for
the
Emperor's
forces.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: This scene is important because it places the Emperor
in
Faust's debt. It also seems to suggest that even destructive
forces,
such as the evil magic of Mephistopheles, can, through wise
and
systematic planning, be used for good purposes. The
qualities
represented by the Three Mighty Men can be useful if they
are
organized and used
wisely.
--------------------------------------------------------------------As the victorious troops carry off gold from the
defeated
emperor's tent, the Emperor enters and begins appointing
new
officers for his court. His speeches betray his vanity
and
self-deception. He believes the victory was achieved by
his
soldiers, and the flood was only a chance
happening.
In this final scene of Act IV, the last person the Emperor
talks
to is the Archbishop. Like the Chancellor in the first scene
with
the Emperor, the Archbishop knows that the Emperor has been
working
with the Devil. Because the Archbishop is always looking to
increase
the Church's properties and revenue, he plays on the Emperor's
guilt
feelings. The Emperor can buy his way back into the Church's
good
graces if he gives it the foothill land where the battle was
fought
and where the Emperor accepted help from Mephistopheles and Faust.
A
cathedral will be built on this
site.
The Archbishop's parting shot concerns the land for which
Faust
and Mephistopheles had intervened in the battle. The
Archbishop
demands the income from that land for the Church. The
Emperor,
however, now becomes annoyed with the Archbishop's
persistent
demands and angrily declares that the land isn't even thereit's
under water. Goethe's perception of the Church as greedy seems to
be
evident here. Remember that the Church accepted from Gretchen's
mother
the first casket of jewels that Mephistopheles and Faust had left
in
Gretchen's
room.
Is greed Faust's motive for intervention in the Emperor's
war?
What has happened to the Faust who was a suitable partner for
Helen?
Has he been so disappointed in his striving for the sublime that
he
has given up and decided to pursue practical matters? Or is
he
simply progressing from experience with love to experience with
power?
And what about Mephistopheles? Is he losing his grip on Faust and
on
his magic powers? Some readers believe that in Part II,
Mephistopheles
becomes subordinate to Faust, but others think Act IV shows
that
Mephistopheles is dominating Faust so much that Faust is losing
his
moral sense. Do you agree with either of these
views?
ACT_V|
OPEN_COUNTRY
ACT
V
OPEN
COUNTRY
The first scene creates a mood that will contrast sharply with
the
following scene. The first words describe a welcoming tree,
which
shelters a small cottage where Baucis and Philemon live a humble
but
completely contented old
age.
Goethe chose Baucis and Philemon to become victims of
Faust's
ambition in Act IV because he expected his audience to recognize
and
be sympathetic toward them. The story of Baucis and Philemon,
taken
from Greek mythology, also appears in the Metamorphosesa
collection of myths and legends about changes of form- by the
Roman
poet Ovid (43 B.C.- A.D. 17). Baucis and Philemon are a devoted
old
couple who are so kind to some visitors- gods in disguise- that
when
they die the gods change them into two trees with intertwined
limbs.
They remain together eternally, a symbol of marital
happiness.
The old couple entertain a young traveler whom they had rescued
from
the sea earlier in their lives. Philemon explains to the traveler
that
much of the land around them used to be under water- the first
hint
that Faust's reclamation scheme has succeeded. Faust first lived
by
his new land in "tents and huts," but now he has a palace.
Baucis
suspects that her new neighbor relied on unnatural powers. She
doesn't
trust Faust, who by now has become powerful, but Philemon believes
a
promise he made to give them a homestead on the reclaimed land.
They
walk together to the chapel, trusting in God to protect
them.
ACT_V|
PALACE
PALACE
You may find it hard to like Faust in this scene. He is now
old
(Goethe said in a letter that he was one hundred years old)
and
apparently has everything he wants- a palace on his reclaimed land
and
ships bringing riches along the canal to his docks. But he wants
his
land to be perfect, and it can't be while Baucis and Philemon
live
in their little hut and the bell peals in their chapel. The
innocent
and peaceful lives of Baucis and Philemon make Faust uneasy.
They
represent a natural life (symbolized by their living on
"original"
or unreclaimed land and by the church bells) in which Faust
can't
participate. He seems to think his uneasiness will disappear once
he
has their
land.
Mephistopheles and the Three Mighty Men bring in their cargo,
but
Faust doesn't react with any welcoming pleasure. Mephistopheles,
who
is insensitive to human striving, tries to persuade Faust that
he
has achieved his aim. Faust bursts in with his complaint that
the
hut and the chapel are spoiling his view. He can't stand
the
tinkling of the bell. Baucis and Philemon must be removed to
a
"handsome little farm" he had assigned them earlier.
Mephistopheles
whistles up the Three Mighty Men and off they go to evict Baucis
and
Philemon.
ACT_V|
DEEP_NIGHT
DEEP
NIGHT
This is an intensely dramatic scene, including, in a very few
lines,
pathos and irony to break the heart. The horrified watchman, at
the
top of the palace, reports that the hut and the chapel are on
fire.
Faust, grumbling at the watchman's cries, looks forward to
sitting
on a platform where the burnt tree now stands and being able to
look
down on the farm of Baucis and
Philemon.
Mephistopheles shatters Faust's dream with a story of casual
cruelty
that will remind you of his attitude toward Gretchen's sufferings.
The
old people died of fright when they were awakened by
Mephistopheles
and the Three Mighty Men, who killed the traveler in a scuffle
that
caused the
fire.
Faust curses them and blames his own thoughtlessness. He
stares
miserably at the burned cottage and chapel, as four spirits
form
themselves in the smoke. This is a major change for Faust. He is
sorry
for what has happened and accepts responsibility for it, even
though
he hadn't intended to destroy Baucis and Philemon. Contrast
this
with his reluctance to accept responsibility for Gretchen's ruin
in
Part
I.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: What happened to Baucis and Philemon is tragically familiar
to
us- think of villages submerged for hydroelectric dams,
illnesses
and death caused by insecticides and herbicides, the threat of
nuclear
holocaust. Some readers downplay the pathos of Baucis and
Philemon,
regarding such incidents as inevitable in the careers of
"supermen"
like Faust. The word "superman" here refers to an important concept
in
German philosophy and political thought. A superman is a figure
who
fearlessly endeavors to achieve his ends, disregarding the
suffering
his actions may cause others, whom he considers inferior and of
little
consequence in the great scheme of
things.
--------------------------------------------------------------------ACT_V|
MIDNIGHT
MIDNIGHT
The spirits have become four allegorical figures- Want,
Debt,
Need, and Care. The first three cannot enter a rich man's house,
but
Care slips through the keyhole. The others see Death
approaching
Faust's
palace.
Faust must be aware that he is approaching the end of his
life,
because he begins summarizing it in a dialogue with Care.
He
realizes that he is still obligated to Mephistopheles and
other
supernatural forces who have helped him, such as the Three Mighty
Men.
He understands that he is not a free man if he must depend
on
super-human help. He also reveals that he thinks man should only
worry
about what is attainable and not concern himself too much with what
he
can't have. Because he is so dependent on technology, modern man
is
sometimes described as "Faustian." How valid do you think
this
description
is?
---------------------------------------------------------------------
NOTE: Care is presented as an old hag determined to ruin
Faust's
last hours. You may think she personifies Faust's conscience
regarding
what has happened to Baucis and Philemon. Many readers have argued
for
that interpretation. If that's all she is, then Faust's speech
makes
him look callous. But you can look at Care in a different
light.
Care is much like anxiety, which can demoralize man and destroy
his
will. When man's will is destroyed, he stops striving, and when
man
stops striving, he is
finished.
--------------------------------------------------------------------Faust, however, doesn't give in to Care, so she avenges herself
by
blinding him and making him taste- at the end of his lifethe
sufferings he has avoided. But blindness doesn't stop Faust.
It
seems like another challenge, something for him to strive against
as
he has all his life. He calls for workmen to continue a new project
he
has in mind. His final words in this scene show how much value
he
places on his intellectual
powers.
ACT_V|
OUTER_PRECINCT
GREAT OUTER PRECINCT OF THE
PALACE
This is Faust's death scene. You know it before Faust
does,
because Mephistopheles is supervising a crew digging his grave.
The
creatures who do the work are "lemures," classical spirits of the
evil
dead. As they dig, the blind Faust mistakes the noise for work
on
the project he mentioned at the end of the previous
scene.
He dies with a vision of technological achievement before
his
eyes- a drained swamp made into fertile farmland. At the moment of
his
death, he says that the sight of such an achievement would
have
fulfilled him, for he would have wanted the moment to be
eternal:
"Tarry yet, thou art so fair!" But such "high happiness" is still
to
come.
And so Mephistopheles has lost his bet. Faust has never
actually
said that he wants a moment to continue, never attained
his
"striving's crown and sum." Mephistopheles acknowledges his
defeat
in a bitterly negative
speech.
ACT_V|
ENTOMBMENT
ENTOMBMENT
Goethe shows his genius as a dramatist here in making the
fight
for Faust's soul into broad comedy. Parts of this scene come
from
the old Faust stories, where the gaping mouth of Hell struck
terror
into the audience at the end of the play. But the best part,
where
Mephistopheles is distracted by the nakedness of the young
angels,
is Goethe's
invention.
Mephistopheles thinks he'll seize Faust's soul as it slips away
from
the body, so he brings up all the paraphernalia of Hell, complete
with
fat and lean devils. He arranges them around the corpse, so
that
they can catch the soul as it flies
up.
--------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: In the original Faust stories, Faust is dragged off to Hell
at
the end as Mephistopheles claims his soul. These stories
warned
Christians not to strive for more knowledge than a man should
have.
The gaping Hell mouth and the devils with pitchforks were
designed
to frighten the spectators into following the Church's teaching.
But
Goethe's Faust does not convey a Christian moral.
Mephistopheles
does not win Faust's "immortal essence," because Faust was never
so
satisfied with the results of his striving that he wanted time
to
stand still. Mephistopheles can only seize Faust's soul by a
trick,
since he never turned Faust away from the "right way" (you'll
remember
these words from the Prologue in
Heaven).
--------------------------------------------------------------------A cloud of angels, surrounded by heavenly light, begins to
sing,
to Mephistopheles' intense scorn. They strew rose petals, which
send
the devils back to Hell, and burn Mephistopheles' skin where they
fall
on him. The angels warn him that he cannot have Faust's soul, for
it
does not rightfully belong to him. Then they lure him to the side
by
making themselves so sexually attractive he can't help gazing at
them.
The angels are exquisite young boys, and Mephistopheles loses
his
head.
Just as Mephistopheles realizes that a trick is being played on
him,
the chorus of angels seizes Faust's immortal part and rises
to
Heaven with it. Mephistopheles curses himself for his "vulgar
lust,
absurd amours," although he recognizes the immense power of
sexual
love: "No mean folly it must
be."
ACT_V|
MOUNTAIN_GORGES
MOUNTAIN
GORGES
The final scene of the drama has puzzled readers since the
second
part of Faust was published in 1832. Why did Goethe choose
traditional
Christian symbolism to end a work that does not follow
Christian
doctrine? What does it mean for Faust's soul to be "saved"? Why
do
women carry Faust's soul into
Heaven?
Your reading of Faust will suggest some answers. Some
readers
believe that the scene serves only as a kind of balance to
the
Prologue in Heaven, and that it shouldn't be taken too
seriously.
Others believe that Goethe used Christian symbolism as an answer
to
the original Faust legend: Yes, the original Faust was dragged
off
to Hell; but this Faust, who represents mankind, is taken to
Heaven,
because he has won his wager with the Devil. Still others argue
that
Goethe believed man couldn't save himself, so he used
Christian
symbols to represent a higher force than man. He may have
used
Christian symbols because he knew they would be readily
understood
by his
audience.
This scene brings together several of the themes of Faust.
Faust's
soul is carried upward across a landscape of wild beauty. You
will
recognize the significance of the natural background- Nature is
almost
like a religion for Goethe. The Anchorite Fathers- Pater
Ecstaticus,
Pater Profundus, Pater Seraphicus, and Doctor Marianus represent
the
mystical tradition of early Christianity, which Goethe learned
to
admire from Herder. (In the Roman Catholic Church, St. Anthony,
c.
250- c. 350, was known as ecstaticus; St. Bernard, 1091-1153,
as
profundus; and St. Francis of Assisi, 1182-1226, as
seraphicus.)
Despite its emotional intensity, this scene is not solemn. It
is
full of joy. The Blessed Boys represent the freedom of
innocence,
unwilling to be bound to earth. They fly up toward the angels,
who
bear Faust's "immortal essence," which they have snatched
from
Mephistopheles by the trick they describe with obvious
pleasure.
The first chorus of angels is important for the meaning of the
whole
drama. The angels' song explains that Faust's special status as
the
equal of spiritual beings like Helen, and his ceaseless striving,
have
guaranteed him salvation. But he will be welcomed to Heaven
also
because "transfigured love" has spoken on his behalf. This refers
to
Gretchen, who loved Faust deeply- too deeply for her own good- and
was
redeemed.
As the angels lift Faust's soul upward, they pass it on to
the
Blessed Boys, who give it a new beginning. Then Doctor
Marianus
sings a hymn of praise to the Virgin Mary as the mystical ideal
of
woman. He describes the chorus of penitent women who are asking
for
the Virgin Mary's help to be
saved.
The three penitent women of Christian tradition join in pleading
for
the forgiveness of Gretchen's sin as she joins them, singing a
version
of the prayer she spoke in her despair by the city wall. As
the
Blessed Boys describe how Faust's soul will grow so that he can
become
their teacher, Gretchen begs the Virgin Mary to allow her to
lead
his soul into
salvation.
Her prayer is granted. Gretchen is told to fly upward and Faust
will
follow her. The drama ends with a beautiful general chorus in
praise
of "Woman Eternal." The chorus announces that in Heaven man finds
what
was unattainable on earth: understanding, action, sincerity. After
his
long and troubled journey, Faust is at rest, redeemed by the love
of
women.
TESTS_AND_ANSWERS
A STEP
BEYOND
TESTS AND ANSWERS
(GFAUTEST)
TESTS
TEST
1
_____ 1. Goethe changed the traditional Faust legend
by
I. having Faust fall in love with a young
maiden,
Gretchen
II. allowing Faust to find redemption at the end of
the
drama
III. bringing in the episode of Helen of Troy from
Greek
mythology
A. I and III
only
B. I and II
only
C. I, II, and
III
_____ 2. Faust was
written
A. in the last twenty years of Goethe's
life
B. during his Italian visit, 17861788
C. on and off throughout sixty years of his
life
_____ 3. The Lord says that
Mephistopheles
A. has no place in the
universe
B. keeps man on the
move
C. is the jester in
Heaven
_____ 4. Faust is prevented from committing suicide by
the
A. entrance of
Wagner
B. movements of the
poodle
C. sound of the church bells ringing for
Easter
_____ 5. In the Witches' Kitchen,
Faust
I. drinks a magic
potion
II. sees a beautiful woman in a magic
mirror
III. steps into a magic
circle
A. I and II
only
B. II and III
only
C. I, II, and
III
_____ 6. At the Walpurgis Night, Faust remembers Gretchen
because
A. an apparition resembling Gretchen appears with a
red
line around her
throat
B. a red mouse jumps from the mouth of a witch
he's
dancing
with
C. he falls asleep and
dreams
_____ 7. The Emperor signs the document authorizing paper
money
A. in council with his
ministers
B. when he appears as Pan in the Carnival
masque
C. when Mephistopheles gives it to
him
_____ 8. Faust is shown the entrance to the underworld
by
A.
Chiron
B.
Homunculus
C.
Manto
9. Using only Faust's monologues, trace Faust's journey
through
life.
10. In what ways is the relationship between Faust
and
Mephistopheles different at the end of Part II from what it was at
the
beginning, in Part
I?
11. Contrast the Walpurgis Night in Part I with the
Classical
Walpurgis Night in Part
II.
TEST
2
_____ 1. Romanticism is identified
with
A. feeling, folk poetry, the gloomy
North
B. order, aristocracy, Italy and
Greece
C. reasoned
thought
_____ 2. Goethe imitated the verse forms
of
I.
Shakespeare
II.
Dante
III.
Euripides
A. I and II
only
B. II and III
only
C. I, II, and
III
_____ 3. Mephistopheles will get Faust's soul
when
A. Faust dies without the last rites of the
Church
B. Faust says to a moment of fulfillment, "Stay! thou
art
so
fair!"
C. he has served Faust for twenty-four
years
_____ 4. Gretchen takes the second gift of jewels to Martha's
house
because
A. she has stolen
them
B. Mephistopheles told her
to
C. her mother gave the first jewels to the
Church
_____ 5. Homunculus is born in his test tube
when
A. Mephistopheles enters the
laboratory
B. Wagner shakes the test
tube
C. Faust dreams of his
birth
_____ 6. Euphorion is compared
to
I.
Icarus
II. Lord
Byron
III.
Galatea
A. I and III
only
B. I and II
only
C. I, II, and
III
_____ 7. Mephistopheles disguises himself as one of the
Phorcyads,
who are
the
A.
Furies
B.
Fates
C.
Graeae
_____ 8. The Emperor must build a cathedral for the
Archbishop
because
A. the rival emperor won the
battle
B. he promised land to
Faust
C. he used the Devil's power to defeat his
rival
9. Contrast the Faust you first meet in his study and the
Faust
who dies, blind and old. How has he changed and how has he
remained
the
same?
10. How does Faust's relationship to Gretchen differ from
his
relationship to
Helen?
11. Faust speaks of "two souls in my breast." Illustrate how
the
theme of conflict is expressed in
Faust.
ANSWERS
TEST
1
1. B 2. C 3. B 4. C 5. C 6. A 7. B 8.
C
9. Make a list of Faust's monologues and characterize each
one
briefly. The first takes place in the opening scene. Faust
is
dissatisfied with his knowledge, tries to raise the Earth Spirit,
is
rejected, and falls into such despair that he almost
commits
suicide. This is basic information for your answer, the beginning
of
Faust's journey. The second monologue occurs in Forest and Cave,
where
Faust thanks the Earth Spirit for giving him the opportunity
to
experience life fully. Clearly, Faust's journey has taken him
toward
sensual satisfaction. The third great monologue opens Part II,
in
Charming Landscape. Now Faust is recovering from the horrors
of
Gretchen's death and his infinite guilt. Where is he in his
life's
journey at this point? He certainly isn't buoyant, as he was in
Forest
and Cave, and he isn't expressing the dissatisfaction he felt in
the
opening scene. He has become a man who understands experience
deeply
because he has lived through terrible events. During the monologue,
he
elaborates a metaphor that enables him to forgive himself and
continue
his journey. You will need to explain the metaphor in some
detail.
The monologue at the beginning of Act IV is again the
expression
of deep sorrow about a woman, this time Helen of Troy. It is
a
renunciation of women. Faust's final speech alone occurs after
Care
has blinded him and left him apparently helpless. It is a
speech
full of desperate energy, urging workmen to complete what he
has
planned. What kind of journey is charted by these monologues?
It
doesn't seem to be a smooth one. Can it be characterized as
universal,
a path taken by all
men?
10. Make a list of the scenes in which Faust and
Mephistopheles
appear together and summarize what happens in each. Are they polite
to
each other? Characterize the terms in which they speak to
each
other, from Mephistopheles' embarrassment at being unable to
leave
Faust's study, through Faust's bitter accusations in the prose
scene
and Mephistopheles' sending Faust down to the Mothers, to
the
remarks Mephistopheles makes under his breath as Faust, blind,
dies.
Does the relationship deteriorate or remain about the same? If
it
changes, is it Faust who changes his attitude or Mephistopheles?
You
should answer the question in your first paragraph and then support
it
with specific references and
quotations.
11. Write down the main features of the Walpurgis Night in Part
I.
It's held on a high mountain, the Brocken, which Faust
and
Mephistopheles climb by the uncertain light of a Will-o'-theWisp.
They visit groups of witches sitting around fires and dance with
them,
until Faust is reminded of Gretchen. The atmosphere is
lurid,
gloomy, evil. Then look at the Classical Walpurgis Night for
the
same features: Since this time Faust is transported by
Homunculus,
there are three visitors to this Walpurgis Night, not two, led
by
Homunculus' brilliant light. Mephistopheles was in charge of the
first
Walpurgis Night, but here he is out of his element. The
celebrations
range over a wide landscape, concluding in the sea- exactly
the
opposite of the Brocken- with a ceremony of great beauty, as
Galatea
leads a procession and Homunculus smashes his test tube on
her
shell. There is also an intellectual discussion of the origins of
life
between Thales and Anaxagoras. What do all these differences
mean?
What general statement can you make about them that illuminates
the
meaning of the
poem?
-
TEST
2
1. A 2. A 3. B 4. C 5. A 6. B 7. C 8.
C
9. This question asks you to estimate whether experiences
have
made any difference to Faust. First, characterize him when you
first
see him in his study. He's deeply dissatisfied with his
knowledge,
given to sharp mood swings, despairing to the point of suicide
but
obviously ready and able to command Mephistopheles. Look at
his
relations with Wagner, the peasants, and Mephistopheles. Then,
using
that information, contrast Faust in the final scenes of the play.
Is
he still suicidal? If not, how would you characterize his
reaction
to the misfortune of blindness? Is he now concerned with
knowledge
or with action? How do his relationships differ, especially
to
Mephistopheles? If you find that he has changed a great deal,
you'll
have to consider whether he's recognizably the same person.
Would
you characterize the changes as improvements in character? Did
you
like or admire Faust more at the beginning of the drama or at the
end?
10. It's fairly easy to describe Faust's relationship to
Gretchen,
at least at first. Clearly, he wants to have sexual relations
with
her, and that's about all. He has an intense feeling for her, but
it's
limited- it isn't enough to stop him from going off
with
Mephistopheles and forgetting all about her. The problem arises
when
he finds out what has happened to her. How guilty does he feeland
how responsible? Is his desire to release her from prison a
genuine
attempt to rescue her or only another gush of
feeling?
His relationship to Helen is different in almost every way. It
isn't
a simple, sexual passion but the adoration of an ideal. Helen
isn't
real- both she and Faust's relationship with her are
mythical,
existing in the world of imagination. Their whole story takes place
in
one scene, consisting of their marriage, the birth and death
of
Euphorion, their son, and Helen's return to the underworld.
Their
love-making begins as Faust teaches Helen about rhyme, uncommon
in
Greek literature. What significance does this
have?
At first glance, you would think that the two relationships
are
similar, in that both end in failure. But look more closely and
you'll
see how different the failures are. The failure of the
relationship
with Gretchen is an old story: Such relationships end in
disasteror
shotgun marriages. But the marriage with Helen cannot last,
because
it symbolizes an impossible union, between the Romantic and
the
Classical spirits. It is a failure on a completely different
level.
11. Look first at the "two souls" passage. What are the two
souls,
or yearnings, agitating Faust? Faust tells Wagner that he is
torn
between the world of human action, with all its sensual pleasures,
and
the world of pure intellect, which soars above earthly concerns.
One
immediate expression of the conflict is right in front of
youWagner represents the first world and Faust the second. Then,
start
looking for other conflicts embodied in the play. Faust both
depends
upon and cannot tolerate Mephistopheles- a conflict that
represents
his desire for experience pitted against the unpleasantness of
doing
what he must do to get it. There are conflicts between the solitude
of
Faust's study and the bustling town full of people
celebrating
Easter Day, between Word and Deed, between darkness and light. It
is
even possible to say that the "two souls" represent the
Classical
and Romantic styles that alternate throughout Faust. Can you
pull
all these, as well as any other examples, together and make
a
general statement about the "two souls" image as a central idea in
the
poem?
TERM_PAPER_IDEAS
TERM PAPER IDEAS AND OTHER TOPICS FOR WRITING
(GFAUTERM)
THE
CHARACTERS
1. Is Faust the hero of Faust?
Explain.
2. Write a character study of
Mephistopheles.
3. What does Faust tell you about students in German universities
in
Faust's
day?
-
4. Describe the heavenly characters in Faust- the Lord,
the
angels, and the other inhabitants of
Heaven.
5. What are Faust's religious
beliefs?
6. Write a character study of
Homunculus.
7. Why did the Emperor assume the role of Pan in the
Carnival
masque? What does that indicate about his
character
8. Compare Gretchen, Martha, and Lieschen (the girl at the well
in
Part
I).
LITERARY
TOPICS
1. What is the meaning of natural elements such as fire,
water,
and light in
Faust?
2. What is the meaning of gold and money in
Faust?
3. Describe and analyze each of the settings in the drama.
Explain
how each contributes to the ideals expressed and to the telling of
the
Faust
story.
4. What dreams do you find in Faust? Who dreams them? What do
they
mean?
5. What is the significance of churches, cathedrals, and the
sound
of bells in
Faust?
6. Goethe is remarkable for his sense imagery. Find examples of
this
in Faust and discuss how the images enhance the meaning of
the
passages you've
chosen.
7. How does Goethe's Faust differ from Marlowe's Tragedy of
Doctor
Faustus?
8. Charles Gounod composed an opera based on the Faust story.
How
does the opera differ from Goethe's
play?
PHILOSOPHY
1. Can you draw a moral from Faust? Does it tell us how to
conduct
our lives?
Explain.
2. Faust wants to translate the first line of the Gospel of St.
John
to read, "In the beginning was the Deed." Discuss this as an
example
of Romantic theory, with its applications in the
poem.
3. Is Faust a Classical or a Romantic
work?
4. Explain why Goethe uses Christian symbolism in
Faust.
5.. In what sense is Mephistopheles the Lord's
servant?
CRITICS
THE CRITICS
(GFAUCRIT)
ON THE MEANING OF
FAUST
For after all it is a poem and not just a moral discourse- a
poem
which, more boldly perhaps than any in the modern era, attempts
to
convey what life is like, not, to be sure, in all its
characteristics,
but in some of them, as they appeared at a great moment in history.
It
so happens that Goethe came at a time in Europe when there was a
great
upsurge of life. European society after a period of
premature
stability broke its bounds, emotionally, intellectually,
and
politically, and underwent a great expansion, the consequences
of
which we are still discovering. It was the spirit of this
expansion,
and the sense of energy and initiative that accompanied it in
its
first stages, that Goethe's Faust managed to capture and to set
down
in imperishable
language.
The result is a poem unlike all other great poems in
its
confidence in man, man's self-reliance, his capacity for growth,
his
future. It is true that Faust has his mistakes, his exasperations,
his
despairs. But these are incidental and subordinate to the
poem's
unquenchable optimism. What has appealed to past generations in
this
poem is its resonance, its potential, its affirmation of life,
and
this is what will appeal again to generations to
come.
-Barker Fairley, Goethe's
Faust:
Six Essays,
1953
ON
HELEN
This Helen is not the dream Helen of the Imperial palace. She
is
real, real in the sense that she takes part in the dramatic
action,
just as any other character does. She lives in Greek
surroundings,
uses authentic Greek metres and has a Greek chorus to accompany
her.
Moreover, she feels herself to be real and speaks of
prosaic
everyday events (even of seasickness) in a practical way. It is
only
when Faust and Mephistopheles intervene that her reality is
impaired
and she is forced out of her native epoch and steps into
another.
Modern man, if he wishes to consort with antiquity, can only do
so
by incorporating it into his own
age.
-Alexander Gillies, Goethe's
Faust:
An Interpretation,
1957
ON
MEPHISTOPHELES
Mephisto has baffled more than one admirer, notably Schiller, for
he
is a complex figure who borrows his many traits from
Christianity,
from the Faustian legend, from Lucifer and Ahriman
(hardly
understood by Goethe), from the poet himself, or from his
friends
Behrisch and Merck, perhaps even from Herder. In the "Forest and
Cave"
scene, he is an envoy of the "Spirit of the Earth."... He is
the
absence of faith, of trust, of love and of enthusiasm; he is
ironic
and sarcastic criticism; he is paralyzing reason; he is delight
in
destruction, perversions; he is the imperfection inherent in man
and
his works; he is Gretchen's death, the ugliness of the
Phorkyade,
the destruction of the house where Baucis and Philemon perish.
Yet
if he did not exist, man could not fulfill his earthly
mission.
-Joseph-Francois Angelloz, Goethe,
1958
ON
GRETCHEN
It is remarkable that even the most important point in
the
Gretchen tragedy, Faust's desertion of Gretchen, is only implied
and
nowhere directly presented or even mentioned. Some critics,
especially
those who think Faust should be regarded as an ideal,
exemplary
superman, have even tried to make out a case for his never having
in
the strict sense of the word deserted her at
all.
-Eudo C. Mason, Goethe's
Faust:
Its Genesis and Purport,
1967
ADVISORY_BOARD
ADVISORY BOARD
(GFAUADVB)
We wish to thank the following educators who helped us focus
our
Book Notes series to meet student needs and critiqued
our
manuscripts to provide quality
materials.
-
Sandra Dunn, English
Teacher
Hempstead High School, Hempstead, New
York
Lawrence J. Epstein, Associate Professor of
English
Suffolk County Community College, Selden, New
York
Leonard Gardner, Lecturer, English
Department
State University of New York at Stony
Brook
Beverly A. Haley, Member, Advisory
Committee
National Council of Teachers of English Student Guide
Series
Fort Morgan,
Colorado
Elaine C. Johnson, English
Teacher
Tamalpais Union High School
District
Mill Valley,
California
Marvin J. LaHood, Professor of
English
State University of New York College at
Buffalo
Robert Lecker, Associate Professor of
English
McGill University, Montreal, Quebec,
Canada
David E. Manly, Professor of Educational
Studies
State University of New York College at
Geneseo
-
Bruce Miller, Associate Professor of
Education
State University of New York at
Buffalo
Frank O'Hare, Professor of English and Director of
Writing
Ohio State University, Columbus,
Ohio
Faith Z. Schullstrom, Member of Executive
Committee
National Council of Teachers of
English
Director of Curriculum and
Instruction
Guilderland Central School District, New
York
Mattie C. Williams, Director, Bureau of Language
Arts
Chicago Public Schools, Chicago,
Illinois
THE END OF BARRON'S BOOK
NOTES
JOHANN WOLFGANG VON GOETHE'S FAUST: PARTS I &
II
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(GFAUBIBL)
FAUST
FURTHER
READING
BIOGRAPHICAL
WORKS
Angelloz, Joseph-Francois. Goethe. Translated by R. H. Blackley.
New
York: Orion,
1958.
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang. Autobiography. Translated by John
Oxenford.
New York: Horizon,
1969.
_____. Conversations with Eckermann. Translated by John
Oxenford.
Berkeley: North Point Press,
1984.
Van Abbe, Derek. Goethe: New Perspectives on a Writer and
His
Time. London: Allen & Unwin,
1972.
CRITICAL
WORKS
Atkins, Stuart. Goethe's Faust: A Literary Criticism.
Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1964. An exhaustive,
scholarly
line-by-line
commentary.
Cottrell, Alan P. Goethe's Faust: Seven Essays. Chapel
Hill:
University of North Carolina Press, 1976. Examines the themes of
Faust
and relates them to the modern
era.
Enright, D. J. Commentary on Goethe's Faust. New York:
New
Directions, 1949. A provocative personal statement, the most
radical
of those who devalue Part II in favor of Part
I.
Fairley, Barker. Goethe's Faust: Six Essays. Oxford:
Clarendon,
1953. Offers valuable insight into the
play.
Gearey, John. Goethe's Faust: The Making of Part I. New
Haven:
Yale University Press, 1981. Treats Faust as a masterpiece of
world
literature, focusing on it as a work of art rather than
a
philosophical
poem.
Gillies, Alexander. Goethe's Faust: An Interpretation.
Oxford:
Blackwell, 1957. A thought-provoking commentary, but quoted
passages
are not
translated.
Jantz, Harold. The Form of Faust. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins,
1978.
Concentrates on Faust as a literary
work.
Lange, Victor, ed. Goethe: A Collection of Critical
Essays.
Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1968. Essays on Goethe's
writings,
including examinations of poetic expression and the problem of
unity
and form in
Faust.
Mann, Thomas. "Goethe's Faust," in Essays by Thomas Mann.
New
York: Vintage, 1958. A perceptive, personal appreciation of
Goethe's
play.
Mason, Eudo C. Goethe's Faust: Its Genesis and Purport. Los
Angeles:
University of California Press, 1967. Scholarly discussion,
heavily
weighted in favor of Part I over Part
II.
TRANSLATIONS OF
FAUST
Arndt, Walter. Faust: A New Translation. Edited by Cyrus Hamlin.
New
York: Norton, 1976. A verse translation, with notes,
critical
essays, and background and
sources.
Fairley, Barker. Goethe's Faust. Toronto: University of
Toronto,
1970. Prose
translation.
Jarrell, Randall. Goethe's Faust, Part I. New York:
Farrar,
Straus, & Giroux, 1959. Verse
translation.
MacIntyre, Carlyle F. Goethe's Faust. Norfolk, Connecticut:
New
Directions, 1941. Verse translation with facing text; illustrations
by
Rockwell
Kent.
MacNiece, Louis. Goethe's Faust. Oxford: Oxford University
Press,
1951.
Raphael, Alice. Faust, Part I. New York: Heritage Club, n.d.
Verse
translation, illustrated with eighteen lithographs by
Delacroix.
Wayne, Philip. Faust, Part I and Faust, Part II. 2 vols. New
York:
Penguin, 1949. Verse
translation.
AUTHOR'S OTHER MAJOR
WORKS
1773 Gotz von Berlichingen, a play about a medieval German
knight.
1774 The Sorrows of Young Werther, a
novel.
1787 Iphigenie in Tauris, a
play.
1788 Egmont, a
play.
1789 Torquato Tasso, a
play.
1796 Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship, a
novel.
1809 Elective Affinities, a
novel.
1811 Poetry and Truth, an autobiographical
work.
1818 West-East Divan, a collection of
lyrics.
1821 Wilhelm Meister's Years of Travel, a
novel.
THE END OF THE BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR BARRON'S BOOK
NOTES
JOHANN WOLFGANG VON GOETHE'S FAUST: PARTS I &
II
1955
WILLIAM
GOLDING'S
LORD OF THE
FLIES
by W.
Meitcke
SERIES
EDITOR
Michael
Spring
Editor, Literary
Cavalcade
Scholastic
Inc.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to acknowledge the many painstaking hours of
work
Holly Hughes and Thomas F. Hirsch have devoted to making the
Book
Notes series a
success.
(C) Copyright 1984 by Barron's Educational Series,
Inc.
Electronically Enhanced Text (C) Copyright 1993, World Library,
Inc.
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
SECTION.......................... SEARCH
ON
THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES.................
GLORAUTH
THE
NOVEL
The Plot.................................
GLORPLOT
The Characters...........................
GLORCHAR
Other
Elements
Setting.............................
GLORSETT
Themes..............................
GLORTHEM
Style...............................
GLORSTYL
Point of View.......................
GLORVIEW
Structure...........................
GLORSTRU
THE STORY................................
GLORSTOR
A STEP
BEYOND
Tests and Answers........................
GLORTEST
Term Paper Ideas.........................
GLORTERM
The Critics..............................
GLORCRIT
Advisory Board...........................
GLORADVB
Bibliography.............................
GLORBIBL
AUTHOR_AND_HIS_TIMES
THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES
(GLORAUTH)
William Golding was born in 1911 and grew up in the years
before
World War II. That war changed thinking about man's
essential
nature. Before the war people generally believed that man
was
essentially good-hearted and society often was evil. However,
the
atrocities of the war made it impossible for many people to
believe
any longer in man's basic innocence. You can see the influence of
this
shift in thinking in Golding's
works.
Some of Golding's favorite childhood authors were Edgar
Rice
Burroughs (Tarzan of the Apes), Robert Ballantyne (Coral
Island),
and Jules Verne (Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea). Each of
these
books portrays man as a basically good creature who struggles to
avoid
the evils of
society.
Golding yearned to be like the characters in the fables
and
stories he read. The island setting for Lord of the Flies and
the
names Ralph, Jack, and Simon have been taken from Coral
Island.
"They held me rapt," Golding once said of the books he read.
"I
dived with the Nautilus, was shot round the moon, crossed
Darkest
Africa in a balloon, descended to the center of the earth,
drifted
in the South Atlantic, dying of thirst.... It always sent me
indoors
for a drink-the fresh waters of the
Amazon."
At about the age of twelve Golding decided to be a writer.
He
planned a twelve-volume work on trade unions but could
never
complete the enormous undertaking. With his love of reading and
his
early attempts at writing, Golding of course studied literature
in
college.
When World War II began in 1939, Golding joined the Royal Navy.
He
saw action against German warships, he was in antisubmarine
and
antiaircraft operations, and in 1944 he was involved in the DDay
--------------------------------------------------------Electronically Enhanced Text (C) Copyright 1991 - 1993 World
Library, Inc.
Faust: Parts I and II
Johann Wolfgang Goethe
THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES
Faust and its author, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, developed side by side. The work is not an
autobiography, but it reflects Goethe's intellectual development. (Goethe did write an
autobiography, called Poetry and Truth, about his early life.) He began Faust when he was in
his twenties, continued it at intervals- sometimes neglecting it for years at a time- until his
seventies- and then worked intensively on it until just before his death, at eighty-two.
When you hear the name "Faust," you probably think of the story of a man who sells his soul to
the Devil in return for supernatural powers. It's a story that depends on the Christian tradition
for its plot, for Faust is a learned man who wants to know more than God allows man to know,
and to gain superior knowledge, Faust makes a bargain with the Devil. Faust enjoys magical
powers for many years, is entertained by an emperor, and lives with the most beautiful woman
in the world, Helen of Troy. In the end, however, he has to go down to Hell with the Devil,
who comes to claim Faust's soul, in accordance with their bargain. This traditional Faust story
is a Christian cautionary tale- it warns that you will lose your eternal soul if you try to outsmart
God. It's also a German story. There was a real Dr. Faustus, who lived in Wittenberg in the
fifteenth century, but the truth about his life is impossible to disentangle from the legend. The
Faust legend has been used by many writers, including Christopher Marlowe, whose Doctor
Faustus was published in the early seventeenth century.
Goethe's Faust is very different from other Faust stories. His Faust is sometimes seen as
opening up a whole new era of Western thought. Modern people, say some writers, have been
cut adrift and are wandering aimlessly in a technological world, searching for meaning in life
and striving for fulfillment. In previous eras people could find meaning and achieve salvation
through religion. In the West it was through Christianity. But Faust, these writers assert,
achieved his own salvation through action.
Goethe was born into a well-to-do family in Frankfurt am Main, Germany in 1749, in the
middle of a century known as the Age of Reason, or the Enlightenment. Classical values
dominated thought and taste in Goethe's youth. This means that the influence of Greek and
Roman thought was strongly felt in education and culture. Goethe's early education, therefore,
stressed Greek and Roman literature and the predominance of reason over feeling. There was
no emphasis in Goethe's family on Christian value- Goethe's father did not consider himself a
Christian- although the culture was steeped in religious tradition, and Goethe knew the Bible
very well. Goethe's father sent him to the University of Leipzig at sixteen, to study law and
absorb the values of the time.
But the young Goethe returned home after two years, suffering from mental strain. It may be
that he was beginning to rebel emotionally and intellectually against Classical restraints, for he
spent the next year or two in his Frankfurt home investigating some very unclassical ideas. His
mother had taken up Pietism, a kind of fundamentalist Christianity that stressed the individual
believer's direct contact with God. In addition, Goethe discovered the works of medieval
mystics, who were sometimes described as magicians because they believed in a secret
knowledge accessible only to those who had been initiated. These studies led Goethe to
alchemy, which, in medieval times, had represented a genuine attempt to understand the world
scientifically. In Goethe's time, the study of alchemy was in part a means of re-creating the
past.
When Goethe returned to university studies, he went to Strasbourg, where he met a young
theologian and philosopher named Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803), who was
beginning to make a mark in German intellectual circles. Under Herder's influence, Goethe
became part of the Sturm und Drang ("storm and stress") literary movement that emphasized
naturalistic, individualistic, anti-Classical feeling. (Classicism stresses form, structure, logic,
and rational thought.) The Sturm und Drang writers were obsessed with the idea of liberated
genius, sure that feelings were more important than intellect, and impressed with the simplicity
of folk poetry. They believed in the natural goodness of man, admired William Shakespeare,
and saw literature as a means of searching for the Absolute, or that which underlay all of
existence. Most intellectual historians see the Sturm und Drang movement as a forerunner of
Romanticism (which stressed feeling and nature) in the nineteenth century, but in its search for
originality and abstract truth, the Sturm und Drang movement still had much in common with
the Enlightenment. Bear in mind, however, that much of Goethe's writing, especially Part I of
Faust, is usually thought of as Romantic.
In the early 1770s, Goethe wrote a novel in the form of letters, The Sorrows of Young Werther,
which indulges in emotions to a point you may find difficult to tolerate now. At the end of the
story, Werther kills himself because he cannot live with the woman he loves, who's already
engaged. Werther, together with a play about a German outlaw hero, Gotz von Berlichingen,
brought Goethe fame and established him as one of the leaders of the Sturm and Drang
movement.
Almost incidentally, Goethe qualified as a lawyer during these years and practiced in Frankfurt,
where he witnessed the tragic case of a young maidservant condemned to death for the murder
of her baby. Goethe felt deep compassion for the girl, who suffered from the injustice of a
social order that allowed men of the upper class to ruin girls casually. He may have had a pang
of guilt himself, because he was something of a ladies' man. Throughout his life, from his teens
to his seventies, he either fell passionately in love with women who attracted him physically or
worshipped women with whom he felt a platonic (spiritual) affinity. When he finally married,
in 1806, he was fifty-seven.
The young maidservant whose life was ruined became Gretchen in Part I of Faust. You can
understand why he began writing it in the early 1770s, about the same time as his Sturm und
Drang works. Faust was a rebel against authority who strove constantly to know and
experience everything. He had immense courage, which the Sturm and Drang followers
admired, and he was a figure straight out of German history. Another noted German dramatist,
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-1781), had called for a play on the Faust theme and had even
composed a scene himself. The addition of the Gretchen story brought to the work an element
of folk simplicity.
But Goethe's Faust is no simple updating of the legend. His hero does not sell his soul to the
Devil- he makes a bet with him, and the Devil, Mephistopheles, loses. Faust does not disobey
God's commands, as he does in the legend. Goethe's God has complete confidence in Faust's
good sense and gives His permission for Mephistopheles to tempt Faust in order to keep him
on his toes. Goethe wrote a Faust that is definitely not a Christian cautionary tale. What, then,
is it? You'll want to keep the question in mind as you read the work.
In 1775, Goethe's life was swept in another direction and he didn't return to Faust for many
years. He was invited to live at the court of the young duke of Weimar, who wanted Goethe as
a central attraction for the intellectual and artistic life of Weimar. Goethe was to spend most of
the rest of his life there, writing, becoming involved with the theater, pursuing private scientific
studies, and, as a favor to his patron, serving as an administrator for the tiny duchy. Goethe's
friend Herder (who may have been a model for Mephistopheles) settled in Weimar, along with
other writers and thinkers, who, with Goethe, made Weimar an intellectual center for the next
half-century or so.
In 1786, Goethe did something surprising. He left the Weimar court abruptly and journeyed to
Italy. He spent much of the next two years in Rome, where he studied the art of the Classical
period, completing more than one thousand drawings of Classical statues and buildings. During
his journey, about which he later wrote, Goethe immersed himself in the Classical style, but he
did not turn away completely from Romanticism. Some of his works display a tension, an
uneasy balance between the two styles. A drama such as Iphigenie in Tauris (1787) is
unmistakably Classical, in theme as well as in form and style, but what about Faust? In Faust,
Part II, a work of his later years, Goethe attempts a union of the Classical and Romantic in the
marriage of Faust and Helen of Troy.
Goethe's Classical side gave him a love of order- social, political, as well as personal- that
prevented him from admiring the French Revolution, which broke out in 1789, the year after he
returned from Italy. While Romantic writers were hailing the new spirit in France, Goethe
shuddered at its excesses. Safe and secure at Weimar, he published the first portions of Faust,
called Faust: Ein Fragment ("Faust: A Fragment"), in 1790. He continued to write plays and
novels, as well as some of the poetry that has earned him the title of the greatest lyric poet in
the German language.
In 1794, Goethe began a friendship, almost a collaboration, with the poet and dramatist
Friedrich von Schiller (1759-1805). Goethe invited Schiller to live at Weimar, where they
worked together until Schiller's death. Under Schiller's prodding, Goethe took up Faust and by
1808 completed what we know as Part I. Goethe, however, realized that what he had to say
would require a second part, but he didn't immediately begin Part II. Faust languished again,
until 1825. Pressure to return to it came this time from Johann Peter Eckermann (1792-1854),
who had become Goethe's literary secretary in 1823 and immortalized himself by recording and
publishing their talks together on literary and other subjects (Conversations with Eckermann,
1836-1848). Goethe wrote Part II of Faust between 1825 and 1831. He was then in his late
seventies and early eighties.
It's not always easy to see Faust as a whole. Part I was the only portion of the drama published
in Goethe's lifetime, and it became the basis for a popular opera by the nineteenth-century
French Romantic composer, Charles Gounod, so that the general public began to feel that Faust
consisted essentially of the Faust and Gretchen story and the bet between Faust and the Devil.
The complete Faust was printed in 1832, as the first volume of Goethe's collected works
published after his death. It is recognized as his masterpiece.
You now have the opportunity to take the same journey that Goethe took in composing Faust.
Don't be afraid to make up your own mind about Faust, even if your conclusions differ from
what others have thought. It is the mark of a masterpiece like Faust that it continues to yield
new and exciting meanings as each generation of readers encounters it.
THE PLAY
[Faust: Parts I and II Contents] [The Study Web Home Page]
© Copyright 1985 by Barron's Educational Series, Inc.
Electronically Enhanced Text © Copyright 1993, World Library, Inc.
Faust: Parts I and II
Johann Wolfgang Goethe
THE PLAY
THE PLOT
The story of Faust begins in Heaven. Mephistopheles, the Devil, is visiting the Lord,
complaining, as usual, about the Lord's creation, man. When the Lord asks him whether he
knows Faust, Mephistopheles, saying he does, seizes the opportunity to bet with the Lord that
he can lead Faust astray. The Lord is quite confident that Faust knows the right way; he's also
tolerant of Mephistopheles, whose role is to keep prodding man into action.
Faust is a very learned professor, who, however, is dissatisfied with human knowledge, which
by its nature is limited. Using magic, he conjures up the Earth Spirit in his darkened study.
Regarding himself as more than mortal, he tries to claim the Earth Spirit as a colleague, but the
Spirit rejects him scornfully and disappears. Despairing, Faust contemplates suicide. He is
saved by the sound of the bells welcoming Easter morning. He and his research assistant,
Wagner, go out into the sunlight and enjoy the greetings of the crowd, which remembers the
medical attention given to the people by Faust and his father. Faust is still depressed, denying
the value of medicine and feeling torn between the two souls in him, one longing for earthly
pleasures, the other seeking the highest spiritual knowledge. A dog follows Faust and Wagner
home.
Back in his study, Faust tries to translate the Gospel of St. John, while the dog becomes
restless. Eventually, the animal changes shape so monstrously that Faust realizes he is dealing
with the Devil. Presto! There is Mephistopheles!
At this first meeting, Mephistopheles introduces himself and his powers to Faust; then he tricks
Faust into sleeping so that he can leave. When he returns, magnificently dressed,
Mephistopheles makes a bet with Faust. He agrees to do anything Faust wants, but if Faust ever
says that he is totally satisfied, that the moment is so perfect he wants time to stop, then he will
die and Mephistopheles will have his soul. They sign their pact in blood.
Mephistopheles tries to please his "master." He takes him to a Witch's Kitchen, where Faust is
magically transformed into a young man. When Faust meets Margarete- called Gretchen, the
shortened version of her name- walking in the street, he is consumed with passion for her and
orders Mephistopheles to arrange for him to possess her immediately.
Mephistopheles, who has more sense than his master about how to conduct love affairs, takes
Faust into Gretchen's room while she is absent. They leave a casket of jewels, but Gretchen's
mother, when it is found, insists that it be given to the Church. Mephistopheles then leaves a
second present of jewelry, which Gretchen this time conceals at a neighbor's house.
From that point Gretchen is doomed. Faust seduces her and makes her pregnant. When
Gretchen's brother, Valentine, intervenes, cursing her as a whore, Mephistopheles, with Faust
at his side, kills Valentine.
Mephistopheles takes Faust off to a witches' celebration, Walpurgis Night, on top of a
mountain, where at first Faust is fascinated by the fantastic whirl of magical apparitions but
then is disturbed by reminders of Gretchen. By the time he returns to the real world, Gretchen
has been condemned to death for the murder of her illegitimate baby and has gone mad in her
prison cell. As Mephistopheles drags Faust away, a heavenly voice calls out that Gretchen's
soul is saved.
Part II of Faust begins in a natural setting with Faust recovering from his horror.
Mephistopheles is preparing to introduce Faust to the great world of politics and power. They
appear at the Emperor's court, where Mephistopheles solves economic problems by suggesting
that the court issue paper money against the value of gold hidden underground.
Using his magic, Mephistopheles stages for the court a magnificent masque, a pageant of
symbolic figures, in which Faust appears dressed as the god of wealth. The Emperor himself
arrives, dressed as the Greek god Pan. The entire pageant dissolves in magic fire, which
impresses the Emperor so much that he asks for more. He wants to see the famous beauty of
Greek mythology, Helen of Troy, and her Trojan lover, Paris.
Mephistopheles tells Faust that such a request will strain their powers, for Faust must go down
to seek the help of the Mothers, mysterious beings who control the underworld.
Mephistopheles assembles the court to witness Faust's evocation of Paris and Helen, in the
form of visions. Faust is so overcome with Helen's beauty, and with the desire to possess her,
that he faints as the visions fade.
He is transported back into his study, which he had left years before and has not revisited since.
Wagner, who has become a doctor, is trying to produce human life. Mephistopheles' presence
adds the final spark. A tiny man, Homunculus, appears like a bright light in a test tube.
Homunculus leads the way to the plains of the Peneios river in Greece, where the Walpurgis
Night will take place.
As they meet mythological figures from literature, Faust discovers a way to reach Helen in the
underworld. Mephistopheles finds a disguise as one of the Phorcyads (three female monsters
who share one eye and one tooth). And Homunculus discovers a way to realize his being by
uniting with a sea goddess. He smashes his test tube against the chariot of Galatea (a goddess
of beauty) in a blaze of light, symbolizing creation.
Helen has come back from the underworld at the point where she is returning to her original
home in Sparta, after spending ten years in Troy. She is frightened of the revenge that her
husband, King Menelaus, is planning against her. Mephistopheles, in the shape of Phorcyas,
points out that she can be rescued by walking to a medieval castle. There, Faust, dressed as a
medieval knight, greets her. They unite to produce a son, Euphorion, who is the spirit of poetry
(and a symbol for the English poet, Lord Byron, whose "unsatisfied nature" and striving for a
heroic form of existence, as Goethe told Eckermann, epitomized the contemporary Romantic
poet).
Euphorion has a brilliant, though short, career but when he tries to fly he crashes to the ground.
Helen returns to the underworld, broken by the tragedy that her beauty seems always to bring
about. Faust is left only with her garments.
Again, Faust must reconcile himself to being a failure. He plunges into a scheme to reclaim
land from the sea and control it. In order to gain the land, he and Mephistopheles must help the
Emperor suppress a rebellion. They bring to the battle the Three Mighty Men who fought with
King David. They win the battle through magic, but barely.
With Mephistopheles' help, Faust reclaims the land. He builds a magnificent palace
overlooking the shore but is irritated because he has allowed an old couple, Baucis and
Philemon, to keep their tiny cottage and a chapel on the land. He asks Mephistopheles to
remove the couple to a small farm he has promised them. Mephistopheles takes the Three
Mighty Men to do the job; they burn down the cottage and the chapel, killing the old couple
and a traveler who was visiting them.
Although Faust has failed again, he does not stop striving and planning. He is struck blind by
Care, who tries to make him worry about his coming death. He dies reflecting that he has never
found any moment so beautiful, so pleasant, that he wanted it to linger. So Mephistopheles
loses his bet. The Devil cannot claim Faust's soul, but he tries to snatch it by trickery. He is
outmaneuvered, however, by a chorus of angels, who are so sexually alluring that
Mephistopheles becomes distracted by their charms and doesn't notice they are stealing away
Faust's soul.
Faust's soul is carried to Heaven by the angels and by the souls of children who have died
young. The three penitent women of Christianity pray to the Virgin Mary to save Faust's soul.
When Gretchen adds her voice to theirs, the Virgin Mary allows her to lead Faust's soul
upward. His journey is completed and he is at rest in Heaven.
[Faust: Parts I and II Contents]
THE CHARACTERS
The following is a discussion of the major characters in Faust. There are in addition many other
interesting, if less developed, characters, and they are discussed at the appropriate places in The
Play section of this guide.
l FAUST
While Faust has clearly recognizable human characteristics, he is larger than life. He
embodies the best and the worst in man, and in many ways he is a symbol of all
humanity. Faust is involved in most of the scenes, but he probably reveals himself most
clearly through his monologues and through his conversations with Mephistopheles.
The monologues show a man without satisfaction or inner peace, always striving. He is
continually reaching for more knowledge, more power, more experience. He is also
changeable, given to despair when he can't get what he wants. His striving leads
inevitably to failure. Some readers have seen these failures as Faust's tragedy, for
everything he touches turns to dust. But in these failures he represents humanity, for, as
the Lord declares in the Prologue in Heaven, man must make mistakes while he strives.
On one important score, Faust comes out ahead. He bets Mephistopheles that he will
never find one moment so fulfilling that he will say to it, "Stay, Thou art so fair!" Faust
never does. So he frustrates the Devil and justifies the Lord's confidence in him. It is for
his striving, his never giving in, that he is finally saved and his soul carried upward.
In Faust's relations with Mephistopheles you see an arrogant, impatient man, who uses
any means available to get what he wants. Faust is absolutely clear about his
relationship to Mephistopheles- Mephistopheles is a servant. In his other relations, you
see the brilliance of Faust, why he has the genius to represent humanity. He is capable
of passionate romantic love, of courageous action, of large-scale organization. He will
probably win your sympathy, even in his ill-fated affair with Gretchen. Try to imagine
what it must be like to pick up the pieces of your life after you have caused the
destruction of a beautiful young girl and three other innocent people (her mother,
brother, and baby). Faust does it.
You may admire Faust more than you like him. It's hard to think of relating to him,
although you may recognize parts of his character in your own actions and those of
people around you. Because he is all of us, he isn't really any one of us.
l MEPHISTOPHELES
It may seem strange, but some think that Mephistopheles, the Devil, is more human than
Faust. Mephistopheles is a cynic, and cuts things down to size with his quick wit. He
calls the Lord an "old gent," satirizes the university faculty, teases the mythological
creatures he meets on the Peneios River, and ends scenes with comments that puncture
inflated sentiments. Several explanations have been given for Mephistopheles' name,
including that it derives from the Greek, Me-phaustophiles, meaning "No Friend of
Faust" and that it comes from the Hebrew Mephiztophel, "corrupter and liar."
In Faust, Mephistopheles is the spirit of negation, "the spirit that always denies." In that
respect, he is the exact opposite of God, who is the spirit of creation. Why did Goethe
make Mephistopheles seem so human? Some readers believe that Goethe wanted to
suggest that this spirit of negation is within man. Others believe that Goethe didn't think
man was simple enough to fall for a stupid devil. Because man has intellect, they argue,
the Devil must have intellect. Some even see Mephistopheles as the symbol of intellect
without feeling.
Mephistopheles is a servant, both of God and of Faust, and has the soul of a servant, of
a person who must obey but resents it and takes every opportunity to assert what
domination he can. He is a servant of God because he is a part of Creation; he has to
exist in order for good to exist. He is a servant of Faust because God allows it. But he
isn't always willing to do what his master wants, especially at critical moments. He
messes up orders, often with disastrous effects on innocents like Baucis and Philemon.
He thinks he knows better than his master how to woo women and takes over the
wooing of Gretchen. At the same time, he exercises his own authority when he can.
You're never quite confident that Mephistopheles can control his trickery and magic.
For example, it's not clear whether the Mothers really do exist or are just invented on
the spot to cover Mephistopheles' incompetence. During the battle with the rebellious
emperor, it looks as if the real Emperor, who has trusted Mephistopheles, is going to
lose. He isn't a trustworthy Devil.
But no devil is trustworthy. You'll remember that the Lord has deliberately "paired" him
with mankind to keep man on his toes. The Devil's job is to "play the deuce, to stir, and
to entice." He's there to keep things off balance, so that man is always reaching for what
the Devil seems to offer.
Above all, Mephistopheles loses his bet. As the Lord foretold at the beginning, Faust
would know the right way and never be satisfied by anything Mephistopheles could do.
l MARGARETE (GRETCHEN)
Margarete, or Gretchen (a favorite name in German folk tales), is a more lifelike
character than Mephistopheles and Faust; she is a person you would recognize if you
met her. She is a sweet, simple, modest girl, who lives at home and helps her mother.
She knows right from wrong (as you can see from her polite refusal of Faust's advances
at first) and has an innocent religious faith of the kind idealized by Romantic writers.
Her downfall is a puzzle to you only in the sense that all similar cases are puzzles. Why
does such a girl give in to presents and flattery? Gretchen's mother is so strict that she
gives the first casket of jewels to the Church. Gretchen then responds with deception,
storing the second set of jewels in the house of her neighbor, Martha. Perhaps if her
mother had been more understanding, or Martha less of a "pimp," or Gretchen morally
stronger in herself, the tragedy wouldn't have happened.
Gretchen is up against the Devil, who by definition has no morals and no mercy. He's
been told to get her for Faust and he does. From the moment she gives in to Faust, she
begins to lose herself. She seeks comfort in her simple religious faith but cannot
withstand society's disapproval and her brother's curse. She becomes mad, kills her
baby, and is condemned to die.
Gretchen's sad story was based on a court case known to Goethe. He uses her story for
social purposes, to make the point that she is a victim of an attractive man of a class
higher than her own. Some girls might have been strong enough to resist the temptation
or even to put up with the guilt, but they would not have been sufficient for Goethe the
dramatist. He needed a fragile girl like Gretchen who trusted in a simple religious faith
and her own feelings.
l WAGNER
Wagner is called Faust's "famulus," a combination of servant and research assistant who
lives and studies close to Faust, his mentor. Wagner is the sort of person you feel you
ought to admire but can't bear. He has his heart in the right place, and says all the
expected things. Look at him trying to appease Faust with praise of his father. You can't
object to what he says, but it doesn't reflect Faust's mood at all.
It's appropriate that Wagner can't give the spark of life to Homunculus. He becomes a
scientist after working hard and developing his abilities. But it takes the presence of
Mephistopheles to produce Homunculus, who immediately shows all the brilliant
intuition his "father," Wagner, lacks. Wagner is left alone again, deserted by
Homunculus as he was by Faust years earlier, to live the conventional life he is fitted
for. Wagner's soul cannot soar. He and his kind do the work of the world.
l STUDENT-BACCALAUREUS
The only character besides Faust, Mephistopheles, and Wagner common to both Parts I
and II of Faust is the Student whom Mephistopheles interviews in Faust's study and then
meets again as a graduate. He begins timid and wide-eyed, eager to learn from
Mephistopheles, who is disguised as Faust, and surprised when his mentor talks
obscenely about a doctor's female patients.
When you see him again, as Baccalaureus (a graduate), how changed he is! He knows
everything, despises his elders, and sounds like a student radical of the 1960s when he
says that anyone over thirty is as good as dead. He personifies, as Goethe told his
secretary, Eckermann, the arrogance of youth. Mephistopheles backs away from him
because he's so obnoxious.
l THE EMPEROR
The Emperor is found only in Part II, where he appears in two of the five acts. The
character derives from the traditional Faust story, which includes a visit to an Emperor's
court, where Faust and Mephistopheles amaze the court with their magic tricks.
Goethe's Emperor is an incompetent, vain ruler who seeks personal pleasure at the
expense of his kingdom. The Emperor permits Mephistopheles to trick him into signing
an order authorizing the printing of paper money, thus ruining the state economy. Then
he allows a rival emperor to collect a rebellious army, and again acts helplessly until
Mephistopheles uses magic to defeat them. When you see him for the last time, he is
submitting to the blackmail of the Archbishop, while protesting under his breath.
l HELEN
Helen is not so much a character as an embodied myth, as she herself recognizes. She is
the heroine of Homer's Iliad, a great Greek epic poem. (When Paris fell in love with her
and stole her from her husband King Menelaus of Sparta, the Trojan War was ignited.
Helen's former suitors had sworn an oath to defend her husband's rights. They formed
an army that defeated the Trojans and reunited Helen with Menelaus.) In Faust, she is
afraid for her own safety, as well as for that of the chorus. But she is courageous, as you
see when she agrees to seek help from the medieval knight, who turns out to be Faust.
She shows her queenly graciousness when she forgives Lynceus, the watchman, for not
announcing her arrival.
In the end, Helen is defeated by her own beauty. As she says, beauty and good fortune
do not mix. You feel her intense emotion as she embraces Faust one last time and
follows their son, Euphorion, to the underworld.
[Faust: Parts I and II Contents]
OTHER ELEMENTS
FORM AND STRUCTURE
Faust is a verse drama in two parts. Part I has three preliminary sections (Dedication, Prelude
in the Theater, and Prologue in Heaven) and twenty-five scenes, each with a name, usually
describing the setting. Part II, like many conventional plays, is divided into five acts, and each
act contains scenes with descriptive names. The total length of Faust I and II is 12,110 lines of
poetry. It would take some twenty hours for the play to be performed uncut!
Because the play does not have the usual act and scene structure throughout, the lines are
numbered consecutively from beginning to end, like those in a poem.
There are three major questions regarding the structure of Faust: Is it one play or two? Is it a
play at all? Is it a tragedy?
IS FAUST ONE PLAY OR TWO?
You'll want to make up your own mind about the unity of Faust. Some readers argue that the
two parts are separate and should be treated as such. It's true that the story of Part I is better
known than anything in Part II, perhaps because of Gounod's opera, Faust, which is based on
Part I.
Other readers believe that the two parts form an essential unity. The parts are divided
artificially, because they were composed at different times in Goethe's life. These readers
believe that if you separate one part from the other, you'll miss major themes.
The original Faust story had a fairly simple structure. Faust, or Faustus, as he was originally
called- the Latin word faustus means "lucky"- made a bargain with the Devil and signed it in
blood. The Devil takes Faust to a student tavern- where the two fool the students with
magically produced wine- and then to the Emperor's court, where Faust magically calls Helen
of Troy from the dead and falls in love with her. At the end of twenty-four years, Faust vainly
calls on God's mercy as Mephistopheles drags him away to Hell.
Some of the problems in Goethe's Faust are caused by the different structures of the two parts,
as well as by the change in subject matter from Part I to Part II. Part I has no act divisions and
the scenes are differentiated by names, not scene numbers. In it, Faust makes a bet with the
Devil- the Devil will be his servant, and he will possess his soul at death unless Faust is never
able to say he is satisfied. The rest of Part I concerns the seduction and ruin of Gretchen by
Faust. In the end, Gretchen is saved.
The atmosphere of Part I is gloomy. The action takes place in and around the German
university town where Faust lives, except for the scenes in the Witch's Kitchen and on the
mountain, where the Walpurgis Night celebrations are held. It is also unified by the characters'
preoccupation with their relationship to God. Faust explains his religious faith in his Credo,
and attempts to translate the Gospel of St. John. Mephistopheles has to admit that he is part of
God's scheme, with a duty to stir up mankind. Gretchen has a conventional, simple faith that
increases the pathos of her suffering.
Part I, therefore, seems basically to consist of one piece. The impression of unity is even
stronger if you interpret the last few lines to mean that Mephistopheles is taking Faust away to
Hell as Gretchen is executed. Part I also was a product of the "Sturm und Drang" phase of
Goethe's writing and is full of emotion, a sign of Romanticism.
Part II has a different structure and much more varied subject matter. It has the conventional
five acts divided into scenes, but, again, these have names instead of numbers. In it, Faust
serves an Emperor, marries Helen of Troy, becomes a successful man, and, in the end, gains
redemption. The work for the Emperor and the appearance of Helen of Troy are from the
original Faust story. But the union of Classical and Romantic, in the marriage of Faust and
Helen and the birth of their son; the story of Homunculus; the Carnival masque and the making
of paper money at the Emperor's court; the Classical Walpurgis Night; Faust's land-reclamation
project; the tragedy of Baucis and Philemon; and the salvation of Faust, are Goethe's own
inventions.
Some elements are clearly intended to produce unity. For example, the two Walpurgis Nights
are balanced against one another. In addition, Gretchen and Helen are placed in contrast- the
simple German maiden and the legendary Greek beauty. The Prologue has its counterpart in the
final scene, where Faust's soul is carried off to Heaven.
There is no doubt that if you read the two parts separately you will have a different experience
from what you would have if you read Parts I and II together. The question is, what kind of
unity does the work have? You may find yourself on the fence, believing in a weak unity of the
two parts but convinced that some sections are more successful than others.
IS FAUST A PLAY?
Faust doesn't have the structure you probably expect in a play- a rising action that reaches a
climax, and then a falling action during which the plot is resolved. It has been called a "cosmic
vision or dream," and readers have thought of it as a series of episodes in dramatic formsomewhat
like an epic.
An epic is a poem or narrative on the largest scale, dealing with national origins and heroes (as
do Homer's Iliad and Odyssey and Virgil's Aeneid) or man's relation to God (as do Dante's
Divine Comedy and Milton's Paradise Lost). Epics can have the structure of a journey (for
example, the Odyssey is a journey). Faust is a journey through the life of a hero who is meant
to symbolize Western man. Its episodic structure reflects the succession of events in Faust's
life. Although Faust may seem to lack a governing form, certain features give it internal
structure. The diagram shows a structure that some readers perceive as holding the whole
drama together.
Faust begins on the left side in despair. His spirits rise with his love for Gretchen but are
dashed when she dies. He moves from the sphere of personal, subjective action to intellectual
action as he achieves union with Helen. Again, he loses his love, but this time on a higher
level- he is less overwhelmed than he was by Gretchen's death. Finally, his immortal part is
taken to Heaven in a mystical ceremony of salvation.
Notice that the diagram indicates no connection between Faust and Heaven at the beginning:
Faust attains Heaven through the jagged upward progress of his life. You will realize, as you
read the drama, that it isn't quite as neat as this diagram suggests. The intellectual and political
actions overlap, and Faust's enjoyment of his reclaimed land occupies only a part of Act V. But
the diagram will help guide you in the unfamiliar territory of Goethe's creation.
IS FAUST A TRAGEDY?
Goethe subtitled Faust "A Tragedy," thereby presenting his readers with a puzzle. In what
sense is Faust a tragedy? To the Greeks, who developed the literary form called tragedy, as
well as to the Elizabethans (Shakespeare and his contemporaries), tragedy meant a play dealing
with the fall of a great man as a result of a fatal flaw in his character. But Faust is saved at the
end.
Since Faust represents mankind, is Goethe saying that man's life is tragic because man must
always strive and err without satisfaction? If so, why is Faust carried off to Heaven at the end?
Perhaps Goethe merely meant by "tragedy" a drama of serious and lofty subject because he
wanted Faust to be treated as the highest form of art. Tragedy, like epic, has traditionally been
regarded as the most demanding form for both writer and audience, dealing with the deepest
philosophical and moral questions.
SETTING
If you're asked where the action of Faust takes place, you're justified in answering
"Everywhere!" The action takes place in Heaven; in Germany and the Greek Islands; in the air
above the earth; in mountains, forests, caves, rivers and river valleys, and the sea. Its settings
are those required by the story as it moves, episode by episode, through the epic tale of Faust's
life.
As with space, so also with time. Faust is a Renaissance scholar, and the first few scenes retain
a rough sense of that historical period. But the Walpurgis Night is timeless, especially in its
relationship to Gretchen's story. The Emperor's court seems roughly contemporary with
Goethe's time, for the introduction of paper money is discussed. But with Faust's journey down
to the Mothers and the subsequent raising of the ghosts of Helen and Paris, things become
hazy.
Time has no meaning in the Helen act, where Faust, who belongs in the sixteenth century,
becomes a medieval knight from a period three hundred years earlier in order to meet a
mythological queen from the times of classical Greek literature. Between them they produce a
son, who resembles the poet Byron, Goethe's contemporary- all without any break in the
action!
After this, nothing surprises the reader, not even the onstage transporting of Faust's soul to
Heaven. The final scene has no possible historical time, for it combines the fathers of the
Church, biblical characters, and Gretchen from Part I.
Goethe felt free to place the story of Faust's life in such a vast setting because Faust represents
all mankind. He has all the vices and virtues of mankind on a grand scale. He is supposed to be
larger than life and you need to see him in a setting of cosmic scale. He is constantly striving to
reach beyond the limits of the physical world and humanity, constantly striving for
understanding and fulfillment- and he never gives up.
THEMES
Faust has a general overarching theme- man's life on earth and quest for knowledge and power.
Naturally, such an ambitious theme must include many subthemes. Some of these are listed
below, and you will be able to add to the list as you read the play.
1. CONSTANT STRIVING
The stories on which Faust is based were cautionary tales for Christians: Man must not
seek to go beyond the limits set by God. In those stories, the Devil promises Faust
unlimited power for a limited time and then, as repayment, takes Faust's soul to Hell.
Goethe's Faust does not contain such a bargain with the Devil. Instead, it has two
wagers. The Lord bets Mephistopheles that he won't be able to make Faust deviate from
"the appointed course," and Faust bets Mephistopheles that he won't be able to make
any moment so pleasurable that Faust will cry out for time to stop. Thus, the bet
between Faust and Mephistopheles concerns fulfillment. If Faust is ever tempted to stop
reaching for something new, he will forfeit his soul. But he doesn't lose it, because he is
never satisfied, emotionally, spiritually, or intellectually.
You may have heard the expression "the Faustian spirit." It refers to the restless striving
for knowledge and power. The Faustian spirit cannot stop. It is human to strive ever
upward and, unfortunately, often to make mistakes in the process. The striving theme
raises an important question: Does human striving inevitably lead to destruction and
self-destruction, or is there some other human quality to balance these effects?
2. CLASSICAL VS. ROMANTIC SPIRITS
In Western thought since the eighteenth century there's been a conflict between the
Classical and the Romantic. Romantic means what is emotional, subjective,
spontaneous, springing from the common people, like Gretchen. Faust's relationship
with her is intense but destructive, for both of them give way to uncontrolled emotions.
The atmosphere of Faust Part I reflects the mood of Romanticism. The Classical spirit is
associated with the aristocracy of Helen, traditional formality like that of Greek tragedy,
restraint, and the subordination of the individual to the collective good.
The marriage of Faust, representing Romanticism typical of Germany and Northern
Europe, and Helen, representing Classicism typical of Greece and Southern Europe,
shows the tension between the two sides. The marriage can take place only in the
imagination, and its products are short-lived, like the poet Euphorion.
Like the Faustian theme, the tension between the "Classical" and the "Romantic" spirits
is a constant feature of our lives. A vivid example was the 1960s student movement,
which in the name of individual freedom questioned social authority and restraint.
3. "WOMAN ETERNAL / DRAWS US ON HIGH"
Goethe believed that the guiding force of the universe is love, and he knew that
throughout Western cultural history, woman has been the most tangible, understandable
symbol of love. Think, for example, of the centrality of the "earth mother" or "mother
goddess" to ancient cult religions. Or of the importance of the Virgin Mary to
Christianity. And don't forget that Dante, in his Divine Comedy, is admitted into
Paradise by his model of pure love, Beatrice. In Faust, Helen of Troy is the symbol of
pure love and beauty, while Gretchen is actually Faust's savior. Even the mysterious,
primal forces of the earth are called the Earth Mothers. Woman Eternal, then, seems to
be the symbol of divine love and forgiveness and of the principle of creation. The
symbol of Woman Eternal triumphantly leads man not to strive for the world beyond its
reach, but toward creation, beauty, joy, and love.
4. LIFE IS SIMULTANEOUSLY COMIC AND TRAGIC
You may often wonder why Goethe called Faust a tragedy. Much of it is hilariously
funny, especially when Mephistopheles is around, but also in the interludes like the
Walpurgis Night's Dream and the carnival masque at the Emperor's court. Wagner and
the Student / Baccalaureus are clearly figures of fun. Homunculus's wit sparkles like the
light he sends out from his test tube. The comic spirit is an essential part of life and
therefore of Faust. By making so much of Faust comic, Goethe is making a statement
about his picture of human life. It is not tragic exclusively, any more than it is Romantic
exclusively. It is comic even while it is tragic.
5. PEACE AND SALVATION ARE FOUND IN THE NATURAL WORLD
Faust expresses a mystical connection between humans and the natural world. The Earth
Spirit is Faust's ideal. Some readers believe that Mephistopheles was sent by the Earth
Spirit, so that he is an essential element of the natural world. Look at the settings of
Faust's monologues in Part II- a landscape, a mountain top. Faust is carried up to heaven
over mountain gorges. The Classical Walpurgis Night, with its earthquakes, meteor, and
procession across the Aegean Sea, is a celebration of nature as the origin of human life
and its continual refreshment.
6. "GOD'S SOVEREIGN WORKS STILL TOWER."
Although Faust does not convey a traditional Christian message, it does express
Goethe's view of God's place in the universe. The Lord is a thoroughly tolerant "old
gent," in Mephistopheles' words, who has set man in the right direction and knows he
can't be lured from it. In this universe, the Devil is part of the scheme. He has an
essential role- he keeps man from getting too "lax and mellow." This theology is
directly opposed to the Christian view, which sees the Devil as a force dedicated to
destroying God's good works.
Because God is infinitely tolerant, man is saved so long as he strives. Gretchen is saved
by God (it is a voice from above that cries "Redeemed!"), no matter how much she is
condemned by her peers and by the law. Mephistopheles cannot touch her, just as he
can't touch Faust's soul. He will always lose, but he will always keep on trying. That is
the Devil's job. It is also important to remember here that, unlike in the traditional Faust
legend, Goethe's Faust is saved.
STYLE
The great variety of styles in Faust reflects the range of the poem's characters and settings.
Some readers have said that Faust contains more poetic meters (measured, patterned
arrangement of syllables) and forms than any other single work. Others think that it is
stylistically too exuberant, that its large number of styles sometimes interferes with
communicating a clear message.
The styles include a sixteenth-century German form called Knuttelvers or Knittelvers
(doggerel), which is irregular, though rhymed; ballads and songs, often as simple as folk songs;
the trimeter (a line of verse with three measured feet) of classical tragedy, as well as the
strophes (stanzas of the chorus as it moves to the right or the left of the stage) of the choruses;
Shakespeare's blank verse; the Alexandrines (iambic line of twelve syllables) used by the
seventeenth-century French playwright Jean-Baptiste Racine; and prose (for one memorable
scene). Gretchen expresses her feelings in a series of ballads and lyrics, which convey the folk
simplicity of her character.
Faust contains numerous references to the Bible and ancient literature. It may be difficult for
you as a modern student to follow these allusions, since the Bible and Greek and Roman
literature no longer occupy the central place in school that they occupied in Goethe's time.
Nevertheless, you may find yourself amazed at how modern a play Faust is. Respond to it as
you would to a new work by a contemporary playwright- for, in spirit, Goethe is one of us.
The translation of Faust used for this Study Guide is by Walter Arndt (New York: W. W.
Norton, 1976). It was chosen because it tries to faithfully reproduce the different rhythms and
verse forms of the original. Of course, a translation that tries to reproduce the original poetry
must lead to compromises, because a translator must at times use words with slightly different
meaning than the original. Also, expressions used to fit a meter may sometimes seem artificial
and strange. Some readers, indeed, think that a verse translation is simply too difficult to do
well, and they prefer a prose translation that conveys the meaning accurately.
If you do not read German, the best way for you to get close to the meaning is to compare
several translations. There are some fifty translations of Faust in English, the vast majority of
them translations of Part I alone. Comparing three or four of them is time-consuming, so you
shouldn't do it with every line; but some crucial lines need the perspective of at least two or
more versions. All translation is also to some degree interpretation, because the word chosen in
English is rarely exactly equivalent to the German. The choice of a word is influenced by the
translator's view of the poet's meaning.
To give you an idea of the variation in translations, here are versions by four translators of the
Lord's important words in the Prologue in Heaven.
Walter Arndt: Man ever errs the while he strives.
Philip Wayne: For man must strive, and striving he must err.
Carlyle F. MacIntyre: Man is doomed to err as long as he strives.
Randall Jarrell: A man must make mistakes, as long as he keeps trying.
The differences between one English translation and another can be more a matter of style than
of meaning. The feeling of one translation may be very different from another. Take, for
example, lines 338-39:
Of all the spirits of negation
The rogue has been least onerous to my mind.
(Arndt)
Of all the spirits of negation
The rogue is least of burdens to be borne.
(Wayne)
Of all the spirits of denial
The joker is the last that I eschew.
(Louis MacNeice)
Of all the spirits that deny
The mischief-maker weighs upon me least.
(Jarrell)
All the translators refer to Mephistopheles as the spirit of negation or denial, and the basic
meaning of the passage is the same in each translation, but the images of the Devil as a "rogue"
and as a "joker" are very different. Your image of Mephistopheles as a "rogue" or as a "joker"
can influence your interpretations of the play.
Because translations differ from the original you should be careful not to attribute to Goethe
what may, in fact, be the translator's interpretation. Similarly, be careful not to overemphasize a
few words or phrases as you interpret Faust, because you may be dealing more with the
translator than with Goethe. The larger patterns of the drama, rather than the small details of
language, will most likely give you a better idea of the original German text.
SOURCES
The Faust legends stem from the life of a real Faust- Johannes Faustus, a German student of
dubious reputation who lived from 1480 to 1540. Some of his contemporaries spoke of him as
a faker, or medieval con man, who lived by his wits. Others, however, thought him a magician
in league with evil spirits. He was reputed to travel about with a little dog that was really a
devil.
Soon after his death, the real Dr. Faustus disappeared into the realm of legend. He became the
scholar who sold his soul to the Devil in exchange for universal knowledge and magical power.
Martin Luther, the leader of the Protestant Reformation, was, for example, one of those who
believed Faustus had been in league with the Devil. The story was popular for its Christian
moral: Faustus was damned for pursuing worldly knowledge instead of studying the Scriptures.
By 1587 a Faustbuch (Faust Book) had appeared, a collection of the various tales being told
about the wicked magician. The book was enormously popular, both in Germany and
elsewhere. Later, Faust became a popular character in puppet shows filled with slapstick
comedy. But, despite the comedy, the Faust plays always ended with Faust being dragged off
by the Devil, damned because he sought forbidden knowledge. In addition, numerous
handbooks of magic appeared, bearing Faust's name. Of course, they always had instructions
on how to avoid the pact with the Devil.
The German poet Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-1781) was the first to make Faust a hero
who was saved rather than damned. The redemption was completed by Goethe, in whose great
work Faust represents the virtue of human aspiration. In Goethe's play, the longing for
knowledge that had once led to Faust's damnation leads to Faust's salvation.
Goethe probably saw Faust puppet plays during his childhood and may have produced one of
his own in a puppet theater that his grandmother had given him. Faust plays were a popular
folk entertainment. They were not high art, not the kinds of plays to be found in court theaters.
They owed their popularity to hell-fire scenes and magic tricks performed by the devils. The
literary source- that is, written text- for these Faust plays was The History of Dr. Johann
Faustus, published in Frankfurt in 1587, but it is unlikely that Goethe was familiar with it. He
probably did know Christopher Marlowe's play, The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus,
written about 1590, in which Dr. Faustus is dragged off to Hell.
In these stories, Faust is a learned scholar who uses the arts of black magic to raise the Devil.
He makes a bargain with the Devil, signing his name in his own blood. The Devil will have
Faust's soul after a certain number of years, but during those years the Devil will do whatever
Faust commands. The story was a moral tale for Christians, for it warned them against trying to
have more than earthly power. In its frightening climax, it depicted Faust being dragged into
the fiery mouth of Hell. Yet the story was also a great audience pleaser, because it offered
opportunities for magic tricks at the expense of authority figures like the Emperor.
The Gretchen story, which Goethe added from his own experience, is not part of the original
Faust plays. But the Helen story does appear in the Faust legend. In some versions, Dr. Faustus
raises the spirit of Helen and lives with her for twenty years. The Emperor, too, is part of the
original story. Almost everything else comes from Goethe's extensive reading. The figures of
the Walpurgis Night come from his study of alchemy, witchcraft, and magic. Those in the
Classical Walpurgis Night come from Greek and Roman literature, as do Baucis and Philemon.
The Three Mighty Men are found in the Old Testament, and the figures that conduct Faust's
soul upward are from Christian tradition.
Goethe derived not only his characters but also his style from his reading. You will find echoes
of Shakespeare (the character Ariel is borrowed from The Tempest), Dante, and Byron, as well
as a direct imitation of the Greek playwright Euripides.
[The Faust Legend]
THE STORY
THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES
[Faust: Parts I and II Contents] [The Study Web Home Page]
© Copyright 1985 by Barron's Educational Series, Inc.
Electronically Enhanced Text © Copyright 1993, World Library, Inc.
Faust: Parts I and II
Johann Wolfgang Goethe
THE STORY
PART I
Part I of Faust is divided into twenty-five scenes. The scenes have descriptive names, not
numbers. Most scenes are short. Line breaks are used in this guide where scenes are long
enough to be treated in parts. The first three scenes stand outside the main drama. The most
important of them for the meaning of Faust is the Prologue in Heaven.
DEDICATION
Goethe worked on Faust intermittently throughout his long life, sometimes setting it aside for a
number of years. The poem that constitutes the Dedication was written after Goethe had left
Faust virtually untouched for more than twenty years, from 1775 to 1797. The Dedication
reflects his mood as he speaks to the ideas, people, and emotions connected with the earlier
manuscript. He is reminded of lovers and friends, most now dead, who had read the earlier
version of Faust. These memories fill him with emotion and seem to make the present fade
away.
NOTE: Faust contains numerous poetic rhythms, or meters. If you don't understand German,
it's difficult to appreciate the meters and the contribution they make to the play's effect. A
translation that follows the original German meters, with their different fine lengths and rhyme
schemes, will give you some idea of Goethe's poetic genius. The Dedication is written in what
is called ottava rima, because it has eight lines, the first six rhyming ababab and the last two
rhyming with each other, cc.
PRELUDE IN THE THEATER
There's an important message in this Prelude that you shouldn't miss. No matter how fanciful
Faust may seem (its characters include animals, spirits, angels, witches, and God himself, while
its settings include mountain tops, palaces, and Greek islands), and even though it is written as
poetry, it is a play and Goethe intended it for the theater.
The three characters of the Prelude have three different views as to what makes a good play.
The Director, who wants a commercial success, considers what the audience will pay for and
what they want in the theater. He calls for plot, action, variety, and spectacle.
In the Poet's remarks, you can see the Romantic theory of poetry. Poetry is the highest essence
of things, he says, since it is concerned not with ordinary affairs, but with the most deeply felt
emotions and the highest, most abstract principles which make the play meaningful for people
in all times and places.
The Merry Person (called Comic Actor or Comedian in some translations) laughs at the Poet's
argument. Don't worry about eternal values and posterity, he says. The successful playwright
draws from real life and makes people laugh.
The Director cuts the debate short by calling for action. You can imagine him gesturing to
include the whole stage as he promises that the entire universe, including Heaven and Hell, will
be presented on his stage.
PROLOGUE IN HEAVEN
As if to prove that the Director isn't exaggerating, the next scene takes place in Heaven. God is
enjoying the songs of his archangels who praise the wonders of His creation. You may be
surprised to find Mephistopheles, the Devil, in Heaven as well, but remember that in Christian
theology he is a "fallen angel." He is a cynic who shifts the conversation from the praises of
God to a criticism of humanity. Men are unhappy, he says, because God has given them
intelligence and reason. He compares them to grasshoppers that constantly jump about and
stick their noses into everything.
Abruptly, God asks whether Mephistopheles knows Faust. Mephistopheles does know him and
thinks he's a strange man who's never satisfied. Mephistopheles asserts that Faust could easily
be turned away from God. God is tolerant of Faust's confusion, saying "Man ever errs the while
he strives." In other words, so long as man continues to search after truth, he will probably
make mistakes. Mephistopheles wagers that he can corrupt Faust, and God says that as long as
Faust lives, Mephistopheles may try to corrupt him. Both are confident of winning the wager.
God even encourages Mephistopheles to corrupt Faust.
After God and the angels have disappeared, Mephistopheles addresses the audience. You
already know that he is a cynic and that there is probably a mocking tone in his voice when he
refers to God as the "old gent" and comments on what a compliment it is for "a swell [an
important person] like him [to be] so man-to-man with the Devil!"
NOTE: All the Faust stories tell of a bet between Faust and the Devil, but only Goethe's Faust
includes a wager between God and the Devil. Does this scene remind you of the wager between
God and Satan in the Old Testament Book of Job? In both Job and Faust, God, the creator,
allows the Devil, the negator, to try to corrupt an "upright man." The Satan of the Old
Testament tries to lure Job away from God by destroying his health and possessions, but you
will see that Goethe's Mephistopheles will try to ruin Faust by putting pleasure in his reach.
You might also contrast Goethe's Faust, who constantly searches and strives for
understanding, with Job, who blindly accepts his fate. In fact, Goethe introduces you in the
Prologue to the idea that man must be constantly striving. It is this striving toward absolute
truth and satisfaction that leads man toward his highest development. The most dangerous sin
is inaction, or accepting any condition of life as satisfactory.
You will notice that Goethe uses a great deal of Christian symbolism, and many wonder about
his religious attitudes. His religious philosophy is not traditionally Christian, but has been
called "religious paganism," meaning that he has religious feelings but doesn't accept any
specific beliefs.
NIGHT
LINES 354-520
This is your first view of Faust, in his dark and gloomy study. You'll recognize the Romantic
atmosphere right away. Faust is wearing the black gown and square hat of the late medieval
scholar.
NOTE: Although Faust is portrayed as a medieval scholar, he is voicing the preoccupations of
the late eighteenth century. Toward the end of the century, a new movement, called
Romanticism, opposed the rationality of the earlier generation, called the Age of Reason. The
Romantics admired intensity of feeling and individual insight. They recognized that not all
knowledge was based on logical inquiry. For them, the occult (which focused on casting spells,
conjuring spirits, studying astrology, interpreting symbols in magic books, reading signs into
natural events, and even taking drugs to induce hallucinations) represented sources of
knowledge scorned by Classical thinkers.
The original Faust story, published in 1587, established the tradition that Faust was a teacher in
a fifteenth- or sixteenth-century university. He begins this way in Goethe's tragedy, but time
and place soon become unclear.
Faust is not satisfied with what his learning has brought him. He feels that he knows nothing
and that teaching others is impossible. He wants to know what is not taught in books, to
experience direct communion with the spirits of nature.
NOTE: This monologue is the first in a series of speeches by Faust alone on the stage. Each of
the speeches marks a different stage in Faust's understanding of his experiences. You should
keep track of Faust's monologues so that you can trace his intellectual and emotional
development. This scene in his study is a touchstone against which you can measure the later
monologues, such as the speech addressed to the Earth Spirit in Forest and Cave in Part I or
the monologue in Pleasing Landscape, Part II, Act I.
Opening a book written by a magician of the Middle Ages, Faust first ponders a design
representing the Universe, or Macrocosm, and then finds the symbol of the Earth Spirit. This
spirit is largely Goethe's own invention and what it means is largely for you to decide. Some
readers think that the Earth Spirit is the "guardian spirit" of life which actively lives within
nature. Faust brings the Earth Spirit to life, apparently by pronouncing a magic spell, but then
he fails miserably to impress the Spirit as an equal.
Does this mean that the Earth Spirit doesn't want to deal with man, only with other spirits? Or
does the Spirit think Faust is a companion worthy only for Mephistopheles, not for purer and
more powerful spirits? The conversation between Faust and the Spirit is crucial. Faust exclaims
that he feels close to the "spirit of deeds," but the Spirit scornfully rejects him, saying that
while he may be close to the Spirit, he does not understand it.
The rejection will have serious consequences, but for the moment Faust is distracted. Wagner,
his research assistant, interrupts the scene.
LINES 521-601
You'll recognize Wagner right away as the earnest student who works hard but never really
gets the point. He and Faust talk past one another because Wagner insists on asking how to
make effective speeches, while Faust is telling him that deep feeling alone is necessary and
sufficient.
Wagner is finally persuaded to go back to bed. He asks Faust, however, to continue the
discussion tomorrow, Easter Day. Wagner's last line is typical of people like him: "Though I
know much, I would know everything."
LINES 602-807
As Faust acknowledges, Wagner took his mind off his bitter disappointment at the Earth
Spirit's rejection. In fact, you might see the two scenes as parallel. The Earth Spirit treated
Faust much as Faust, on a lower level, treated Wagner.
But now Faust has to face his despair. He is not a spirit but a man subject to emotions and
death. As he becomes more and more upset, Faust looks for help in his books, his scientific
instruments, and the manuscript he was studying. Looking around the room, he notices a small
bottle of poison, which seems the answer to his restlessness. He takes down a beautiful cup that
had been used for ceremonial feasts in Faust's family, fills it with the poison, and is about to
drink it when the sound of bells bursts in from outside.
In some Christian churches, Easter is celebrated with a daybreak service, so that the rising of
Christ from the dead is symbolized by the rising sun. This service has just begun, and its joyful
choruses intervene in time to stop Faust from committing suicide.
You can imagine an antiphonal setting (one in which groups or individuals call and respond to
one another) between Faust and the choruses. As they sing of the resurrection of Christ, Faust
puts his cup of poison down and expresses his feelings about Easter. It's not so much that he
responds to the religious meaning of the songs, but that the music reminds him of his youth. On
this Easter morning, Faust is saved from death.
NOTE: The Easter service is an example of Goethe's use of Christian symbols for his own
purposes. Easter is a ceremony of rebirth, just what is needed to bring Faust back from
despair. The choruses of angels, women, and disciples all express Christian promises of
consolation and redemption through Christ's resurrection, but they are only symbols of
spiritual renewal, not expressions of Goethe's faith.
OUTSIDE THE CITY GATE
Imagine this as a scene in a movie, with the camera isolating groups of people in a large
bustling crowd. As Faust moves to the foreground, the camera illustrates his speech, especially
its effect on the crowds of brightly dressed people. Clearly, Faust is a new man, speaking from
the heart when he exults with the crowd: "Here I am Man, am free to be!"
The peasants revere Faust because he and his father, a physician, had helped them during the
plague. Faust says, however, that he and his father don't deserve much praise because their
potions caused death as well as cured illness. Here is an early reference to the main theme, that
the search for knowledge can cause destruction. Faust is very much aware of his limitations.
His reference to the deaths caused by his potions reminds Faust of his feelings of futility. He
tells Wagner that he feels a division within himself. He is pulled toward the world of action and
his fellow man, and at the same time toward the ideals that go beyond time and place. He wants
a magic cape that will transport him beyond his physical limitations.
NOTE: Conflict between two equally balanced sets of values is part of human life. As Faust
expresses it here, the conflict is between the world of action and the world of thought. Faust
wrestles with himself throughout the play as part of his endless striving. You can see the
conflict in the contrast between, on the one hand, Wagner's learning for the sake of learning
and, on the other, Faust's admiration for the "deed" and rejection of the people's simple faith
in favor of the truth. Do you feel the same conflict in your life? Do you feel there are two forces
at war in your mind? How do you resolve them?
You'll remember that Mephistopheles described these two driving forces in lines 304-05 of the
Prologue. You won't be surprised that Mephistopheles first appears to Faust shortly after
Faust makes his "two souls" speech. Faust seems to be ready for Mephistopheles.
Just as Faust expresses his wish for escape into a free life, he sees a black poodle. Faust senses
that there's something strange about this dog, which follows him home.
STUDY
In his study, Faust decides to translate the Gospel of St. John into German. He has difficulties
with the first sentence, "In the beginning was the Word." Faust doesn't think of the Word as the
origin of things. Words are merely a means of expressing essence, and for Faust, essence is
action, the Deed. His reasoning has led him back to the Old Testament idea of "In the
beginning God created the world." Creation is action, the ruling force of the universe.
The poodle is restless and growls while Faust translates the Bible. Faust is about to put him out
when the dog suddenly changes shape and becomes a threatening monster. As other spirits cry
outside, Faust casts spells on the monster. Nothing works until Faust brings out the sign of the
Trinity. At this, a cloud of vapor obscures the monster, and Mephistopheles appears, dressed as
a traveling scholar.
NOTE: It is important that Faust is not just a passive bystander in Mephistopheles' efforts to
claim him. The Devil didn't reveal himself to Faust, but Faust recognized him and conjured
him up. Is it significant that Mephistopheles appears to Faust as a traveling scholar? Does this
disguise make Faust feel comfortable with him?
Although Mephistopheles doesn't reveal his identity, he refers to himself as part of a force
made up of both good and evil. Faust, who imagines things as wholes, has trouble thinking of
any being as only part of a greater scheme of things.
After their talk, Faust discovers that Mephistopheles can't leave because of the magic sign by
the door. Mephistopheles' respect for rules gives Faust the idea that he may be able to make a
bargain with him. Faust becomes more and more excited because he has the Devil in his power,
but Mephistopheles is anxious to leave. Finally, Mephistopheles calls up a choir of spirits who
sing Faust to sleep while some mice help the Devil escape.
NOTE: Some readers observe that Faust's belief that Mephistopheles' appearance was only a
dream means that the Devil represents hidden parts of Faust's nature. (The Romantics believed
that the hidden or "other" side of man's nature was revealed in dreams.) If Faust's nature
represents man's nature, then the Devil must represent hidden parts of all of us. What do you
think?
STUDY
LINES 1529-1850
When Mephistopheles returns, ready to take Faust out on the town, he finds that Faust's mood
has changed. His negative mood of frustration has returned. He talks of death, and
Mephistopheles has to remind him that he didn't commit suicide when he had the chance.
Faust's complaints merge in a horrifying curse on all human motivations, from thought through
fame and riches to patience itself.
The terrifying moment is intensified by mysterious voices of unseen spirits that first mourn for
"beauty destroyed" and then urge renewal. Mephistopheles seizes his chance. He recognizes
that a man in the depths of despair is ready for a bet with the Devil. He offers to become Faust's
faithful servant and, when Faust wants to know what the Devil will get if he wins,
Mephistopheles says that he wants "equal worth" after Faust's death. Presumably, he means
that Faust will be his servant in Hell.
Faust makes the famous wager with the Devil that will allow Mephistopheles to collect his soul
if Faust loses. Faust, however, makes one crucial change in the wording of the bet. If
Mephistopheles ever makes anything so pleasant that Faust cries out with desire to have time
stop so that he may enjoy it, then Faust will lose the wager and die at that moment.
NOTE: The idea of a totally fulfilled moment is central to Faust. Remember that when the Lord
makes his wager with Mephistopheles, he says that man will always make mistakes while he
strives. God also says that man must strive continually, and that a Devil like Mephistopheles
functions to keep man moving. Mephistopheles' advantage lies in providing life's best
experiences for Faust, so Faust may be tempted to call for time to stop and thereby lose to
Mephistopheles. You might want to draw up a list of the experiences Mephistopheles provides
and consider whether he left any out that might have satisfied Faust.
Faust and Mephistopheles sign the pact in blood. Faust is anxious to experience all of life, to
fulfill all of human potential, at which point he would be like God. Mephistopheles has to use
persistent argument and exercise patience to get Faust away from his identification with
"mankind's loftiest plane," which is unattainable, and down to human pleasures, which are
available.
At that moment one of Faust's students knocks on the door. Since Faust is in no mood for
students, Mephistopheles offers to play his part.
LINES 1851-2072
The scene between the unsuspecting student and Mephistopheles pokes fun at university study
and scholarship in general. Mephistopheles says that logicians and philosophers attempt to
analyze and pin down thinking but don't understand its intuitive components and, therefore,
produce students who can't think at all. The student shows signs of understanding the
importance of the concept, but Mephistopheles smothers his objection in a stream of words
about words. Mephistopheles then signs the student's book with the words "You will be like a
god, and come to know good and evil." The Devil believes that man tries too hard to
understand all of life, to be like God. And that is what makes man unhappy. Mephistopheles
thinks man would be better off concentrating on physical pleasure. (Remember this scene with
the student. He returns in Part II, and you'll be surprised at his development- or not surprised,
depending on your view of academic institutions.)
Mephistopheles and Faust now prepare to leave on their first venture together into the world
outside Faust's study. When Mephistopheles says, "The small world, then the great we shall
peruse," he is forecasting the shape of the drama. In the rest of Part I, Faust explores personal
relationships, the small world. Then, in Part II, he moves into politics and technology, as well
as an expedition to the time of the Trojan War.
AUERBACH'S TAVERN IN LEIPZIG
A group of students are drinking in a tavern, singing bits of traditional songs. Mephistopheles
magically produces wine by drilling holes in the table. Finally, he sets them quarreling with
each other and disappears with Faust, who is disgusted by the whole episode.
You may wonder why this scene is here. Some elements of Faust belong to the original legend.
Among them are Faust's dabbling in the occult, the pact with the Devil written in blood, scenes
with Wagner, the Emperor's court, the resurrection of Helen of Troy, and Mephistopheles'
magic tricks with gullible students or courtiers. Thus, a scene where Mephistopheles reveals his
powers is traditional. Furthermore, Auerbach's Tavern was a real place that had long been
associated with the Faust legend, and its walls were decorated with paintings representing
Faust's adventures.
WITCH'S KITCHEN
Mephistopheles takes Faust to a Witch's Kitchen complete with boiling cauldrons and longtailed
monkeys. There, Mephistopheles gives Faust a potion that makes him look and feel
much younger. As Faust walks around the kitchen, he comes upon a magic mirror and finds
himself fascinated by it. In the mirror he sees the image of the loveliest woman he can imagine.
At a distance the image is clear, but it becomes misty and remote when Faust approaches. By
the end of this scene, the Devil has prepared Faust for the love affair that will dominate the rest
of Part I.
This is the first appearance of an important theme, the beauty and love of women and their
influence on men. For Goethe, women represent an ideal that brings out the best in men. Sexual
love is therefore a symbol of union, and the vision in the mirror represents the Feminine as an
abstraction. You will see how that abstraction is embodied in the two women Faust falls in love
with- Gretchen in Part I and Helen of Troy in Part II.
Why does Mephistopheles make Faust thirty years younger? Is it only to make Faust more
attractive and energetic and thus to make the rest of Part I believable? Or do you agree with
readers who believe that Goethe makes Faust younger so that you may see how he evolves
from a young man preoccupied with lust to a mature man who gains insight and understanding?
STREET
As Mephistopheles has predicted, every woman looks like Helen of Troy to Faust, especially
the woman Faust meets on the street. This is Margarete, usually called Gretchen, the German
diminutive of her name. With great dignity, Gretchen refuses to be picked up by Faust.
NOTE: Most of the last half of Part I is concerned with the sad tale of Gretchen's seduction by
Faust and her descent into madness after murdering her baby. This is possibly the most widely
known part of Faust and some readers think it is the most effective. But don't judge it too
quickly. The story of Gretchen falls into place and takes on a different meaning when it is read
in the context of the whole play. Here, Faust strives- and fails- on a personal level, but it is not
the whole story.
The story of Gretchen is usually called a tragedy. But whose tragedy is it? Is it Gretchen's
alone? Or is it Faust's tragedy too? And what causes the tragedy- character, situation, or
Mephistopheles' meddling? Keep these questions in mind as you read it.
The contrast between Faust's behavior in the scene in the Witch's Kitchen and this scene on the
street is astounding. There, he was entranced by an idea of feminine beauty. Here, he is
impatient to get into the girl's bed. He orders Mephistopheles to act, in effect, as his pimp.
What do you think of Faust's passion? Is it understandable in a scholar who has just been made
young and introduced to the real world? Or does it represent a universal male attitude toward
women? There is no hint here of marriage. Faust's feelings are intense, but they have one object
only. Can they be condoned?
A CLEAN LITTLE ROOM
In this very dramatic scene, your sympathy and admiration for Gretchen deepen. She's an
innocent young woman, no match for an upper-class suitor aided by a Devil who leaves caskets
of jewels in her closet. The cleanliness of her room mirrors the cleanliness of her soul and
contrasts with Mephistopheles' lewdness.
Faust's fantasies while sitting in her chair and looking at her bed show that he is in love with
his own idea of sexual happiness rather than with a real person. His feelings are deeply stirred,
but his conscience is not very active. For a moment he seems to have second thoughts about the
harm he may bring to Gretchen, but Mephistopheles quickly keeps him from thinking about
that.
The song Gretchen sings about the faithful lover is one of Goethe's most famous poems and
was set to music by Romantic composers such as Franz Liszt and Hector Belioz. Another of
Gretchen's songs, the spinning song from "Gretchen's Chamber," Part I, is equally famous and
was set to music by Franz Schubert.
ON A WALK
Gretchen has been persuaded by her mother and the local priest to give the jewels to the
Church, thus making Mephistopheles furious and giving Goethe a chance to make fun of the
greed of the Church's servants. You discover that Faust's "second thoughts" in Gretchen's room
were not very sincere. Gretchen's mother and the Church have given him a chance to abandon
his evil plan. He decides to go ahead, however, and commands Mephistopheles not only to get
another set of jewels, but also to reach Gretchen through her neighbor.
THE NEIGHBOR'S HOUSE
This is the first scene in which Faust does not appear. Mephistopheles shows what a good job
he can do for his master, and the scene plays very well. It's funny, surprising, and full of comic
devices. Mephistopheles invents a character for himself and carries it off so convincingly that
he's afraid the widow Martha is falling for him. The scene also shows Gretchen beginning to
give in to the Devil's seduction. With the help of Martha, she keeps the second casket of jewels
concealed from her mother.
STREET
Look carefully at this little scene to understand Faust's development. At first, Faust makes
moral objections to Mephistopheles' suggestion that he should pretend he was a witness to the
death of Martha's husband, but then he has to admit he intends to deceive Gretchen. Faust tries
to argue that his intense feelings are reason enough for pursuing Gretchen. In the end, however,
he admits that the Devil is right.
GARDEN; GARDEN PAVILION
In these two scenes Gretchen reaches the peak of happiness. Faust declares his love for her as
they are plucking the petals off a daisy, and she in turn declares her love for him in the little
garden pavilion where he has pursued her. Faust has won her confidence by listening
sympathetically to her life story. You now know more about Gretchen, especially about her
relationship to her mother. This knowledge will explain Gretchen's later actions, which might
otherwise seem inexcusable.
This scene is sometimes called the "quartet." As first Gretchen and Faust walk across the stage,
then Martha and Mephistopheles, you see clearly the contrast between spiritualism and
idealism (represented by Gretchen and Faust) and cynicism and materialism (represented by
Martha and Mephistopheles).
FOREST AND CAVE
This scene is an interlude in the progress of the Gretchen drama. It is outside the realistic time
frame that has been set up. The scene focuses on Faust's feelings- you might say it's a glimpse
into his mind. In his first monologue, Faust had addressed the Earth Spirit, which rejected him.
He now feels that the Spirit has blessed him with insight into himself and into living things. It
seems as if the experience of love has reconciled Faust to the Earth Spirit, so that he feels in
harmony with Nature.
Faust is beginning to hate Mephistopheles. He can't do without him, but he cannot stand his
denial of strong emotions. Faust senses that his dependence on Mephistopheles will intensify as
the Devil fulfills his desires and whets Faust's appetite for new experiences.
NOTE: You will have noticed that Faust's speech is in blank verse- that is five-stress lines that
do not rhyme. It's the meter of Milton's Paradise Lost and of Shakespeare. Goethe deeply
admired Shakespeare's works, which he read in English and in German translation. You will
see the growing influence of Shakespeare as Part I comes to a close.
The rest of the scene illustrates what Faust is beginning to hate so much about Mephistophelesthe
Devil's contempt for both Faust and Gretchen, his lack of respect for intense feelings, and
his coarseness. Perhaps most irritating of all to Faust is that he has to admit Mephistopheles is
right about his relationship to Gretchen. Gretchen must be a sacrifice to the powers of Hell, and
this knowledge inevitably shatters Faust's mood of harmony with the Earth Spirit. As
Mephistopheles speaks to Faust, he makes so many erotic references to Gretchen that Faust
hurries away to find her.
GRETCHEN'S CHAMBER; MARTHA'S GARDEN
Remember that Faust and Gretchen have had no opportunity to consummate their love yet. In
her sad song over the spinning wheel, Gretchen mourns for her lost peace of mind. Now that
she is in love with Faust, her entire universe has been reduced to her relationship with him.
Love brings joy only in the presence of the beloved. When he is not there, her heart aches.
Once you have seen the emotional states of both Faust and Gretchen, you see them together
again in Martha's garden. The carefree young girl expressing her love has been replaced by a
woman worrying over the spiritual health of her lover. Perhaps Gretchen is beginning to
understand that Faust may not be trustworthy, since he does not accept the Christian faith. He
answers her questions with a theological argument: God is indifferent about our belief in Him;
it is enough that He gave us the capacity to relate emotionally to the world.
NOTE: Faust's reply to Gretchen goes beyond a speech appropriate to the character. It is an
expression of Romantic theology. It does not matter whether we believe in God because God
will perform His function in the universe without us and without the names we invent for Him.
(Remember the Romantic preference for the idea and action behind the Word, not the Word
itself.) Profound emotion sincerely felt represents an aspect of God. "Feeling is all," says
Faust- or rather- Goethe.
Gretchen is consoled to some extent, though she now worries about Mephistopheles, whom she
does not like. It was a common belief that the pure and innocent could sense the presence of the
Devil, which Gretchen clearly does. She knows instinctively that Mephistopheles "cannot love
a single soul." Faust, as you know from the previous scene, shares her feelings about
Mephistopheles, yet he brushes her objections aside as prejudice.
It is a stroke of psychological genius to place the consummation of Faust and Gretchen's love at
a point where the relationship is troubled. Gretchen is insecure enough to agree to give her
mother a sleeping potion. Despite what you have been told by Gretchen herself about her
mother's harshness toward her, it is unlikely she would agree to risk her mother's life if she
weren't desperately in love.
The final exchange between Faust and Mephistopheles shows the Devil mocking Gretchen's
simple Christianity and looking forward to sharing Faust's sexual pleasure. He also anticipates
trapping the souls of Faust and Gretchen and thereby winning his bet with God. His coarse and
crude expression disgusts Faust, who is by now tormented with conflicting feelings.
AT THE WELL; BY THE CITY WALL
These two scenes confirm what you might have expected- Gretchen is pregnant by Faust. She
faces the public shame that her companion at the well- Lieschen- describes with such relish for
the girl they are gossiping about, and she seeks comfort for her anxiety and suffering from the
Virgin Mary.
NIGHT
A cruel punishment is dealt Gretchen in this scene, where Faust and Gretchen's brother
Valentine fight, and Valentine is killed. Not only does Gretchen lose a brother, but he dies
cursing her.
Valentine's vehemence seems out of proportion until you remember from his first speech how
much his own honor and reputation had been bound up with Gretchen's virtue. Valentine cares
nothing at all for her feelings- a dying brother's curse is an unbearable burden- but only for the
injury done to him: "When you renounced your honor first, Then was my heart most sorely
pierced."
NOTE: Notice the song Mephistopheles sings as he and Faust approach Gretchen's house. It is
a cruel song in which he mocks Gretchen. He sings that a girl shouldn't make love with a man
unless she has a wedding ring from him.
What are your feelings toward Faust at this point? Do you find it difficult to see him as a victim
of the Devil's magic? Remember that he has contributed to the deaths of Gretchen's mother and
brother, and that in this scene he speaks of Gretchen with indifference, as if she were a
prostitute.
CATHEDRAL
This is the last time you will see Gretchen as a sane girl. She is tormented by spirits- the voice
of her own conscience whose accusations are intensified by the Latin verses ["Day of Wrath"]
sung by the choir during the Mass for her mother and brother. She is now totally ruined. Her
mother has died as a result of the sleeping potion that Faust gave her; she is partly responsible
for her brother's death; and she is pregnant by Faust, who has abandoned her.
NOTE: You'll have to make up your own mind about what caused Gretchen's ruin. It's too
simple to say that it was caused by Mephistopheles' tricks. Although he brought Faust and
Gretchen together and supplied the jewels and the sleeping potion, he did so on Faust's orders.
Did Faust, then, cause Gretchen's misery? In one way he did, because he slept with her. But he
could not have done so if she had remained as firm in her refusal as she was when she first met
him. There are other, less direct causes: The doctrine of Romantic feeling so eloquently
expressed by Faust apparently leads to disaster after the feelings are indulged. The society in
which Gretchen lives is harsh and unforgiving, as the scene with Valentine illustrates so
horribly. (In order to make a social criticism, Goethe probably based the Gretchen tragedy on
the execution for infanticide of a girl in his native Frankfurt.)
WALPURGIS NIGHT
As Mephistopheles and Faust were skulking under Gretchen's window in Night, they were
discussing their intention to attend the Witches' Sabbath, or Walpurgis Night. Walpurgis Night,
April 30, celebrates May Day (May 1) and takes place in the Harz Mountains in central
Germany. It is traditionally a night when witches gather on a high mountain for crude, sexually
explicit celebrations.
Walpurgis Night represents Faust's deepest involvement with the Devil and his followers. In
order to intensify your perception of Faust's degradation, Goethe has Walpurgis Night follow
the scene where Gretchen, Faust's victim, faints in the Cathedral. Instead of showing you what
Gretchen, in her madness, has suffered, he shows you how far Faust has fallen. The Walpurgis
Night scene also gives you a sense of the unreality of the world Faust has entered through
Mephistopheles' magic. Faust is not aware of Gretchen's pregnancy. Since she has killed the
baby by the time he returns, he must have been gone about a year. The Walpurgis celebrations
represent symbolically the way in which Faust passed his time during the year.
You should read the Walpurgis Night scene without worrying too much about the obscure
references. Goethe put his enemies among the witches and made jokes about them that are
difficult to understand now. The important thing to remember is that this is a Northern Witches'
Sabbath, in contrast to the Classical Walpurgis Night in Part II. Goethe is fascinated by the
contrast between the gloomy Romantic North, represented by Germany and the sunny Classical
South, represented by Greece.
Mephistopheles and Faust journey to the mountain, led by an erratic Will-o'-the-Wisp, while
overhead the witches fly in on the storm winds. They make such noisy confusion when they
land and greet each other that Mephistopheles pulls Faust aside. He thinks it odd they should
isolate themselves from what they came to see, but Mephistopheles offers him a tour of the
groups assembled round their different fires.
They visit a group of old men bemoaning modern times (these may have been modeled on
Goethe's colleagues in the government of Weimar). Then they dance with witches to the
accompaniment of lewd jokes.
Suddenly, the fun goes sour for Faust. First, he finds himself disgusted with his dancing
partner, a pretty young witch, because a mouse jumps out of her mouth as they dance together.
Then, he sees an apparition that reminds him of Gretchen. He cannot take his eyes from her,
gazing with horror at a thin red line across her throat. You can imagine Mephistopheles
realizing that he must do something quickly or Faust will turn and run away. He grabs Faust
and pulls him along to see a play that is just about to be performed.
WALPURGIS NIGHT'S DREAM
The play with which Mephistopheles distracts Faust serves as an interlude and has no real
connection with the rest of the play. There is no plot and nothing happens. The scene is called
"The Golden Wedding of Oberon and Titania" and refers directly to Shakespeare's A
Midsummer Night's Dream. The four-line poems are recited by mythological characters and
various other strange figures and most make fun of Goethe's contemporaries. This interlude
serves as a transition between the frenzied Walpurgis Night celebration and the scene that will
follow.
DREARY DAY
This is the only scene in Faust written in prose rather than verse. Why does Goethe's style
change here? Some readers believe Goethe switched to prose to highlight Faust's return to the
real world from the fanciful world of Walpurgis Night.
Faust is filled with anger and guilt. He learns that Gretchen is in prison and he accuses
Mephistopheles of deliberately distracting him while Gretchen suffered. He asks
Mephistopheles to help him free her, but the Devil refuses. After Faust finishes shouting at
him, Mephistopheles accuses Faust of lacking the courage to accept the consequences of his
actions. "Which one of us is most responsible for Gretchen's ruin?" he asks. Mephistopheles
becomes unaccountably less powerful than Faust thought he was. "Do I have all the power on
earth and in heaven?" He can't release Gretchen from prison, and he can't protect Faust from
the police, who are looking for him after Valentine's murder. All he can do is trick the jailer so
that Faust can seize the prison keys and take Gretchen away.
NIGHT; DUNGEON
Faust and Mephistopheles ride magic horses to the dungeon where Gretchen lies imprisoned.
On the way, they pass the stone where she will be beheaded (Faust had seen a red line round
her neck at the Walpurgis Night dance), and where the witches are already gathering like
vultures.
The dungeon scene is heart-rending. As Faust approaches Gretchen's cell, he hears her singing
an insane song much like the one Ophelia sings in Shakespeare's Hamlet (Act IV, scene v). She
mistakes Faust for her executioner, and as she begs him to save her, Faust realizes she is mad.
Faust is wracked with guilt, and as he calls her name, she recognizes him.
Faust begs her to leave with him, but she refuses. In her confused state she rambles wildly
about her baby's drowning and her mother's death, and about the details of the places where all
the members of her ruined family are to be buried. She knows she doesn't want to escape
punishment for her sins and believes only death will bring her peace of mind. Faust almost
picks her up to carry her away but her refusal to flee deters him. As day breaks, the bells begin
to peal for her execution, but she thinks they are wedding bells.
This scene, which concludes Part I of Faust, ends in frenzied action. Mephistopheles tries to
hurry Faust away, because the magic horses will disappear with daylight and they must be on
their way. He pulls Faust away as Gretchen throws herself down in a final prayer.
Mephistopheles coldly says she is condemned, but he is contradicted by a heavenly voice that
announces, "Redeemed!" They leave as Gretchen calls Faust's name with her dying breath.
NOTE: Some readers believe that when Mephistopheles calls "Hither! To me!" he is dragging
Faust away to Hell. Such an ending would be appropriate if Part I concluded the play.
Certainly it creates a dramatic contrast between the heavenly voice redeeming Gretchen and
the devilish one summoning Faust. You should take these last few lines into account when you
argue for or against the unity of Faust.
This is not the last you will see of Gretchen. She appears at the end of the whole drama when
she pleads for Faust's soul.
Faust has made a dismal failure of his first experiments with supernatural power. He has
caused destruction and suffering to a whole family through the indulgence of his own feelings,
aided by Mephistopheles' power. Yet perhaps he suffers more than all his victims, because he is
left with the burden of guilt. Think back to the "Prologue in Heaven." The Lord said that man
must always err while he strives. Faust has tried to satisfy his desires and has caused misery
and destruction. But the Lord also had confidence that man understands the right way, no
matter how dark his urges. Faust must now reconcile himself to the painful knowledge of "the
appointed course."
PART II
In Part II of Faust the theme of striving also is important. You'll remember that at the end of
Part I Faust was still not happy; he continues to need to satisfy his craving for worldly
accomplishments and experiences. He will find that no experience or accomplishment will
bring him lasting peace, but it is of utmost importance that he continue to strive, and that he
believe there is something larger than himself.
Faust continues to have new experiences and adventures in Part II. His pact with
Mephistopheles is still in effect and will be until Faust's death. A difference between the two
parts is that in Part I, Goethe bombards you with intense physical experience, while Part II is
calmer as it explores your Classical heritage. For that reason, Part II is more representative of
mankind's (particularly Western man's) striving for fulfillment than of an individual's striving.
In Part II, Goethe creates a world of magic, filled with symbolism. At times it will not seem to
make sense. But don't worry, time and space are meaningless in this part of Faust. The
important thing for you to keep in mind is Faust's striving, his grasping for understanding.
ACT I
CHARMING LANDSCAPE
The first scene acts as a bridge between Part I and Part II of Faust. Faust, perhaps shortly after
the emotional scene in Gretchen's prison cell, is at the point of nervous collapse. As he tosses
and turns in a bed of flowers, kind spirits sing him to sleep. The spirits are led by Ariel, the air
sprite of Shakespeare's The Tempest. Ariel sings about forgetfulness and healing, and suggests
that when Faust wakes he will feel refreshed.
NOTE: Because Faust is about the striving of Western man, and because Goethe praises
artistic and intellectual attainments, you shouldn't be surprised that he modeled much of the
poetry in this scene after the works of two other great writers, Dante and Shakespeare. Ariel's
song is similar to Ariel's lines in Shakespeare's The Tempest. Ariel is the voice of the air who is
released into nature in Shakespeare's play. In Faust, Ariel speaks as the healing voice of
nature.
The meter of Faust's monologue is that used by Dante in the Divine Comedy. In the Divine
Comedy, Dante travels from Hell to Heaven in search of understanding about God and
salvation. The meter Dante used was called terza rima (third rhyme) and rhymed aba, bcb, cdc,
and so on.
The final stanza of the poem is an elaborate hymn to human life. Faust stands with the sun
behind him- knowledge too powerful for man- watching a waterfall, which represents the rush
of life. The water breaks into innumerable streams, just like the actions of men. But the
downward force sends up a spray, "a soaring lacework," whose droplets make a rainbow. "This
mirrors all aspiring human action," says Faust. The shining prisms flung upward represent art,
music, philosophy- the best of human attainments. This is Faust's consolation. No matter how
terrible man's mistakes may be, he is capable of the finest achievements.
IMPERIAL RESIDENCE
Remember that in the second Study scene of Part I, Mephistopheles promised Faust that they
would peruse first the small world and then the great. In this scene, you see the great world of
the Emperor's court. Most of the Faust legends include a visit to the Emperor's court, where
Faust astounds the Emperor with magic tricks. But this one is different. The Emperor is no
single monarch but a representative of monarchy in general. You will notice that no one in this
scene has a name, except Mephistopheles. The people are all types- the Chancellor (a high
official, such as a secretary to a king), the Treasurer, and so on. The problems they complain of
are universal. As Mephistopheles takes his place beside the Emperor, the crowd mutters its
comments. Watch for these barely audible remarks throughout this scene and the next. They
frequently express the commonsense view of what is going on.
The Emperor doesn't seem very interested in affairs of state. He wants to get on with a planned
Carnival celebration (see the next scene), but his court officers paint a picture of a kingdom in
ruin- lawless, in debt, its citizens demoralized.
NOTE: Goethe himself was a minister of state for the Duchy of Weimar and was familiar with
court life and the administration of a country. He bases his generalizations about sound
administration on his own experience, as you will also see when Mephistopheles brings paper
money- and inflation- to the Emperor's court.
The Emperor's shallowness is shown by his turning to Mephistopheles, now dressed as the
Court Fool, for his opinion. Mephistopheles answers with blatant flattery, which the crowd
immediately recognizes. He promises the court vast stores of money to solve the realm's
problems. The court officials, however, are not all as foolish as the Emperor. The Chancellor
senses that he is in the presence of an evil power. Notice in his speech the number of references
to the Devil: "Mind is Satan"; "The black magician!"; and, finally, "The wizard and the fool
live hide in hide." But he is brushed aside and never speaks again during the scene. Foolish
trust in trickery entrances the court as Mephistopheles manipulates an Astrologer to promise
hoards of gold and then describes how much gold there is to be dug out of the ground.
The Emperor is impatient to get the gold, but Mephistopheles apparently needs time. He uses
the Astrologer as a mouthpiece to insist on the normal course of events, especially the Carnival.
As the Emperor and his court take their places for the Carnival, Mephistopheles
contemptuously scorns "This foolish lot."
SPACIOUS HALL
This scene introduces Faust to the Emperor's Court, and the Carnival (which you learn later
was directed by Faust) is a convenient opportunity for Faust and Mephistopheles to dazzle the
court with magic. The entertainment is in the form of a masque, a court spectacle in which
music and dancing accompany a pageant of symbolic characters. The Carnival, modeled on
Roman carnivals that the Emperor (and Goethe) had seen, celebrates Mardi Gras, the Tuesday
before the first day of Lent (Ash Wednesday).
The masque portion of the entertainment proceeds much as planned by the Herald, who acts as
the master of ceremonies and controls it from the side of the stage. Mephistopheles and Faust
then give it a sinister turn, playing on the crowd's fascination with gold and magic power. At
the culmination of the action, the entire stage bursts into flames, which can be quenched only
by water magically produced- like the flames themselves- by Faust.
LINES 5065-5455
The first part of the masque follows the Italian pattern pretty closely, with flowers, flower girls,
gardeners, woodcutters, and other rustic figures. The mood becomes comic as stock characters
from Italian comedy enter, wearing baggy pants and traditional makeup. There is a general
drinking chorus, which leads into a procession of poets. At this point the masque becomes
explicitly Classical. The Herald introduces, in turn, the three Graces, the three Fates, and the
three Furies, who describe their respective functions. The climax of the masque comes with the
entrance of Victory on the elephant.
LINES 5456-5986
With the entry of Mephistopheles, dressed as two vulgar characters from Greek literature, the
Herald loses his grip on the pageant. When he strikes Mephistopheles with his stick, the Devil
becomes first an egg, then a snake, and then a bat, alarming the spectators, who scatter in fear.
The Herald is reduced to asking for help in order to explain the chariot which now appears. It is
driven by a boy who represents poetry, and carries Faust, disguised as Plutus, the god of
wealth. Mephistopheles now personifies Greed, one of the seven deadly sins in medieval
Christian belief.
The boy charioteer's tricks with jewelry and flames, and Mephistopheles' disguise, indicate the
theme- greed for gold. Faust, as Plutus, shows great chests of gold to the crowd, who try to
rush for them. They are beaten back, however, by flames from the Herald's mace (a club;
sometimes a symbol of authority), magically produced by Faust.
Mephistopheles transforms the gold into a giant male sexual symbol. The Emperor and his
lords enter, dressed as the Greek god Pan (who ruled over nature) and his followers, bringing
with them the expectation of unrestrained indulgence in sensual pleasure and the threat of
uncontrolled violence.
Finally, everything goes up in flames as the Emperor's beard catches fire. You can imagine the
Herald standing to one side, describing the horror of the scene as the entire hall lights up. Faust
magically douses the flames with water, bringing calm to a terrible scene.
NOTE: Does the light-hearted Carnival depict the tone of the Emperor's court? Does the
masque represent the self-indulgence of the court? The Emperor, responsible for an entire
kingdom, seems only to be interested in entertainment. Is Goethe suggesting that this is true of
all Emperors? What is the significance of the references to Greek mythology? Is it to
differentiate the Romantic [Germanic] world, in which the mood is serious, and the more
lighthearted
Classical [Italian] world? The fact that the boy charioteer (who represents poetry)
accompanies Plutus (the god of wealth) may suggest that poetry adds spiritual meaning to the
comforts of material wealth. Faust's and Mephistopheles' use of gold and fire, important to the
survival of any society, might suggest that if these elements are not handled properly, they can
destroy the society that needs them.
THE STORY, continued
THE PLAY
[Faust: Parts I and II Contents] [The Study Web Home Page]
[Study Guide for Goethe's Faust]
© Copyright 1985 by Barron's Educational Series, Inc.
Electronically Enhanced Text © Copyright 1993, World Library, Inc.
Faust: Parts I and II
Johann Wolfgang Goethe
THE STORY, continued
PLEASANCE
Because of their brilliant success with the Carnival Masque, Faust and Mephistopheles are in
great favor at court. The Emperor even orders Faust to secure all future entertainments.
Mephistopheles and Faust further prove their usefulness when the court officials rush in,
declaring that all the problems of the kingdom have been solved by the introduction of paper
money. Even the skeptical Chancellor seems convinced as he reads a proclamation that the
paper currency represents gold waiting to be mined.
Mephistopheles sounds like a huckster peddling a new gadget as he describes the convenience
of paper money. Faust is more serious, pointing out that because the paper money is based on
gold, it is secure. The light-minded Emperor believes them both and rewards them with the
"inner soil" of his realm, the ground beneath the surface where the gold is supposedly hidden.
He gives paper money to all his courtiers, who promptly exit to spend it on their own concerns.
NOTE: Goethe's original audience would have been more interested in the problems caused by
paper money than you might be. Paper money had been introduced in France in the eighteenth
century, and Louis XV's use of it (and the subsequent inflation it caused) helped create the
financial crisis that contributed to the French Revolution. The French Revolutionary
government had also used paper money, which became practically worthless in just a few
years. Because this entire episode with the Emperor is a satire, do you think Goethe might be
poking fun at those who thought that the introduction of paper money would solve all their
problems? Could Goethe be pointing out the greed of the Emperor, his officials, and his
subjects? Don't forget that all of the circumstances surrounding the issuance of paper money at
the Emperor's court are magical and therefore fraudulent. It is Mephistopheles who devised
the plan and the Emperor's signature had been obtained the night before at the Carnival,
where he had been unaware of what he was signing.
DARK GALLERY
Faust is beginning to find the Emperor's constant demands for amusement trying. Now he must
produce Helen of Troy and her lover, Paris, who stole her from her Greek husband, King
Menelaus of Sparta, and thus provoked the Trojan War.
Mephistopheles can't help Faust much. Notice that when Faust faces a crisis, Mephistopheles
backs off. In Part I, his magic could not save Gretchen, and now he contends, "I have no
commerce with that pagan clutter"- an excuse that depends on Mephistopheles' origins in
Christianity. The only way Mephistopheles can show Faust is through an encounter with
mythic figures called the Mothers. Faust must descend into the underworld, where the Mothers
live, with a magic key in his hand. He will see a tripod (three-legged stool) in the middle of the
Mothers; he must touch the key to the tripod and bring it back. The key will then have the
power to summon mythological characters.
NOTE: This adventure will differ from Faust's previous ones. The influence of the Devil is less
evident as Faust moves from the world of flesh and blood to that of spirits. Mephistopheles tells
him that he must reach into emptiness and limitless space to find what he's looking for. Some
readers think this scene illustrates the limits and superficiality of Christianity. Do you think
Goethe is arguing that Christianity has no power over the basic elements of life?
The Mothers seem to be Goethe's own invention. He suggested in a letter that they might be
based on a cult of mother goddesses found in Chapter 20, "The Life of Marcellus," of
Plutarch's Lives. Some readers think Goethe might be punning on the similarity in sound
between the German words for mother ("Mutter") and myth ("Mythe"). No matter where
Goethe got the idea for the Mothers, they seem to represent something primeval, the source of
all life.
BRIGHTLY LIT BALLROOMS
In this light and cheerful scene, Mephistopheles stalls while Faust goes down to the Mothers.
Mephistopheles is helped by the court ladies, who want his magic powers to help them cure
freckles and a lame foot, as well as to recover a straying lover. Mephistopheles is losing his
usual confidence. He prays to the Mothers to let Faust go and then looks fearfully into the Hall
of Chivalry, where the Emperor and his court are assembling. The hall is dark and mysterious
enough to frighten even Mephistopheles with spirits that "find their way all by themselves."
HALL OF CHIVALRY
Chivalry refers to the medieval code of knightly conduct, which includes courage, loyalty,
courtesy, fairness, respect for women, and protection of the poor.
This is one of the most theatrical scenes in Faust. Imagine the stage in two parts: an inner stage
on which Faust, who has just returned from the Mothers, presents Paris and Helen; and an outer
one, where the Emperor and his court are arranged on each side, watching the action and at the
same time addressing their remarks to each other and to the audience. The fun in this scene
comes from the chatter of the court ladies and gentlemen as they criticize the apparitions of
Paris and Helen, treating them as if they were real people, almost their colleagues at court.
Contrast this chatter with the deep reverence of Faust, who is stilled to his soul by Helen's
beauty. The action cuts from one to the other as the tension mounts.
When Helen emerges, Mephistopheles shows his coarseness in his comment: "She's pretty, yes,
but not my cup of tea." Nevertheless, Faust is overwhelmed.
NOTE: From its beginning, the Faust story included the raising of Helen from the underworld.
It is regarded as the ultimate magic trick. Marlowe's Doctor Faustus contains a famous line
spoken by Faust as he first sees Helen: "Is this the face that launched a thousand ships?" This
is, of course, a reference to Helen's central role as the cause of the Trojan War, according to
the ancient Greek epic The Iliad by Homer.
The magical appearance of Helen is especially important in understanding Faust's quest. She
represents the essence of female beauty, eternal and always guarding its ultimate mystery. She
is also a Classical heroine, who brings with her the authority of great poetry from the age of
Homer. But this Helen is a "shade," a reflection of real beauty. Faust wants to acquire the real
Helen, not the apparition in this scene. His pursuit of Helen symbolizes Faust's desire to unite
in himself the Classical and the Romantic spirits.
Look carefully at the terms by which Faust worships Helen, so that you can understand the
difference in his attitude toward Gretchen in Part I and Helen in Part II. He sees Helen as the
ideal of beauty that he could only imagine "deep within my breast." He felt mostly lust for
Gretchen and he had treated her indifferently. Seeing Helen marks a watershed in his life. From
here on, he will take on a "new priesthood," worshipping Helen and undertaking a "dread
quest" in search of her. In pursuing Helen and vowing to devote the energies of sexual passion
to her, Faust is trying to unite the ideal, or Classical (symbolized by Helen), and the real, or
Romantic (symbolized by passion). You will see that ultimately he fails. Excess emotion brings
ruin and grief.
As the apparition of Helen approaches the sleeping Paris, you follow the action through the
comments of the watching courtiers. But Faust has become obsessed. He tries to rescue Helen
as Paris sweeps her up in his arms, flourishes his magic key at the apparition, and invokes the
Mothers to help him gain what he cannot live without. The crowd of courtiers rise from their
seats terrified as a loud explosion ends the show. Faust loses consciousness and is carried off
by Mephistopheles.
ACT II
Goethe has to bring Faust and Helen together. Faust is still far from his goals, but he will have
to find new ways of reaching them. In his search for the reality that the shade of Helen
represents, Faust must go to the world of Persephone, the queen of the underworld. As you
already know, Mephistopheles can't lead Faust into the world of the spirits of Classical
antiquity, so Homunculus ("little man"), a spirit in a glass bottle, will be his guide.
Mephistopheles, Faust, and Homunculus will, through participation in a Classical Walpurgis
Night, enter into the Classical world. Homunculus finds bodily life by jumping into the ocean,
Mephistopheles finds a new disguise, and Faust finds a spirit that will lead him to the
underworld. The first two scenes of Act II serve as a transition from the Emperor's court to the
Classical Walpurgis Night.
NARROW, HIGH-VAULTED GOTHIC CHAMBER
Mephistopheles has taken Faust, unconscious, back to his original study and the Romantic
Gothic gloom. It all remains exactly the same as it was four years earlier- four years, because
the student who asked Mephistopheles' advice then is now a graduate. You will realize the
point of returning to the study when you notice the contrast between the dull, unchanged life
there and the profound changes that experience has brought to Faust himself.
Goethe's sense of fun is never far away. As Mephistopheles shakes out Faust's fur gown, a
cloud of insects rises from it. They burst into song, calling Mephistopheles their father!
Mephistopheles wants someone to recognize that he is "the Dean," in his moth-eaten fur robe.
So he pulls the bell, which literally threatens to shake the whole place apart and symbolically
signals a new era in Faust's old study.
The first visitor is a replacement for Wagner, who has now become a doctor. The famulus
(student) stresses that everything has been preserved as Faust had left it, thus preparing you for
the entrance of the Baccalaureus. Impressed with his own accomplishments, the formerly timid
student now scorns the "pickled wisdom" of his teachers and calls himself "a different
specimen."
He attacks Mephistopheles- whom he thinks is the professor because he is wearing the motheaten
old gown- until Mephistopheles edges away from him. You'll probably be surprised to
hear the Baccalaureus say: "One who is thirty years or older / Already is as good as dead."
Mephistopheles mutters in reply that one has to be old (experienced) to understand the Devil.
LABORATORY
The bell that shook the building signals success for Dr. Wagner in his laboratory. He has been
trying to produce human life in a test tube, but as you might expect from his plodding character
in Part I, Wagner lacks creative genius.
Mephistopheles' appearance provides the creative spark Wagner needs. As he arrives, a tiny
human figure takes shape in the test tube, and the Homunculus speaks to Wagner, his "father,"
and to Mephistopheles, his "cousin."
NOTE: Homunculus, which means "little man," owes part of his origin to Goethe's interest in
alchemy and early science, which was just as concerned with the creation of life as with the
changing of lead into gold. He represents pure spirit or mind without shape or form, and this
makes him independent of Mephistopheles. This pure spirit, who leads Faust into the Classical
world, seeks to become material, to be alive within the world of nature. Do you find his search
comparable to that of Faust? Some readers suggest that Homunculus represents intellect,
others the vital life-spirit in man. Whatever he represents, like Faust he is driven by an intense
desire to find the secrets of the universe.
Homunculus eavesdrops on Faust's dream of Leda and the Swan and suggests taking him to
Classical Walpurgis Night. Classical Walpurgis Night, he says, is joyous and reflects southern
Europe (remember that Goethe had recently returned from a trip to Italy), whereas the
Germanic (Romantic) Walpurgis Night is indicative of the gloomy north. Mephistopheles has
never heard of such an event and is not certain he wants to attend, but when Homunculus
describes some of the erotic pleasures he will experience, the Devil decides to go.
Mephistopheles lifts Faust and follows Homunculus.
In Greek myth, Helen- whose abduction by Paris caused the Trojan War- was the daughter of
Leda and Zeus, the supreme god of the Greeks. Zeus made Leda pregnant when he took the
form of a swan. Thus, Helen had more than earthly beauty because her father was a god.
CLASSICAL WALPURGIS NIGHT
You are now facing about 1480 lines of poetry containing many names that you may not have
heard before. Don't be put off by all the classical allusions. Even readers with a wide
knowledge of Greek literature will find many of Goethe's mythological figures obscure,
because he alludes to research and theories about early Greek religion that were current in the
late eighteenth century and have been disproved since.
As a guide, remember that Mephistopheles, Faust, and Homunculus are all seeking something
in these scenes, and you follow each of them in turn. Faust is seeking Helen, so you can
monitor the thread of his search. Mephistopheles is looking for a figure- the more horrible the
better- whose shape he can borrow for a disguise. Homunculus is trying to become a person;
his search ends in the spectacular climax to the Classical Walpurgis Night, which becomes a
great song of praise to the sea as the origin of life.
THE PHARSALIAN FIELDS
As you read this scene, compare it with the similar one introducing the Walpurgis Night in Part
I. In the Classical Walpurgis Night, Erichtho, an ugly enchantress, describes the scene and
explains why the celebration begins on the field of Pharsalus, in Thessaly, where Caesar
defeated Pompey in 48 B.C., thus paving the way for the creation of the Roman Empire. Here,
where the ancient world yielded to the modern one, the mythological creatures gather annually
to remember their former glory. Here, too, and on this night, Faust will find a way into that
earlier world.
Watch for the parallels between the two Walpurgis Nights. Each needs a light to guide visitors.
In Germany, however, the light is an erratic Will-o'-the-Wisp, and here the light, from
Homunculus' test tube, is so bright that Erichtho thinks it is a meteor. In the first Walpurgis
Night, Mephistopheles conducts Faust around the fires, but here he suggests that "each should
range the fires alone" and then meet again when Homunculus flashes his light.
Mephistopheles sets Faust on his feet, and Faust immediately asks where Helen is. He is
renewed, refreshed by standing on Greek soil and breathing the air that "spoke her native
tongue."
ON THE UPPER PENEIOS
This is a humorous scene, in which Mephistopheles exchanges riddles with sphinxes and teases
the griffins. His approach to the mythological creatures is quite different from that of Faust,
who acts like a visitor to a museum, connecting the exhibits to his reading.
When Faust asks the sphinxes about Helen, they tell him that, historically, she is more recent
than they are, so they don't know anything about her. They refer him to Chiron the Centaur,
who, half-man and half-horse, will be found prancing around at the Walpurgis Night. He can
tell Faust about Helen, because he tutored her half-brothers.
ON THE LOWER PENEIOS
In this scene, Faust succeeds in his search for a way down to Helen in the underworld. As the
scene begins, Faust is listening to the noises of the water lapping on the banks of the river
Peneios. He then looks across the river and sees the same scene he dreamed of while lying
unconscious in his old study. The maidens are bathing with Leda when Zeus approaches in the
form of a swan. The other swans distract the maidens' attention while Zeus makes love to Leda.
Chiron appears and invites Faust to ride on his back. As conceived by Goethe, Chiron is a
levelheaded
fellow, an old schoolmaster who knows what to expect and how to judge character. He
remembers with special pleasure how young Helen thanked him for saving her life: "So
charming- young, an old man's joy- was she!" He thinks Faust is a little carried away with
passion, so he offers to introduce him to Manto, a sorceress with magic healing powers.
When they arrive at her temple, Chiron and Manto exchange affectionate greetings, as they do
each year (remember, this is a reunion of old gods and demigods). After committing Faust to
Manto's care, Chiron is off again. Manto understands at once what Faust needs. She leads him
to the entrance of the underworld and pushes him through, as she did with Orpheus when he
was seeking Eurydice.
While the rest of the Walpurgis Night continues above ground, Faust is in the underworld
releasing Helen from Persephone's reign. You won't find this out until Act III, but you should
be aware of the simultaneous action because it helps you to understand what happens to
Homunculus.
ON THE UPPER PENEIOS, AS BEFORE
Meanwhile, on the Upper Peneios River, an earthquake, Seismos, is giving birth to a mountain,
in a comic scene that is intended to lighten the atmosphere after the intensity of Faust's passion.
Mephistopheles is stumbling around trying to return to the sphinxes when he comes upon
Homunculus, "Sparkleface." Homunculus is desperately trying to find help in "becoming": "I
cannot wait to smash my glass and flare." He is following Thales and Anaxagoras- two
important Greek philosophers of the sixth and fifth centuries B.C.- whom he thinks will be able
to advise him, although Mephistopheles tells him to trust his own efforts instead.
Still grumbling about the inferiority of these mountains to his German ones, Mephistopheles
stumbles onto the cave of the Graeae, whom he calls the Phorcyads (three daughters of
Phorcys, an old sea god, and Ceto; in Greek, graeae means "old women," or, as in this instance,
"old hags"). They are the most horrifying witches of all, living in complete darkness and
passing among them a single eye and a single tooth. Mephistopheles' humor never deserts him.
Calling himself a "far relation" of the Phorcyads, he asks permission to approach as he falls
"silent now in ecstasy" and continues to flatter them in the most disgusting terms.
Mephistopheles seems to find satisfaction only with the ugly spirits.
It is no wonder that they agree to let him assume their shape and even show him how to twist
his face to look like them: "Just close one eye, 'twill do it even so." Apparently, he has lent
them one of his eyes and a tooth in exchange, for they are left chuckling with witchlike glee
over their extra organs.
ROCKY INLETS OF THE AEGEAN SEA
This scene belongs to Homunculus. Thales guides Homunculus to Nereus (son of Pontus, the
deep sea, and Mother Earth), calling him a "cantankerous old vinegar." Like Chiron, Nereus is
given a recognizable character by Goethe. He complains at length that no one takes his advice,
which could have saved the world several disasters, including the Trojan War.
From the cliffs, the Sirens see that the sea nymphs are bringing the ancient Cabiri, whose
number seems a bit uncertain. Homunculus doesn't think much of the Cabiri, but Thales
remarks that anything ancient is highly prized. Proteus thinks he'll play games with them and
changes his shape several times, until he sees Homunculus. Proteus doesn't hesitate to urge
Homunculus to begin his life in the sea.
From the cliffs, Nereus and Thales watch the procession on the waves below. Nereus'
daughters, the Dorids, float by with their sailor lovers, and then Galatea, a goddess of beauty,
appears. You will marvel at the beauty of this scene. Nereus greets his daughter just this once
each year. It is one of those moments of intense life for which Faust yearns, a moment worth
all the others: "Yet a single loving gaze / All the empty year outweighs." The procession goes
far out to sea, as Nereus and Thales struggle to catch a glimpse of "Galatea's throne...
shellbedecked."
Homunculus greets the "lovely damp," and then, as Thales reports the action to
Nereus, Homunculus crashes his test tube at Galatea's feet. Blinding light fills the whole scene
as fire, earth, air, and water mingle in the unity of creation.
Magnificent though it is, Homunculus' end leaves a pang of loss. But he is no longer necessary,
for at this moment Faust has released Helen from the underworld. The celebration by the
Aegean Sea marks the beginning of life for Helen, born again through Faust's love.
ACT III
To help understand Act III, you should review the Walpurgis Night in Part I. It is followed
immediately by the Walpurgis Night's Dream, a satyr play. You will see the parallel with the
Classical Walpurgis Night, which is followed by this act, written in the form of a Greek
tragedy. A satyr play, ribald and coarse, suited the Walpurgis Night's activities. A Greek
tragedy is poetic and su