Higher Sociology
Understanding Human Society 1
Sociology: Understanding Human Society 1 (Higher)
Acknowledgements
SFEU (Scottish Further Education Unit) gratefully acknowledges the contribution made to
this publication by Learning and Teaching Scotland who have granted permission to use
material previously produced by Higher Still Development Unit.
SFEU also thanks SQA for permission to reproduce parts of the Arrangement documents.
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Contents
Statement of Standards
3
Guide to Learning and Teaching Pack
7
Introduction to the Unit and Learning and Teaching Approaches
8
Class stratification
Recommended reading and recommended websites for class stratification
9
10
Introduction to social stratification
11
Class stratification
15
Functionalist theory of class stratification
24
Summary of functionalism
29
Marxist theory of class stratification
33
Summary of Marxism
39
Weberian theory of class stratification
42
Summary of Weberianism
47
Aspect: social mobility
50
Aspect: social closure
52
Practice exam essay question
53
Sociology of education
Recommended reading and recommended websites for education
54
55
Education
56
Functionalist theory of education
63
Summary of functionalism
67
Marxist theory of education
71
Summary of Marxism
73
Feminist theory of education
76
Summary of feminism
78
Interactionist theory of education
82
Summary of interactionism
85
Differential educational achievement
88
Aspect: Differential educational achievement and class
92
Aspect: Differential educational achievement and gender
96
Aspect: Differential educational achievement and ethnicity
103
Practice exam essay question
106
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National Unit Specification: Statement of Standards
Unit: Understanding Human Society 1
Acceptable performance in this Unit will be the satisfactory achievement of the standards
set out in this part of the Unit Specification. All sections of the statement of standards are
mandatory and cannot be altered without reference to the Scottish Qualifications
Authority (SQA).
Outcome 1
Describe sociological topics and their relationship to human society
Performance Criteria
(a) Describe sociological topics succinctly and correctly.
(b) Describe key features of sociological topics succinctly and correctly.
Outcome 2
Evaluate the contribution of key sociological theories to an understanding of sociological
topics
Performance Criteria
a) Correctly apply relevant and contrasting sociological theories to topics.
b) Provide a balanced evaluation of the contribution of contrasting sociological theories
to understanding topics.
Outcome 3
Evaluate selected aspects of sociological topics using different sociological theories and
studies
Performance Criteria
a) Explain aspects of topics in a balanced way by taking account of different sociological
studies.
b) Use relevant evidence from a range of sociological studies to support the
explanations.
c) Develop sociological arguments, based on evidence and examples used in relevant
sociological studies.
d) Make balanced evaluations that refer to evidence and arguments from contrasting
sociological theories.
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Evidence Requirements for the Unit
The Appendix to the Statement of Standards details the mandatory content/context for
the Unit.
Evidence Requirements apply to the Unit as a whole and, therefore, apply holistically to
all Outcomes of the Unit.
Candidates must produce written and/or oral evidence for all Outcomes and Performance
Criteria of the Unit. The assessment should take the form of an unseen, closed-book,
supervised test that should be completed in one hour. The instrument of assessment
should take the form of an extended response-type (essay) question.
The response for the Unit assessment should provide evidence to cover all of the
Outcomes and Performance Criteria, and should begin with an appropriate introduction
addressing definitions and features relating to the topic. The response should then
provide contrasting theoretical discussion on the topic from at least two contrasting
theories, with appropriate analysis and evaluation. A major aspect of the topic should be
introduced, followed by two studies, where the main findings and an appropriate
evaluation should be given for each study. A summary/conclusion should provide some
final evaluation of evidence and argument from contrasting sociological studies.
Both topics, class stratification and education, will be covered in learning and teaching for
the Unit. However, candidates will be assessed on only one of the topics. The
assessment instrument will use an appropriate sample of Unit content. For example, if a
candidate demonstrates knowledge and understanding and an ability to analyse and
evaluate one topic, then it is inferred that she or he will be able to demonstrate the same
level of achievement for the other topic covered in learning and teaching in the Unit.
Each topic allows for coverage of all three Outcomes (including all Performance Criteria).
Ensuring that Unit assessment samples one topic will provide adequate inferred evidence
of overall Unit achievement.
Any requirement for reassessment will be based upon a different sample from the range
of content, where appropriate, and candidates must attempt a different instrument of
assessment, on either topic, in its entirety.
Achievement will be decided by the use of a cut-off score. The National Assessment
Bank items illustrate the standard that should be applied and also the nature and extent
of the sample to be used. If a centre wishes to design its own assessments for this Unit,
they should be of a comparable standard.
Candidate responses will be descriptive in nature, and a proportion of analysis and
evaluation is required at this level. The split between knowledge and understanding and
analysis and evaluation in Unit assessment is 60% knowledge and understanding and
40% analysis and evaluation.
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Appendix: Content and context
NB. This Appendix forms part of the Statement of Standards for the Unit and contains,
therefore, requirements that are mandatory.
Both topics must be covered in terms of learning and teaching in this Unit. For the
purposes of both Unit and Course assessment only one topic will be assessed.
Topic 1: Sociology of class stratification
Three contrasting theories, two studies, two features, two changes and two aspects will
be covered for this topic, as follows:
Three relevant, contrasting sociological theories:

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Functionalism
Marxism
Weberianism.
Any two relevant studies
Two features, from:



social inequality – economic privilege, social prestige, power
social stratification – social class in capitalist society
measuring social class – subjective approaches, objective approaches.
Two changes:


changes in workforce demographics, eg. Decline of manufacturing industry and rise in
service sector.
the impact of government policies on greater social mobility.
Two aspects:


social mobility – an analysis of two features and two studies
social closure – an analysis of two features and two studies.
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Topic 2: Sociology of education
Three contrasting theories, two studies, two features, two changes and three aspects
will be covered for this topic, as follows:
Any three relevant, contrasting sociological theories.
Any two relevant studies.
Two features:


functions of education, eg. education as a socialisation process, as a means of
providing a workforce
the comprehensive range of provision from nursery to higher education.
Two changes:


changes in the structure of education in the UK with emphasis on contemporary
changes
rise in credentialism.
Three aspects:



differential achievement in education and class – an analysis of two features and two
studies
differential achievement in education and gender – an analysis of two features and
two studies
differential achievement in education and ethnicity – an analysis of two features and
two studies.
In each topic, where there are substantially different approaches within a theory, the
comparisons and contrasts within that theory may be sufficient for the purposes of
analysis and evaluation. For example, liberal, radical or Marxist feminist approaches to
class stratification or education.
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Guide to Learning and Teaching Pack
This learning and teaching pack is designed to aid the practitioner in the delivery of
Sociology at NQ Higher level. This pack includes:

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a general introduction to the Unit
material for both topic areas
handouts and or/material for overhead transparencies with accompanying tutor notes
on each topic covered in the Unit1
a student activity with accompanying tutor notes on each topic covered in the Unit 2
suggested reading lists, which cover the main elements within each topic, and which
are based on five basic sociology textbooks. These lists can be used as a tutor or
student resource.3
The material contained in this pack is based on the Arrangements document and advice
given in the Subject Guide. It has been designed to fill a particular niche in the Sociology
curriculum and tries to avoid overlap with Intermediate 2, Advanced Higher and HN
Sociology Units. Lecturers and teachers may wish to amend some of the material to suit
their particular requirements. However, in doing so, issues of overlap should be kept
firmly in mind.
In accordance with good teaching practice, the pack contains a range of student-centred
activities. These are suggested activities only and can be adapted to suit individual, age
and group requirements.
The term ‘student’ will be used throughout the Unit to denote the learner.
Please note that these materials will not cover the full ‘hourage’ of the whole Unit, nor will they
cover every item in the Outcomes or PCs: it is assumed that teachers and lecturers will want to
use some of the time for exposition and discussion and will supplement this pack with materials
devised for specific groups.
2 As 1, above.
3 Suggested reading for this unit is taken from five major sociology textbooks. Material in these
textbooks is designed for new students of sociology, A-level students and 1st year degree
students. For this reason some material may provide greater depth than is covered in the
curriculum and tutors should be selective in their recommendations for essential reading. The
suggested texts and websites are identified under ‘Recommended reading’.
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Introduction to the Unit and Learning and Teaching
Approaches
Introduction to the Unit
This Unit is designed to develop sociological understanding through the study of specific
sociological topics. Class stratification and education are mandatory topics both for this
Unit and the Course.
For each topic, learning and teaching should cover:






the main features of the topic
changes in the topic and the sociological study of the topic
the relation of the topic to other broad areas of society (other social institutions or
topics that sociologists study)
the study of particular aspects of the topic. All aspects of the topic cannot be studied
in depth in the time given, and therefore it is suggested that tutors should select those
of interest to particular groups or where the tutor may have a specialist knowledge or
interest
the use of theories and studies that explain topics and aspects of that topic. The use
of theories can be as extensive as the tutor wishes, although there needs to be a
minimum of three for class stratification and two for education to meet Unit and
Course criteria. The overall number and choice of theories will depend on class
group, tutor preference and time limits
an evaluation and conclusions on topics, theories, aspects and studies.
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Class Stratification
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Recommended reading

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

Bilton, T. et al. (1996) Introducing Sociology, 3rd edition. Macmillan – Chapter 7.
Giddens, A. (2001) Sociology, 4th Edition. Polity – Chapter 10.
Tudor (1997). Sociology: An Introduction. Court – Chapter 9.
Haralambos and Holborn. (2004) Sociology Themes and Perspectives, 6th edition.
Collins – Chapter 1.
Sociology and Scotland: An Introduction, edited by Sweeney, Lewis and Etherington.
(2003) Unity Publications Ltd – Chapter 4.
Recommended websites
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Hewett School: http://www.hewett.norfolk.sch.uk/CURRIC/soc/class/class.htm
Sociology Central: http://www.sociology.org.uk/cload.htm
Sociology Learning: http://www.chrisgardner.clara.net/sls1/home.htm
Sociology Online: http://www.sociologyonline.co.uk
Association for the Teaching of Social Science (links page):
http://www.le.ac.uk/education/centres/ATSS/sites.html
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Introduction to social stratification
The term ‘social stratification’ means the way that society is stratified or made up of layers
of social groups in a hierarchical way. This hierarchy creates inequalities between
those at the top of the system and those at the bottom. Each of the groups in between
experience a better chance of achieving what has been defined as desirable by society,
than those below them, but not as great a chance as those in the social groups above
them.
When sociologists refer to stratification they are attempting to define a specific concept
that is seen as underlying many of the social processes that help to make societies and
cultures distinctive. If we can understand stratification systems and the way they affect
social processes this can help us explain the way in which particular social institutions
are formed and the behaviour of individuals and groups within society. When sociologists
talk about stratification as a system, they do so in terms of it having the following features:

structured inequality

that is hierarchical, and

persists across generations of a particular society.
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Tutor Guide: Student Activity on ‘How equal are you?’
The purpose of this activity is to introduce the student to the notion of inequality in
general. It is also a good way of locating stratification in the individual’s own experience.
Usually, with this exercise, participants find they have different scores and this is a good
starting point for a discussion on why this might be the case. The plenary session with
the whole class then gives the tutor an opportunity to highlight the range of factors that
can lead to inequality in our society. These inequalities are, of course, wider than just
class inequalities, but it gives an opportunity to discuss the differences between class
inequality and other types of inequality. Class inequality will be studied in this Unit.
It is important to stress that inequality, as identified in this exercise, is not imagined and it
can be supported by sociological analysis. The following points are some you may wish
to use to support the discussion. In doing so, the factors discussed are about groups in
general rather than about individuals. For example, although in general people in the
regions tend to be poorer than people in the South-east of England, that does not mean
that there are not rich people living in the North of England. The points that you might
wish to use are:

Overall, the incomes in the South-east of England are higher than that of those in the
regions (eg. North of England, Midlands, South-west of England, Scotland, Wales and
Northern Ireland). Also, there are other disadvantages in being further from the locus
of power (Westminster, London). For example, it is generally more expensive to
travel from the regions than from London, such as to Europe, where there is easier
access to cheaper goods, etc. So, being born in the regions or living in the regions
may well mean some form of disadvantage.

Females are still experiencing inequality in many areas. Two significant areas are
that average wages are approximately only 75 to 85 percent of those of men doing
the same jobs and men still dominate in terms of management and government jobs.
Being female has, therefore, a potential for disadvantage in these terms and being
male is an advantage.

Benefit cuts for younger people and difficulty for those over 40 looking for work or
wishing to change jobs demonstrates age discrimination.

Immigrants to the UK tend to have to take low paid work (even if they have a high
level of skill). Black and Asian people are also disproportionately under-represented
in positions of power.

Stocks and shares may be some indicator of wealth. For example, it may indicate
that a person has had enough capital to purchase stocks and shares, or that they
have sufficient wealth to save with a building society, and have acquired these when
conversions have taken place. However, it may be that some people received shares
as a result of a settlement that occurred through the transfer of the industry they work
or worked in from the public to the private sector. It also may indicate that people
have something to fall back on in hard times.
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
Pupils from fee paying schools tend to do better in terms of exam results, thereby
affecting their opportunities to go to university, study a career of their choice, and thus
have better life chances through a high and sustained income.

Home ownership is not in itself an indicator of great wealth. However, it does give
advantages in many areas. Home ownership may enable a person to get extended,
and usually cheaper, credit. It gives people some choice of where they live and the
conditions under which they live. It also indicates that people who own their own
houses have greater security of income and lifestyle.
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Student Activity: Social stratification
How equal are you?
Start with 100 points and add or deduct points depending on your answers to the
questions below. Discuss your final score with the class and list reasons why there may
be differences between scores.
This exercise will probably take about 15 minutes, with a further 15 minutes for
discussion.
1.
If you were born in Scotland, North of England, Midlands, Wales or Northern
Ireland deduct 10 points.
2.
If you live in Scotland, North of England, Midlands, Wales or Northern Ireland
deduct 10 points.
3.
If you are female deduct 10 points.
4.
If you are male add 10 points.
5.
If you are under 18 or over 40 deduct 10 points.
6.
If you or your parents are non-British deduct 10 points.
7.
If you are black deduct 10 points.
8.
If you own stocks and shares add 10 points.
9.
If you went to a fee-paying school add 10 points.
10.
If you or your parents own your own house add 10 points.
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Class stratification
One major way that social groups in a hierarchical system can differ from each other is in
terms of prestige, wealth and power. These social groups or classes usually share
common interests and a common identity that separates them from other social groups in
society. Most sociologists would agree that social class is a significant feature of UK
society and is one of the main bases for stratification and inequality. Many nonsociologists would possibly also agree that social class exists in the UK and we hear
reference to it in many contexts. For example, we may talk about houses being in a
middle class district, of coming from a working class background or of newspapers being
class-based.
Such factors may tell us about the social position of another person or group, but some
sociologists would consider them to be subjective and have tried to define and measure
class in an objective way.
The difficulty is that sociologists do not agree on how to define or measure class and for
that reason we have many theories that use different indicators of social class.
Depending on which theory and which indicators are used, people will be placed in
different classes. Some of the main indicators that sociologists have used are based on:

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occupation
income
wealth
ownership
power
status.
In the United Kingdom it is claimed we have an open system of stratification. This is
because in terms of social class it is possible for individuals to move between class
groups, a concept called social mobility. For example, if social class is based on
income and during a lifetime an individual increases his/her income, then he/she would
be moving from a low-income group to a high-income group. This system is very different
to a closed system where it is impossible to move from one group to another. For
example, in a caste system the individual is born into a particular caste and remains in
that caste for the rest of his/her life regardless of change in circumstances, such as
increase/decrease in wealth or marrying into a higher/lower caste.
However, despite social class being considered an open system, some sociologists have
argued that there are ‘hidden’ barriers that make movement between classes difficult.
These hidden barriers include such things as accent, education, cultural differences in
terms of social mannerisms and customs.
The suggestion that hidden barriers might exist has led to some sociologists introducing
the concept of social closure. The suggestion is that groups of people who share similar
lifestyles often close ranks to mark themselves out from other groups. For example, entry
to certain clubs, schools and occupations offer mutual support through these social
networks. This exclusion strategy is used to protect existing privileges. Groups can
insist that potential new recruits to their ranks possess the appropriate ‘credentials’ to
gain access. This credentialism is used to close off the rewards of belonging to the
group by emphasising the qualifications or credentials needed to belong.
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Tutor Guide: Student Activity on class stratification
The notes below, along with the student activity, are designed to introduce the student to
the concept of stratification in general and class stratification in particular. It is a good
opportunity for teachers and lecturers to draw out various points related to class
stratification and in doing so will cover some of the main features of this topic. Some of
these include the following:








differences between inequality and structured inequality
other systems of stratification
differences between open and closed systems
open systems may have ‘hidden’ barriers
‘subjective’ indicators of class – ie. do we still make judgments about people’s class
and if so on what basis are these judgments made?
‘objective’ indicators of class – what do they really tell us?
is there a merging of subjective and objective criteria, eg. A1s, C2s are composite
pictures of income, lifestyle, attitude, etc.?
student’s own experience of class stratification.
This exercise will probably take about 15 minutes, with a further 30 minutes for
discussion.
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Student Activity: Class stratification
In this activity you should try to consider the difference between general inequalities and
class inequalities. It presents an opportunity for you to draw out various points related to
class stratification, including your own experience.
The activity will probably take about 30 minutes, with a further 15 minutes for discussion
in class. It is designed as a ‘stand alone’ exercise but could also be a follow-on from the
previous activity ‘How Equal Are You?’ which deals with inequality in general.
1. What are sociologists attempting to do by defining stratification?
2. Explain what is meant by class stratification.
3. Describe some of the ways people sometimes judge a person’s social class and the
way they differ from the indicators a sociologist might use.
4. Explain the difference between open and closed systems of stratification. What system
exists in the United Kingdom?
5. Explain what ‘hidden’ barriers mean? From your own experience and knowledge can
you think of any examples of the barriers discussed?
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Measuring social class
Remember, the difficulty is that sociologists do not agree on how to define or measure
class and for that reason we have many theories which use different indicators of class.
Most of us would recognise the idea that, in Britain, there are three basic social classes,
namely:
 an upper class
 a middle class
 a working (or lower) class.
By and large, occupation has tended to be the main indicator used for classification of
an individual’s class, though people are not asked for their views on the matter. This
produces an objective scale that measures economic class in a quantitative way.
Objective measure of class: Definitions of class focus on things that can be measured
about a person's life, such as their occupation.
On the other hand, it could be argued that classes exist because they are perceived to
exist by individuals in society. In this respect, it could be argued that classes are socially
constructed rather than objective facts and are, therefore, very subjective. This results
in class being viewed in a qualitative way.
Subjective measure of class: Definitions of class focus on things that cannot be
measured, such as the social class that a person thinks they are in. For example, a
person with lots of money may still consider him/herself working class. He/she may live
in a working class area and have working class friends. In other words, the class that a
person thinks they belong to is likely to affect the way they act.
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The Registrar General’s Scale
The most commonly used system for measuring social class is the Registrar General's
Scale (RGS). The Registrar General’s system groups all occupations into five different
categories. These are:
Class I
Professional/managerial, including lawyers, architects and doctors.
Class II
Lower professional/managerial, including shopkeepers, farmers and
teachers.
Class III
i) Supervisory and routine non-manual, including clerical workers and
shop assistants.
ii) Skilled manual, including electricians and miners.
Class IV Semi-skilled manual, including bus conductors and farm workers.
Class V
Unskilled manual, including labourers on building sites.
There are serious drawbacks to this system. First, it ignores the class a person may
think they belong to (the subjective view). Second, it does not take into account the fact
that some people who are in Class V due to their job, may actually have a lot of money,
eg. they may have won the lottery or inherited money from their relatives, though these
examples would be rare occurrences.
The Registrar General’s Scale is a basic two-class model, in which the population is
divided into middle and lower classes. The basis for the ranking of occupations is their
‘relative standing in the community’. Occupations are assigned to the different class
categories by assessing and comparing their status, relative to each other. Occupations
are, therefore, arranged hierarchically, with the most important at the top. Although
occupation has tended to be the main indicator used to measure social class, it has
problems. Very rich people who do not work are not included. Classifications based on
occupation ignore the unemployed or housewives. The same job title may mean different
things, for example, ‘farmer’ – there are large industrial-size farms and much smaller,
even subsistence-level, farms. Priests or religious ministers are afforded a higher class
status than their income would otherwise suggest. According to this scale a woman’s
class has generally been aligned with that of her husband, even though she may be in
different class based on her own occupation. However, things have been changing
recently with new class categories that now tend to include women.
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Changes in the industrial environment
Employment changes have occurred over the last generation, which, it is claimed, have
led to changes in the way social class is measured and studied. There has been an
interest in social class since the time of the Industrial Revolution (1760-1840). Over the
last generation or so, a process of de-industrialisation has been taking place in the UK.
Less people work in heavy industries (eg. steel, car or ship manufacture, mining) than in
the past. There has been a rise in so-called service industries, such as banking,
insurance and retail. Changing technologies and the process of globalisation has had
an affect on the economy in the UK. Further changes have been the rise in home
ownership and share ownership among large numbers of the population. The changing
role of women in our society, with many women in paid employment, for example, has
also had a major impact on how class is viewed and studied.
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Student Activity: Effects on class stratification
This activity is meant to get you thinking about the ways in which class stratification can
affect the lives of different people. You should also consider how people perceive class
and whether the use of the concept of class is still relevant in the UK in the 21st century.
1. In the table provided, give examples of what you think the differences are between:



upper class life
middle class life
working class life.
Upper class
Middle class
Working class
Housing
Education
Occupation
Health
Leisure activities
Holidays
Clothing
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2.
What are the differences between objective and subjective conceptions of class?
3.
What problems can arise from using occupation to measure social class?
4.
What does de-industrialisation mean?
5.
What does globalisation mean?
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Tutor Guide: Handout and questions on functionalism and class
The handout and set of questions can be used either as an introduction to the ideas of
functionalism and class, or as a formative assessment at the end of a session to
ascertain absorption of the main ideas of this theory. It is designed to:


clarify some technical terms for the student
summarise the main points of the theory.
The material in this handout is quite difficult and this exercise will probably take at least
30 minutes to complete, with a further 30 minutes for discussion and exposition.
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Functionalist theory of class stratification
According to Functionalists like Talcott Parsons (1902-1979), society has certain basic
needs or functional prerequisites, such as maintaining regular patterns of behaviour
and providing attainable goals for individuals, which must be met if society is to survive.
Therefore, functionalists look to class stratification to see how far it meets these basic
needs. Functionalists observe that the parts of society form an integrated whole and thus
examine the ways in which the class stratification system is integrated with other parts of
society. This idea should remind us of the ‘organic analogy’. Functionalists suggest
that a certain degree of order and stability is essential for the operation of society. They
therefore consider how class stratification helps to maintain order and stability in society.
So, they are mainly concerned with the contribution of class stratification to the
maintenance and well being of society.
Parsons suggested that order, stability and cooperation in society were based on value
consensus; that is, a general agreement by members of society concerning what is good
and worthwhile. It follows from the existence of values that individuals will be evaluated
and, therefore, placed in some form of ranked order. In other words, those who perform
successfully in terms of a society’s values will be ranked highly and they will be likely to
receive a variety of rewards. At a minimum they will be afforded high prestige since they
exemplify and personify common values.
Since different societies have different value systems, the ways of attaining a high
position will vary from society to society. Parsons argued that American society valued
individual achievement, efficiency and productive activity within the economy, what has
sometimes been referred to as the ‘American Dream’. Thus, successful business
people who have achieved their position through their own initiative, ability and ambition
will receive high rewards. It follows from this argument that there is a general belief that
stratification is just, right and proper, since it is basically an expression of shared values.
So, the class someone is born into should not affect their chances in later life, if they
make full use of the opportunities in life that can redress inequalities, like getting a good
education. Also, functionalists suggest that inequality between different social groups is
important to society for two main reasons:
1.
Inequality is created by the differing rewards that people receive for the different
tasks that they carry out. Therefore, those who carry out the most important tasks –
one of which in our culture is the creation of wealth – should be rewarded better than
those who carry out unskilled or less important tasks or jobs.
2.
The second main reason for the justification of this inequality is that it gives those in
the lower classes something to aim for. Therefore, if you want people to study hard
and better themselves, there must be some kind of economic reward for doing so.
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Student Activity: Parsons and functionalist theory of class stratification
This activity is meant to get you thinking about the culture in which Parsons made his
observations and whether his observations are relevant to the UK (or even the US) today.
1. What were/are the functional prerequisites that Parsons thought were important?
2. What does value consensus mean?
3. Give examples of shared values related to work and ‘getting on’ in the UK today.
4. Talcott Parsons lived in the United States from 1902-1979. His sociological
observations were, therefore, based on American culture during his lifetime, but
primarily in the post-war period. Can the idea of achieving the ‘American Dream’ in 20th
century America have any significance in the UK in the 21st century?
5. Can you think of any groups in the post-war US who would not have been likely to
have experienced the type of society that Parsons refers to?
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Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore (1945)
Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore, two American sociologists, developed the ideas of
Talcott Parsons. They suggested that stratification existed in every known human
society. They attempted to explain this as a universal necessity for stratification in all
social systems. They agreed with Parson’s idea that all social systems shared certain
functional prerequisites that had to be met if the system was to survive and operate
efficiently. One functional prerequisite, put forward by Davis and Moore, was effective
role allocation and performance.
This meant that:

all social roles (in effect, occupations) must be filled

these roles must be filled by those best able to perform them

the necessary training for these roles must be undertaken

and that these roles must be performed conscientiously.
Davis and Moore argued that all societies needed some mechanism for insuring effective
role allocation and performance. This mechanism was stratification, which they saw as
a system that attached unequal rewards and privileges to the different positions in
society. If the people and positions that made up society did not differ in important
respects there would be no need for stratification. Further to this, certain positions were
and are more functionally important than others and a major function of stratification was
and still is to match the most able people with the functionally most important positions.
This was achieved by attaching high rewards to these positions. This would provide
people with motivation and incentive.
For Davis and Moore, stratification was a device by which societies ensured that the most
qualified persons conscientiously filled the most important positions. In this way, society
would be a meritocracy.
Meritocracy: A system of stratification where those most qualified get the highest
positions in the hierarchy and those with the least qualifications get the lower positions in
the hierarchy.
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Student Activity: UK society – meritocracy or Lotto?
In this activity you should consider the functionalist observations about society being
meritocratic. You should consider whether the functionalist observations are now out of
date or not.
The activity should take about 30 minutes to complete, with another 30 minutes for
discussion in class.
1. In 2002, an unemployed 19-year-old called Michael Carroll won £9.7 million on the
Lotto. He has been referred to as a ‘Lotto lout’ because he has been regarded as an
unworthy winner. What does his story tell us about values and achievement in the UK
today?
2. Does the existence of the Lotto strengthen or weaken the functionalist observations of
stratification?
3. Rank the following list of individuals in order of importance in the UK today. Then
indicate their class position according to the Registrar General’s Scale.
Individual
Jack McConnell
A school cleaner
Wayne Rooney
Sharon Osborne
Your Sociology tutor
Prince William
A doctor in the local hospital
Richard Branson
Dame Kelly Holmes
Michael Carroll
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4. Can you identify any problems with the claims of Davis and Moore that stratification
was a device by which societies ensured that the most qualified persons
conscientiously filled the most important positions?
5. Complete the following table by ticking whether the individual’s position in society is
achieved or ascribed.
Individual
Prince Harry
Sir Paul McCartney
Sharon Osborne
Princess Beatrice
Victoria Beckham
Stella McCartney
Jamie Oliver
Charlotte Church
Nigella Lawson
Michael Carroll
Achieved
Ascribed
?
6. Is the UK a meritocracy or a lottery?
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Summary of functionalism
 There are many class divisions
in society organised in a
hierarchical way
 These class divisions reflect the
functional importance of
different occupations
 As the importance of the
different jobs can be expressed
as a gradient, there will then be
several positions and classes in
the hierarchy
 The people and classes are
mutually dependent
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 For society to function
effectively, the different classes
must co-operate to deliver the
good things in life for everyone
 The claim is that individuals are
motivated to ‘get on’ in a
system that is seen to be fair,
where everyone can climb up
the hierarchy through hard work
and making the best use of
opportunities
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Claimed strengths:
 Draws attention to the
interdependence of groups in
complex society
 Provides an explanation for
inequality
 Suggests that individuals can
climb up the hierarchy
 Emphasises the importance of
hard work, education and
gaining qualifications
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Claimed weaknesses:
 No more than an acceptance of
capitalist system
 Accepts the traditional, the
status quo
 Many problems with ideas of
hard work and education
creating a fair society
 Does not satisfactorily explain
who decides what the
functionally important jobs are
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Tutor Guide: Handout and questions on Marx and class
This handout and set of questions can be used either as an introduction to the ideas of
Marx and class, or as a formative assessment at the end of a session to ascertain
absorption of the main ideas of this theory. It is designed to:



clarify some technical terms for the student
summarise the main points of Marxist theory
provide a basis for discussion of Marx’s ideas.
Some points that tutors may like to raise include the following:






Issues of ownership. Has ownership now become clouded with small shareholders,
multinational companies, and paid executives rather than entrepreneurial capitalists?
Has polarisation occurred?
Has proletarianisation occurred? What about the rise in managers? Are they workers
or owners?
Where do service industries fit into this model? Do they produce anything?
What about Marx’s predictions about class-consciousness and revolution?
What part does globalisation play in all of this?
The material in this handout is quite difficult and this exercise will probably take at least
30 minutes to complete, with a further 30 minutes for discussion and exposition.
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Marxist theory of class stratification
Karl Marx (1818-1883) wrote about many different aspects of society, such as economics,
politics and philosophy. Some of his most important ideas were about capitalism and the
class system. When he explained class he used some technical terms, which you need
to know if you are to understand his basic theory.
Marx’s starting point was that human beings, in order to ensure their own and the species
survival, had to take the things that were given by nature and use these in particular ways
to provide for their needs. So, some people will hunt and gather, other people will raise
cattle or grow crops, and others will manufacture goods in factories.
So, different societies organise their lives and economies in different ways. In the
Western world, each era or epoch in human society has been characterised by the
particular ways in which members of society organised themselves. This is known as the
mode of production. Due to certain aspects of the way society is organised, particularly
contradictions in production, the mode of production in one era is transformed into
another.
Marx identified four modes of production, some of which have come about because of
these transformations. These are:




Primitive communism – known in the time of the ‘cavemen’ and later huntergatherer societies and characterised by sharing.
Antiquity – known in early civilised society and characterised by the master/slave
relationship.
Feudalism – known in the Middle Ages and based on the lord/serf relationship.
Capitalism – known in modern times and based on the capitalist/worker relationship.
Although some of Marx’s writing was concerned with how these transformations took
place, he also concentrated on explaining capitalism and the part it plays in class
divisions in society.
One of the factors on which the mode of production is based is known as the means of
production. This simply means the raw materials (such as coal, corn, cotton), land,
buildings and tools (eg. factories and machinery). Marx thought that the ownership of the
means of production was the essential ingredient in deciding which class a person
belonged to.
He saw two major divisions in society during his lifetime and his theory is seen as a twoclass model. The two major class divisions are:
1. Those who owned the means of production and whom he called the bourgeoisie
(the ruling class). People in this class had power in society because they could dictate
how work was carried out and how raw materials were used. They also had the ability
to exploit and oppress others who were non-owners.
2. Those who were non-owners he called the proletariat (the working class). People in
this class owned nothing and the only way they could survive was to sell their labour.
This meant they were at the mercy of those who employed them.
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The ownership of the means of production has an effect on the relations of production.
This term refers to the forms of control over the production process and to the types of
co-operation between workers. As we have seen, the bourgeoisie, because they own the
means of production, can exploit and oppress the proletariat who have no choice but to
work under stipulated conditions set by the owners.
So, what we see here is that production is the important factor in explaining class
stratification. In this production process, profit can only be made if the worker is paid
less than what he/she is worth. In other words, if the labour to make a chair is worth £20,
the capitalist can only make/increase profit by paying the worker less than this sum, eg.
£15. However, the costs of the means of production must also be taken into account. In
this way, exploitation occurs and intensifies because the capitalist system continually
seeks to increase profit. This means the bourgeoisie must find ways of increasing their
production and lowering their costs. One way this can be achieved is making the worker
produce more for less money.
For Marx, this capitalist mode of production is supported by capitalist ideas. He explained
this by referring to the capitalist economic base (or infrastructure) of society and the
superstructure of society.
The economic base is characterised by capitalist investment and the drive for profits. The
superstructure is made up of social and cultural institutions such as the system of laws,
the education system and the mass media, which are shaped by and support the
requirements of the economic base. In this way, the economic base is the foundation of
the capitalist system and the superstructure shapes the norms, values and roles that
contribute to the continuation of the capitalist system. The norms, values and roles come
to convince the proletariat that capitalism is normal and natural. The proletariat suffer
from false consciousness because they begin to think that the capitalist system is fair
and that they too can become successful and rich.
For Marx, the flaw in the capitalist myth was that once the gap between the bourgeoisie
and the proletariat got wider a process of polarisation would occur, which would lead the
proletariat to realise how exploitative the capitalist system was. When this happened the
proletariat would move from the state of false consciousness to a state of class
consciousness. The proletariat would become aware that together as a class they were
strong and once they came to this realisation they would take united action, in their new
state of class consciousness, to end their oppression and exploitation. The two options
for action were the ballot box – which he thought unlikely – or revolution.
Marx did acknowledge that there were other groups in society who did not strictly fit these
two broad class categories. One group was the intelligentsia, who were the professors,
lawyers and writers, etc. The other group were those who worked for themselves, such
as shopkeepers – known as the petit bourgeoisie. However, Marx predicted that as
capitalism advanced the process of polarisation would mean that the intelligentsia and
petit bourgeoisie would gradually be absorbed into the two main classes, with those
absorbed into the working class becoming proletarianised.
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John Westergaard and Henrietta Resler (1976)
In 1976, John Westergaard and Henrietta Resler carried out a Marxist analysis of class in
Britain in their work, Class in a Capitalist Society. They came to the conclusion that
even though ‘history had not been kind to Marx’, class was still the main form of inequality
in Britain and this could be traced to the workings of the capitalist economic system.
They argued that there was still a ruling class in the UK consisting of the richest 5-10
percent of the population. This ruling class was made up of company directors, senior
civil servants and other professionals whose power came from the concentration of
private share ownership in their hands.
Westergaard’s 1995 work, Who Gets What? The Hardening of Class Inequality in the
Late Twentieth Century, updated and supported his findings from the 1976 work. He
concentrated on the effects of privatisation and free market policies implemented by
successive governments since 1979. He found that privately owned wealth had become
even more concentrated in the hands of the top 5-10 percent of the population.
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Student Activity: Marxist theory of class stratification
In this activity you should try to place Marx’s theory of class stratification into an historical
perspective. You should consider whether his predictions have come true or whether
they could come true in the future.
The activity will probably take at least 30 minutes to complete, with a further 30 minutes
for discussion in class.
1. Marx suggested that the time of the cavemen was characterised by sharing, which he
called primitive communism. Was his suggestion correct?
2. Try to explain what you think life would have been like in the UK during Marx’s lifetime
(1818-1883).
3. What did Marx mean by the term ‘mode of production’?
4. According to Marx what is the basis of class?
5. What are the two main classes and what is their relationship to each other?
6. Explain Marx’s idea of the base and the superstructure of capitalist society.
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7. What did Marx predict would happen as capitalism advanced?
8. Do you think Marx’s predictions have come true? Give reasons for your answer.
(Keep the work of Westergaard and Resler in mind.)
9. If you applied Marx’s theory to yourself, to which class do you belong?
10. The former UK Prime Minister, John Major, left school at 16 with no qualifications. He
became Prime Minister in 1990. What does his example tell us about class
stratification in the UK today?
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Summary of Marxism
 There are two main classes, the
bourgeoisie and the proletariat
 They are mutually antagonistic
 Ownership or non-ownership of
the means of production is the
most important division in
capitalist society
 History is driven by the conflict
between the two main classes,
as they struggle to control
society
 Individuals in similar class
positions tend to develop a
consciousness that they hold
similar interests
 Conflict will result in change
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Claimed strengths:
 Draws attention to importance
of conflict as the ‘motor of
history’
 Theory of social change
 Draws attention to the
exploitation of the proletariat by
the bourgeoisie
 Emphasises the importance of
economic ownership
 Good at explaining the
workings of capital
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Claimed weaknesses:
 Too economically deterministic
 ‘Privileges’ the role of the
proletariat
 ‘History has not been kind to
Marx’
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Tutor Guide: Weber’s theory of class stratification
This section is designed to outline the main ideas of Weber on class stratification. They
can be used as ‘stand alone’ resources to enable students to take notes on the main
elements of Weber’s theory. However, they also give the tutor the opportunity to talk
about the differences between Marx and Weber in key areas of their respective theories.
Some points that could be raised include the following:





the difference between the two-class model and multi-class model
the importance of market/economic position versus ownership/non-ownership
predictions about class action – revolution or acceptance?
class as a coherent group versus situation complicated by status and party
predictions about the development of capitalism – polarisation or diversification?
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Max Weber’s theory of class stratification
According to Weber (1864-1920) ownership/non-ownership was an important division, but
within these two categories there was further differentiation. What is important is what
people have in terms of goods, wealth or skills. These can be exchanged in the
‘market’ for a monetary value. It is this ‘market’ or ‘economic’ position that determines
class position.
So, for Weber: market position = class position.
In principle, this means that there could be as many class positions as there are
market/economic positions.
Weber and life chances
Life chances are the type of education, health, diet, housing, and working conditions a
person may experience during their lifetime. Different classes have different life chances.
Those in a better market position have more life chances, ie. increased opportunities
through good health, diet, etc. Groups may share a similar class position, but will not
necessarily organise together to better their class position. Even if groups recognise their
position of inequality they may accept this, or engage in grumbling or sabotage, rather
than develop the revolutionary consciousness that Marx argued they would.
Class, status and party
Status and party are two other sources of power that also weaken the coherence of class
groups.
Status is social power, which comes from belonging to a particular group. So, a priest
may not have a strong economic position, but may have high status.
Party means belonging to a particular group that has influence in society, eg. a pressure
group or political party. Belonging to such a group may weaken class solidarity and
promote the interest of group members. For example, men from different walks of life
belong to the Freemasons, or people may belong to ‘eco’ groups.
Weber’s prediction for the future
According to Weber, capitalism would develop. As capitalism developed it would need
more and more administrative posts to support it. More administrative posts would mean
more white-collar work. An increase in white-collar work means an expansion of the
middle class. This, in turn, would lead to more and more diversification and mobility.
John Goldthorpe (1980) used Weber’s concept of mobility to construct a model of social
class in modern capitalist societies with seven classes, from the professions to
agricultural workers, and attempted to explain stratification between the service, middle
and working class through occupational status.
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Class I
Higher professional administrators, managers and large proprietors.
Class ii
Lower grade administrators, higher grade technicians and supervisors.
Class iii
Routine non-manual.
Class iv
Small proprietors and self-employed.
Class v
Foremen and lower-grade technicians.
Class vi
Skilled manual.
Class vii Semi-skilled and unskilled manual in industry and agricultural workers.
Goldthorpe’s examination of class through occupational categories highlighted some of
the differences in power and the ability to be mobile that certain occupations, such as
administrators and technicians, possess. However, he has been criticised for ignoring the
ruling class and for ignoring the position of women in his stratification system.
Social closure (social inclusion and social exclusion)
The concept of social closure is associated with the ideas of Weber and Goldthorpe.
The suggestion is that groups of people who share similar life chances as a result of
factors such as status and party close ranks to mark themselves out from other groups.
This leads to questions of inclusion and exclusion. For example, entry to certain clubs,
schools and occupations offer mutual support through this social network. This is often
referred to as networking or elite self-recruitment. This can lead to a situation were
access to life chances is better for some than the rest of society and consequently worse
for those not included. This social exclusion can affect: the long-term unemployed;
single parents; people with disabilities; the homeless; ethnic minority groups; and elderly
people. These groups then experience lesser life chances. This exclusion strategy is
used to protect existing privileges. Groups can insist that potential new recruits to their
ranks possess the appropriate credentials to gain access. This credentialism is used to
close off rewards of belonging to the group by emphasising the qualifications or
credentials needed to belong.
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Student Activity: Weber on class stratification
In this activity you should attempt to put Weber’s observations into an historical context.
You should keep Marx’s observations in mind because it could be said that Weber was
‘debating’ with the ghost of Marx. You should then consider whether Weber’s
observations are still relevant today.
1. Weber was 19 when Marx died in 1883. Weber lived to see major events such as
World War 1, the Russian Revolution (October 1917), and working class men and
some women getting the vote in Western societies. How do you think these events
would have affected Weber’s thinking about human behaviour before his death in
1920?
2. According to Weber, what determines someone’s class position?
3. According to Weber, how is class coherence weakened? Explain your answer.
4. Give two reasons why people might move up or down the stratification system in terms
of social mobility.
5. What do you understand by middle class areas and middle class lifestyles?
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6. What does social closure mean?
7. In 2003, the Deputy Prime Minister, John Prescott, was reported to have fallen out with
his father. In a newspaper article, Prescott said he had been born working class but
had become middle class because he had become a politician. His father said he and
his son had been brought up working class and therefore would always be working
class. What do you think of this?
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Summary of Weberianism
 Multi-class model of society
where economic divisions are
important
but
 Market situation (the rewards
individuals receive) is more
important than ownership
 Different groups compete in
different ways to increase their
share of the rewards
 Individuals identify more with
those who follow similar
lifestyles, rather than those who
share similar economic
positions
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Claimed strengths:
 Identifies divisions other than
class
 Highlights the importance of
consumption as well as
production
 Individual consciousness is
seen as important
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Claimed weaknesses:
 Underestimates importance of
class divisions in society
 Assumes there is ‘status’ and
‘party’ consciousness without
adequately demonstrating it
 Unclear about the relationship
between class, status and party
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Aspects
Social mobility
A major area of discussion when talking about class stratification is social mobility. Social
mobility is defined as the ability to be able to move up the hierarchy
(embourgeoisement, meaning the adoption of the norms and values of the bourgeoisie)
or down the hierarchy (proletarianisation, meaning as more work becomes deskilled the
workers become proletarian) from one social group to another.
Sociologists generally refer to two forms of social mobility: vertical and horizontal.


Vertical mobility describes movement between strata both up and down the
stratification system. It can usually be seen as an example of long-range mobility,
displaying a change in class status and can be examined through:
-
intra-generational, which is mobility that describes movement of an individual
over his or her lifetime, for example, as a result of changing career or promotion
-
inter-generational, which is mobility that refers to movement between
generations. As mentioned earlier, people who grew up in working class areas
with working class parents have themselves become middle class through
obtaining middle class lifestyles.
Horizontal mobility is a geographical term used to describe movement around the
country to new forms of similar employment. This can be seen as short-range
mobility, because there is little change in the individual’s class status.
Operationalising social mobility
There are a number of practical problems when conducting research into whether social
mobility (and social closure) either exist or are possible within the class structure of the
UK.

Samples of the population need to be quite large in order to represent the whole of
the UK.

It might be that social mobility and social closure have been easier for certain
generations depending on the availability of certain types of work or the conditions of
the economy.

Women have not been represented in much of the work done on social mobility and
social closure, despite their presence in the workforce in small numbers in the past to
their present very strong position in the labour market now.
Sociologists have carried out the following influential studies concerned with questions of
social mobility.
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The Social Mobility in Britain Study by Glass (1954)
Glass studied inter-generational mobility in the UK of men only. He drew a number of
conclusions, including:

While individuals did move up and down the hierarchy, it was generally short-range
and within certain types of work only, so that few people broke through from manual
work to professional work.

Generally the pattern was of sons taking similar jobs with a similar status to their
father.

While it was possible to rise in the system, membership of the middle classes
seemed to offer children some protection from dropping back down into lower-status
work.

He suggested this was an example of self-recruitment.

As this study only included men and excluded women it is considered to be dated.
The ‘Oxford Mobility Studies’ by Goldthorpe et al. (1972, 1980 and 1986)
Goldthorpe et al. studied only men aged between 20 and 64 years; women were not
included. They found that two-thirds of the sons of unskilled or semi-skilled workers were
in manual occupations. Four percent of blue-collar workers came from professional
backgrounds. Approximately thirty percent of professionals were from working class
backgrounds. Downward mobility appeared to be declining, but more men from working
class backgrounds were unemployed.
Among the conclusions of these studies were the following:

Long-range social mobility rates had increased in the UK since after World War Two,
suggesting that class categories and society had become more open.

However, it was suggested that this increase could have been due to changes in the
occupational structure of the UK; de-industrialisation had led to fewer traditional
working class jobs.
Marshall, Rose, Newby and Vogler, Social Class in Modern Britain (referred to as
the Essex Study) (1988)
This study looked at both male and female rates of mobility. The findings were based on
the class of the respondent (male or female) and the class of the ‘chief childhood
supporter’ (male or female). The study found high rates of upward mobility overall,
including:

For men, the rates were similar to those found in the Oxford studies.

For women there was evidence of upward and downward mobility into class 3, that
is, routine, non-manual work.

The conclusions of this study were that the expansion of white-collar jobs, after deindustrialisation, explained the high rates of upward mobility.
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
Large numbers of women were working in routine, non-manual occupations, such as
clerical, admin and retail.
A.H. Halsey, Change in British Society (1995)
Halsey found that the evidence supported the claim that there was more upward social
mobility in British society over the past century with less downward social mobility,
although some did exist. These changes in the class system Halsey likened to a shift
from a pyramid to a lemon shape. The pyramid contained a small number of upper class
at the top, a larger number of middle class in the middle and a disproportionate number of
working class at the bottom. The lemon shape contained small numbers of upper and
working class at either end with a large middle class in-between.
Aspect: Social Closure
Another area of discussion when talking about class stratification is social closure. Social
closure is a term which is used to explain how people who share similar life chances as a
result of factors such as status and party close ranks to mark themselves out from other
groups. This leads to questions of inclusion and exclusion. For example, entry to certain
clubs, schools and occupations offer mutual support through this social network. This is
often referred to as networking or elite self-recruitment. This can lead to a situation
were access to life chances is better for some than the rest of society and consequently
worse for those not included.
Elite self-recruitment
This form of social closure is a process by which, it is claimed, members of wealthy and
powerful groups are drawn from children of those who already belong to it and is known
as elite self-recruitment. The suggestion is that social mobility is closed to newcomers
from lower social classes as a result of opportunities being restricted to those from within
the elite groups themselves.
The following studies indicate a degree of social closure or elite self-recruitment in the
UK. Willmott and Young conducted a study in 1970 in the London area and found that
83 percent of managing directors were the sons of professionals and managers. The
sample was 174.
A survey by Stanworth and Giddens (1971) found that out of 460 company chairmen
studied, only 1 percent had a manual working class background. However, 66 percent
came from the upper class, such as industrialists and landowners.
In 1991, Borthwick et al. studied the educational background of Conservative MPs in the
general elections of 1979, 1983 and 1987. They found that in 1987 over half of these
MPs had been to public (the top private) schools and just under half had graduated from
either Oxford or Cambridge University. In the general election of 1997, the backgrounds
of Labour MPs were more varied.
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Student Activity: Essay question
In the external exam you are required to complete an essay on either class stratification
or education worth 30 marks. This activity is practice for the exam.
Question:
It is debated whether the study of class is still relevant in the UK today.
Is the study of class still relevant in the UK today?
(30 marks)
In your answer you should:

Give an introduction with definitions of stratification and class stratification, including
changes that have taken place.
(approx 6 marks)

Explain at least two sociological theories of class stratification that you have studied,
giving their strengths and weaknesses.
(approx 10 marks)

Evaluate at least two sociological studies associated with class stratification that
examine an aspect of life – choose one from social mobility or social closure.
(approx 10 marks)

Give a conclusion in which you should evaluate the debate and consider whether the
initial question can be answered.
(approx 4 marks)
NB. The purpose of this assessment is to demonstrate your knowledge and
understanding of and ability to analyse and evaluate relevant theories. You are also
required to demonstrate your ability to link theories to studies and aspects relevant to the
topic, while also analysing and evaluating the links.
For an award at Grade A, candidates should be able to demonstrate detailed knowledge
and understanding of most of the relevant material required for a complete answer to the
question. For an award at Grade A there should be evidence of integration and in-depth
analysis of relevant theories, studies and an aspect of life, including evaluative and critical
points.
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The Sociology of Education
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Recommended reading





Bilton, T. et al. (1996) Introducing Sociology, 3rd edition. Macmillan – Chapter 11.
Giddens, A. (2001) Sociology, 4th Edition. Polity – Chapter 16.
Tudor. (1997) Sociology: An Introduction, Court – Chapter 8.
Haralambos, M. and Holborn, M. (2004) Sociology: Themes and Perspectives, 6th
edition. Collins – Chapter 11.
Sociology and Scotland: An Introduction, edited by Sweeney, Lewis and Etherington.
(2003) Unity Publications Ltd – Chapter 9.
Recommended websites







Hewett School: http://www.hewett.norfolk.sch.uk/CURRIC/soc/educatio/edindex.htm
S-Cool!: http://www.s-cool.co.uk/topic_index.asp?subject_id=64&d=0
Scottish Further Education Unit (click on subject specific, click on social science):
http://www2.sfeu.ac.uk/Databases/IGDec/VLCUpdateX05.nsf
Sociology Central: http://www.sociology.org.uk/rload.htm
Sociology Learning: http://www.chrisgardner.clara.net/sls1/tests/testmenu.htm
Sociology Online: http://www.sociologyonline.co.uk/
Association for the Teaching of Social Science (links page):
http://www.le.ac.uk/education/centres/ATSS/sites.html
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Tutor Guide: Student Activity on features of education
This quiz is designed to highlight the main features of education by tapping into the
student’s own knowledge and experience, and forming a basis for class discussion and
tutor exposition. Some points which could be raised are the following:





The importance of education in the socialisation process. This involves both formal
and informal socialisation and secondary and anticipatory socialisation. This part of
the discussion is an opportunity to draw on many examples of these different aspects
of socialisation in relation to the education system. It is also worth pointing out
differences with other societies where education may take different forms.
The importance of education to work. This involves not only skills such as reading
and writing, but also the informal process (although some may argue they are
deliberate) in producing an obedient, quiescent workforce.
Formal education may start in nursery school and in general can continue to
university level. However, emphasis may now be on ‘life-long’ learning, which means
formal education may continue while people are working.
Education takes in basic skills (‘the 3 Rs’) and also specialisms. Traditionally the
focus has been on academic qualifications with vocational qualifications being
afforded lower status. Attempts have been made to eradicate this difference, thus the
introduction of new vocational qualifications in Scotland. There is also a need to
highlight differences between the Scottish system of education and that in the rest of
the UK.
There is a range of education provision in the UK – comprehensive, private and
religious. There is also a need to highlight the role of local authority and legal
requirements for children to receive some type of education.
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Student Activity: thinking about education
The point of this activity is to promote discussion about the following:

The importance of education in the socialisation process. This involves both formal
and informal socialisation and secondary socialisation. It is also worth thinking
about differences with other societies where education may take different forms or
may exclude certain groups of people.

The importance of education to work. This involves not only skills such as reading
and writing, but also the informal process of producing an obedient workforce.

Formal education may start in nursery school and in general can continue to
university level. However, emphasis may now be on lifelong learning, which means
formal education may continue while people are working and at any time in a
person’s life.

Education takes in basic skills (the ‘3 Rs’), but also specialisms. Traditionally, the
focus has been on academic qualifications with vocational qualifications being
afforded less status, but this is changing.
Now, from your own knowledge and experience of education, answer the following
questions.
1. What type of schools have you attended?
2. Write down all the types of things you have learned during all of your school
experiences.
3. In what ways do you think your school education prepared you for life in general?
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4. In what ways do you think your school education prepared you for the world of work?
5. What are schools for?
6. What should schools be for?
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The education system in the UK
Before 1870
The education system was not formally organised in the way it is now. Access to
education depended to a large extent on an individual’s position in society. The rich
tended to educate their children privately or send them to private schools, while the poor
tended to depend on church-run charity schools, with the emphasis on ‘moral’ education.
The 1870 Education Act
This Act tried to ensure that some basic education became available to all children from
the ages of 5 to 11. This led to the general acceptance of the idea that revenue from
state taxation should be used to pay for schooling. This was the start of the link between
the state and education in the UK that exists to this day. Between 1870 and 1944, the
education system was based on social class.
The 1944 Butler Education Act
This Act aimed to give all pupils an equal chance to develop their potential in a system of
state-financed and state-run education. This was the major piece of educational
legislation in the UK. It introduced a new three-stage structure, which is still in existence
today:
1.
Primary – up to the age of 11.
2.
Secondary – from 11 to 15 (school leaving age was raised to 16 in 1976). This
included schools based on selection and the idea of meritocracy.
3.
Further and higher – non-compulsory education beyond the school leaving age.
The comprehensive system
In 1965, the Labour government under Harold Wilson decided to introduce the
comprehensive system, whereby all secondary students, regardless of ability, attended
the same school. By 1986, approximately 90 percent of secondary school students were
attending comprehensives.
The 1988 Education Act
This Act was the most important reform associated with the Conservative governments
from 1979 to 1996 who adhered to new right ideology. The general thrust was with the
following:

the association of education with economic competition and growth

the emphasis on consumer choice, parental power and opting out

testing and school league tables

vocational education and training (lifelong learning).
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New Labour (1997-present)
The Labour government elected in 1997 put education at the centre of its first term in
office, with the rallying cry of ‘Education, Education, Education’ promising change. In the
event, they actually retained many new right policies, including competition, consumer
choice, league tables, vocational education and lifelong learning. The main thrust of the
Labour government’s education policies to date focus on market choice and value for
money.
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Summary of changes in
education and the study of
education since 1944
 Changes in the school leaving
age over past 60 years
 Changes in school curriculum –
broadened in terms of subjects
and qualifications
 Expansion of educational
provision – colleges,
universities and private
organisations
 Parental choice – some choice
in which school children attend
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 Education now available to all
rather than just a privileged few
 Changes in funding for higher
education – from having to pay
to free education, back to
having to pay
 Issues of class, gender and
ethnicity now studied by
sociologists
 Vocationalism, training and
lifelong learning now studied by
sociologists
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Functionalist theory of education
Functionalism is a structural theory of human behaviour. The functionalist’s main
observations on education coincide with their observations of society in general. Society
is viewed as an organism. In this biological analogy, education is like an organ, which is
part of the body of society. If schools work, society will work. In this way, schools are like
mini-societies. Schools play an integrated part with other agents of socialisation in the
process of transmitting norms, values and roles. Therefore, to understand the education
system we must consider how it functions to contribute to the healthy maintenance and
well being of the whole social system.
Functionalists suggest that for a healthy society, individuals must learn society’s norms
and values. The norms and values contribute to social solidarity and value consensus
and education plays a vital role in this. In this way, it is claimed that anomie, a form of
normlessness, is kept at bay.
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) outlined a number of the basic ideas concerning the role of
the education system that were to be developed by later functionalist writers, such as
Talcott Parsons and Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore.
Durkheim’s basic theoretical position was that the education system should be seen as
an agency of secondary socialisation. While the family is an agency of primary
socialisation (performing the initial socialising functions required to help integrate children
into their immediate culture), the education system is an institution that broadens the
individual’s experience of the social world. It prepares people for adult roles. In
functionalist terms, an education system has three basic functions:
1. The socialisation function.
2. The selective function.
3. The economic function.
The socialisation function
Education is a secondary agent of socialisation, through which individuals learn important
aspects of their culture. The education system could be said to ‘knit’ children from
different backgrounds into a unified group. For functionalists, this socialisation function
contributes to social order, through the process of collective consciousness. This
function is often referred to as culture transmission.
The concept of a collective consciousness refers to the basic, fundamental, values and
norms that individuals share in society. Such values are so central to our lives that they
are shared by everyone and hence take on the appearance of existing independently of
any individual.
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The selective function
Functionalists view the education system as being like a sieve, grading pupils and
students according to their ability and placing individuals in occupational roles best
suited to their talents and abilities. In this way, those who achieve high qualifications are
seen as the most able and are, therefore, rewarded with higher pay levels and higher
status in society. This is known as a meritocracy.
Meritocracy: A system of stratification where those most qualified get the highest
positions in the hierarchy and those with the least qualifications get the lower positions in
the hierarchy.
The economic function
Education is seen to teach the skills and knowledge necessary for work in a modern,
technical, industrial society, for example, literacy, numeracy and computer skills.
Vocational courses aim to train individuals for the world of work. One way or another,
according to functionalists, education prepares individuals for their future occupational
roles.
Therefore, the successful transmission of the norms, values and roles through the above
functions helps society to progress in an orderly way. The main claim is that schools and
society in general are meritocratic. This means that positions in society are achieved
rather than ascribed.
Talcott Parsons
For Talcott Parsons, the education system represents one of a number of inter-related
and inter-dependent institutions in society. Each institution has a different set of
purposes and hence ‘needs’ (that is, things it requires from other institutions if it is to
continue to function properly).
Institutions such as the family, education, work and government perform different
functions and although these functions will (necessarily) overlap, each institution is
somehow unique. Parsons’ argument is that there is a clear ‘fit’ between the ways in
which institutions such as the family, education and work develop. We can express this
idea in the following way:

The initial purpose of the family is to provide primary socialisation for children. This
includes care, comfort and security followed by basic literacy and numeracy. In this
way, children are prepared for leaving home and going to school.

The purpose of the school is to provide secondary socialisation. This involves a
higher level of literacy and numeracy and the preparation of children for the world of
work. Instilling ideas of competition and selection does this.

The world of work requires literate and numerate individuals to carry out tasks.
Further to this, individuals should be able to acquire specialised technical skills
and be able to take orders and accept their place.
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Parsons makes a basic argument here, in that education:
1.
Develops and co-ordinates human resources.
2.
Selects individuals on the basis of ability (a meritocracy).
3.
Develops social cohesion through the secondary socialisation process by
socialising individuals into core social values.
According to Davis and Moore (1945), social stratification represents a mechanism
through which those who are most able and talented intellectually are allocated work
roles that offer the highest rewards in terms of income, power, status and so forth. This is
seen to be because the most able, capable and competent members of society must fill
the adult roles that are seen to be the most functionally important. In this way, education
is seen as the proving ground for ability and the selective agency for placing people in
different jobs according to those abilities.
Formal and informal learning
For functionalists in general, the education system provides students with formal
learning through the official curriculum, which includes all those subjects studied in
lessons, such as history, maths, etc. Students also learn through the ‘hidden
curriculum’, which refers to the learning that takes place outside particular subjects or
lessons as part of general school or college life.
The hidden curriculum of a school may be different from that of a college but it generally
involves learning rules, routines and regulations. Students may learn such things without
necessarily realising they are learning them. This is known as informal learning.
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Student Activity: Functionalist theory of education
This activity is meant to test your understanding of the section on functionalist
observations of education. You should also draw on real life examples to help your
understanding.
1. What does collective consciousness mean?
2. Summarise and evaluate the functionalist suggestion that there is equality of
opportunity in the UK education system.
3. How would functionalists explain the success of pop stars and sports stars? Have
these ‘stars’ displayed intelligence linked with hard work?
4. Is functionalism still relevant for explaining the role of education in UK society today?
5. How would a functionalist explain the teaching of sociology in schools?
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Summary of functionalism
 The functionalist’s main
observations on education
coincide with their observations
of society in general
 Society is viewed as an
organism – in this biological
analogy, education is like an
organ that is part of the body of
society; if schools work, society
will work. In this way, schools
are like mini-societies
 Schools play an integrated part
with other agents of
socialisation in the process of
transmitting norms, values and
roles
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 Functionalists suggest that for
a healthy society individuals
must learn society’s norms and
values
 The norms and values
contribute to social solidarity
and value consensus and
education plays a vital role in
this
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Claimed strengths:
 Links what goes on in the
education system with the
needs of wider society
 In this way, the biological
analogy is helpful – the school
is an organ that serves the
body, which is society
 The suggestion that the
educational system, as a minisociety, socialises individuals
into learning the norms and
values of wider society is
helpful
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Claimed weaknesses:
 Assumes a monoculture where
everyone shares similar norms
and values – the UK is now
claimed to be multicultural with
a variety of norms and values
 Assumes everyone will learn
their role and play their part in
society – what about the
unemployed?
 Does not explain the success of
individuals such as pop and
sports stars. What about
individuals who win the lottery?
 As a structural theory, it does
not take enough account of
individual meaning and
interpretation in education
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Marxist theory of education
For Marxists, the education system serves the needs of capitalism by transmitting
capitalist cultural norms and values. One way it does this is through what is referred to as
the hidden curriculum. The hidden curriculum reflects capitalist society’s norms and
values and prepares individuals for their place in society and their future work role.
The education system provides an illusion of equality of opportunity that results in
inequalities. This in turn allows inequality in other areas of society, such as work, to be
thought of as normal. In this way, dominant beliefs and ways of acting are decided by the
powerful in society and are reproduced through the education system.
The means of production and the relations of production form what Marx termed the
infrastructure or economic base of society. This means that economic relations form
the heart of any society and, furthermore, shape every other part of society. However,
this is a two-way relationship, as the other parts of society then serve to legitimate and
maintain the economic base.
These other parts of society are known as the
superstructure (see Class Stratification). Like a house built on its foundations, the
superstructure is built on the base. Education is an important part of the superstructure.
For Marxists, then, education performs two main functions in capitalist society:
1.
It reproduces the inequalities and social relations of production of capitalist society.
2.
It serves to legitimate these inequalities under the guise of a meritocracy.
Louis Althusser, in Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses (1972), argued that
schools moulded children into subjects to fit the requirements of capitalism. At school,
children learned submission, deference, respect for work and their place within it. He
claimed that schools helped to meet the needs of the workforce and ensured that the
labour force was technically competent. Also, and most importantly, education provides
an ideology that legitimates the inequalities of capitalist society. Whilst Marxists, such as
Althusser, argue that the capitalist class must exercise control over education,
functionalists argue that schools operate meritocratically.
However, Althusser argued that the idea of a meritocracy is merely ideology that makes
people believe that the education system is fair when really it serves the interests of the
ruling class, because they control the education system. In school, we are socialised into
believing that schools operate on meritocratic principles. This ideology pacifies us and
we do not see that the education system is really unfair and serves to reproduce the
inequalities of society and the relations of production that benefit the capitalist class.
Herbert Bowles and Samuel Gintis, in Schooling in Capitalist America (1976),
suggest there is a correspondence theory between the nature of work and the
education system in capitalist societies. The role of an education system is to integrate
people into various aspects of the capitalist production process. Their work is
predominantly an attack on the functionalist ‘myth’ of meritocracy and equality of
opportunity. Their observation was that the working class learn their place in capitalist
society, predominantly through the hidden curriculum.
In Schooling in Capitalist America Revisited (2001), Bowles and Gintis claim that new
evidence backs up their original findings and that claims that modern capitalism has
become more meritocratic are unfounded. Therefore, according to Bowles and Gintis, the
education system is not meritocratic; rather, it is a structural mechanism for reproducing
class inequalities.
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Student Activity: Marxist theory of education
This activity is meant to test your understanding of the section on Marxist theory of
education. You should also draw on real life examples, where possible, to help your
understanding.
1. Education in the UK crushes creativity and individuality, and turns pupils/students into
conformists. Discuss.
2. Who makes the rules in your educational establishment and for what purpose?
3. Can you suggest alternative rules?
4. Marxism is a conflict theory. What conflict takes place within the education system in
the UK?
5. Summarise and evaluate Marxist suggestions that the education system in the UK is a
tool of the bourgeoisie.
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Summary of Marxism
 Marxists claim that much of the
school day is taken up with
boring and meaningless
activities
 Students have little say in the
content of the subjects they
study or in the overall
organisation of the school day
 Equally, following the same
timetable, week in, week out,
may lead to a sense of boredom
and powerlessness
 Schools prepare students for
boring and repetitive jobs – in
this way, it is claimed there is a
link between students’
experience of school and many
employees’ experience of work
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Claimed strengths
 Explanation of the negative
aspects of the hidden
curriculum is thought provoking
 To bring equality into education
we would need to change the
social structure that engenders
inequality, eg. capitalism
 Does demonstrate that
education is not always
beneficial
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Claimed weaknesses
 On the other hand, all aspects
of education are not necessarily
oppressive. For example, it has
enabled some to change their
social situation (ie. become
upwardly socially mobile)
 Marxism often focuses on class
inequality and ignores other
inequalities such as gender
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Feminist theories of education
In general, feminists suggest that the education system in the UK is instrumental in
reinforcing inequalities in society. The different branches of feminism debate how to
overcome the unequal nature of the education system. There are several feminist
approaches, however, each offering varying explanations of the role of education in
reinforcing social inequalities.
Liberal feminism
Liberal feminists campaign to reduce sex discrimination and to gain equal opportunities
for girls/women in education. These inequalities will be overcome by changes in
education legislation and policies. This approach has exposed discriminatory practices
and it has had some legislative success through the work of the Equal Opportunities
Commission. Other feminists say that this approach implies that society is basically good
and all that is required is the removal of discriminatory obstacles so that girls/women can
achieve equality with boys/men in the education system. Radical and Marxist feminists
insist that the problem is deeper than this and so a more critical analysis is needed.
Radical feminism
Radical feminists stress the basic conflict between the sexes. The main enemy is
patriarchy within the education system, whereby males achieve and maintain the
dominant position to further their own interests. Inequality can only be brought to an end
when females are freed from physical and emotional subjugation. The education
system is seen as reinforcing this subjugation by trying to convince people that females’
perceived inferior position is natural – ie. biologically or genetically determined. The
main goal for radical feminists is to free females from patriarchal control.
Marxist feminism
Marxist feminists stress that women, like men, are members of social classes and this
has a significant effect on their life chances and experiences. They agree with Marxists
that the education system serves the needs of the capitalist system. For them, women
are forced into roles of supporting men in the home, the school and the work place. The
formal and hidden curricula are seen as ways of enforcing these unequal roles within the
capitalist system.
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Student Activity: Feminist theories of education
This activity is meant to test your understanding of the section on feminist theories of
education. Where possible, you should also draw on real life examples to help your
understanding.
1. Are feminist claims that the education system reinforces inequalities in society still
relevant today?
2. Liberal feminists suggest that changing the law can help to remove any remaining
inequalities in society. Discuss whether any new laws have removed inequalities in
the last 40 years.
3. What does patriarchy mean?
4. Explain how formal and hidden curricula can reinforce inequalities according to Marxist
feminists.
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Summary of feminism
 In general, feminists suggest
that the education system in the
UK is instrumental in
reinforcing inequalities in
society
 Liberal feminists campaign to
reduce sex discrimination and
to gain equal opportunities for
girls/women in education
 These inequalities will be
overcome by changes in
educational legislation and
policies
 Radical feminists stress the
basic conflict between the
sexes
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 The main enemy is patriarchy
within the education system,
whereby males achieve and
maintain the dominant position
to further their own interests
 Marxist feminists stress that
women, like men, are members
of social classes and this has a
significant effect on their life
chances and experiences
 They agree with Marxists that
the education system serves
the needs of the capitalist
system
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Claimed strengths:
 Highlights the ‘gendered’ nature
of much education
 Creates a powerful argument
that inequalities exist and the
patriarchal system of education
discriminates against females
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Claimed weaknesses:
 Fails to explain why girls have
been out-performing boys in
many subjects for a number of
years
 Ignores the poor performance
of boys over recent years
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Interactionist theory of education
Interactionist theory looks at what goes on in schools – it looks at the interactions
between students and teachers and between students, etc. It looks at how these
interactions may affect the performances of pupils in the education system.
Teachers are agents of socialisation and they are significant actors in the educational
drama that unfolds within the classroom. In this respect, teachers are powerful players
within the education system precisely because they are in a position to judge the success
or failure of the individuals they teach.
In his study entitled Social Class Variations in the Teacher-Pupil Relationship,
Howard Becker (1961) showed how teachers in Chicago high schools classified and
evaluated their pupils against the standard of the ideal pupil. Becker found that those
pupils who came closest to the ideal were mainly drawn from middle-class backgrounds,
whilst those who were furthest from the ideal were mainly from working class
backgrounds. Becker concluded that by attempting to categorise students in this way,
teachers actually created problems within the classroom. When a teacher had labelled a
child as far from the ideal they behaved towards that child in terms of the mental label
they had created. So, they interpreted the lack of interest and motivation, misconduct
and so forth of the non-ideal students in the light of the label they had created for that
child.
David Hargreaves, in Social Relations in the Secondary School (1967), found that
teachers disliked teaching pupils of perceived lower ability. The pupils were labelled as
nuisances and their performance and progress were hindered as a result. In a further
study entitled Deviance in the Classroom (1975), he questioned who made the rules in
schools and classrooms and how these rules were perceived to have been broken. He
found that teachers labelled non-conformist pupils as deviant and these pupils reacted in
a deviant way. These studies indicated much the same kind of things (in a British school)
as Becker observed in American schools some thirty years before.
Robert Rosenthal and Leonara Jacobson’s Pygmalion in the Classroom (1968),
based on the Pygmalion story, claimed to highlight the self-fulfilling prophecy in schools.
Pupils of varying levels of ability were identified to teachers as being the most likely to
develop intellectually. The results were that teachers expected the pupils to achieve and
expectations were reinforced when the pupils’ performance improved and they did
increase their IQ scores in tests.
Stephen Ball, in Beachside Comprehensive (1981) studied the banding of new firstyear pupils. In this study, Ball notes that pupils at this school were put into one of three
‘bands’ from information given to them by primary schools:

Band 1 – were mostly from non-manual backgrounds.

Band 2 – were mostly from semi-skilled backgrounds.

Band 3 – were mostly from manual backgrounds.
Ball argues that all students entered the school eager to learn but due to the effects of
teacher attitudes and expectations:
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
Band 1 ‘warmed to education’ and did well in school, but

Bands 2 and 3 ‘cooled down’ and under-achieved.
The argument is that banding and streaming can affect whole groups and produce mass
labelling and the self-fulfilling prophecy.
Ball’s study found that even when streaming was replaced by mixed ability grouping,
teachers continued to have low expectations of working class pupils.
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Student Activity: Interactionist theory of education
This activity is meant to test your understanding of the section on interactionist
observations of education. You should also draw on real life examples to help your
understanding, where possible.
1. From your own experience, try to explain what an ideal pupil would look and act like.
2. Explain how the self-fulfilling prophecy might work in schools.
3. Considering the findings of the Beachside Comprehensive study in 1981, why do you
think teachers continued to have low expectations of working class pupils?
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Summary of interactionism
 Interactionist theory looks at
what goes on in schools
 It looks at the interactions
between students and teachers
and between students, etc.
 It looks at how these
interactions may affect the
performances of pupils in the
education system
 Interactionists challenge the
functionalist illusion of equality
of opportunity
 They also criticise the Marxist
concern with cultural
deprivation in the late sixties
and early seventies
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Claimed strengths:
 It takes things as it finds them
without making positive or
negative assumptions
 It considers the experience of
individuals and credits them
with the ability to interact and
negotiate in the classroom
 Labelling theory is helpful when
considering the class, gender
and ethnic experiences of
students
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Claimed weaknesses:
 It can be considered to be too
subjective
 By concentrating on the micro
sphere, it fails to take into
account wider social influences
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Aspects
Differential educational achievement
A major topic of discussion in relation to education is the question of differential
educational achievement. There are concerns amongst sociologists that hard work and
intelligence are not the only factors in determining how well an individual performs and
achieves in the education system in the UK today. The question of intelligence is of
particular concern to sociologists.
Intelligence and differential educational achievement
Sociologists have debated whether differential achievement in education can be
attributed to the biological inheritance of intelligence. Although IQ tests in the form of
the 11+ are no longer used in schools, they are still used in the form of entrance tests to
private schools and as a qualifying criteria for particular jobs. The use of IQ tests has
been challenged on a number of counts, such as:




class bias
gender bias
ethnic bias
lack of agreement among sociologists about intelligence, ie. whether it is natural or
learned.
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Tutor Guide: Student Activity on intelligence and inequality
This activity is designed to examine arguments that locate inequality in education with
differences in biological inheritance of intelligence. Although IQ tests in the form of the
11+ are no longer used in state schools, they are still used in the form of entrance tests to
private schools and as a qualifying criterion for particular jobs. The use of IQ tests has
been challenged on a number of counts, such as the following:






middle class bias
ethnocentrism
gender bias
testing specific skills not IQ in general
based on factor analysis that is itself questionable
lack of agreement among psychologists studying intelligence.
Apart from questioning the validity of IQ tests, it is also very difficult to define intelligence
and this exercise should demonstrate how opinions would differ. It should also allow the
tutor to highlight such points as the following:






ability may be in different areas
is intelligence just about qualifications?
could a person have qualifications without being intelligent? For example, are some
people simply good at passing exams?
can intelligence develop? What about people who fail at school but then go on to do
well?
it may demonstrate that qualifications may lead to better positions
it may demonstrate that a person may have qualifications but this may not improve
chances for such things as employment.
The exercise should take about 15 minutes to complete, with a further 10 minutes for
discussion. Tutors may wish to change the ‘scenarios’ to suit particular groups or to
make specific points. This exercise can also be used in relation to functionalist theory,
which, among other arguments, suggests that people have innate abilities that will decide
their position in society.
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Student Activity: IQs and differential achievement
Apart from questioning the validity of IQ tests, it is also very difficult to define intelligence
and this exercise should demonstrate how opinions differ. Points to consider when
completing this exercise include:






ability may be in different areas
is intelligence just about (academic) qualifications?
could a person have qualifications without being intelligent? For example, are some
people simply good at passing exams?
can intelligence develop? What about people who fail at school but then go on to do
well?
it may demonstrate that qualifications may lead to better positions
it may demonstrate that individuals can have qualifications, but this may not improve
chances for such things as employment.
Below are the educational and achievement details of six people. Read the details and
then answer the three questions that follow.
1.
Charlie has just completed her sixth year at school. She has gained five Higher ‘A’
passes. She was dux of her school and hopes to go to Edinburgh University to
study medicine.
2.
William left school when he was 16 with no formal qualifications. He started work
for an electronics firm and then became interested in computers for which he has a
‘flair’, although he is completely ‘self-taught’. He is now a computer hardware
specialist and travels all over the world as a ‘trouble-shooter’ for which he earns a
high salary.
3.
Henry did poorly at primary school but left school at 17 with five Standard Grades.
He had extremely good organisational skills and at 19 started his own travel
business. He is now 30, employs 12 people, and his business has an annual
turnover of £750,000.
4.
Stella had difficulty in reading and concentrating when she was young, and she also
had poor mathematical skills. However, she was a very skilful artist and was
recently given 1st prize in the Young Artist of the Year competition. She has been
commissioned to do work for a private collector, which will earn her an income of
around £50,000 per year.
5.
Tahira is very good at chess, computer games and IQ tests. At school she excelled
at Physics and Maths and gained two ‘A’ grade Highers, but had difficulty with other
subjects, especially English. She has had difficulty finding a job and at the moment
works part-time in a restaurant.
6.
Nigella left school at 16 with a mixture of Standard Grades and SQA modules. She
is an extremely good communicator and is very good at motivating other people.
She is a very clear thinker and can come up with new and innovative ideas. She
has a job with a voluntary arts organisation promoting new talent in the North of
Scotland.
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1.
Decide on a 1st, 2nd and 3rd choice in terms of who you consider to be the most
intelligent.
1st
2nd
3rd
2.
Give reasons for your choices above.
1st
2nd
3rd
3.
Give reasons for rejecting the people not included in your top three.
4th
5th
6th
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Aspect: Differential educational achievement and social class
Other than the debate about intelligence, there is also much debate about whether such
factors as class, gender and ethnicity can affect an individual’s opportunities.
An individual’s social class is usually determined by looking at their occupation or at their
parents’ occupation. Statistics tend to show that the higher a student’s social class
background is, the greater the chance of that student achieving high educational
qualifications. Sociologists have put forward a number of explanations for the relative
underachievement of working class students, among them the issues of language use
and cultural capital.
Language
Family background is thought to be critical in providing support for children and young
people in school. It has been argued that poor socialisation in the home can lead to
educational underachievement and failure.
Following on from J.W.B. Douglas’
longitudinal study, The Home and the School, where he identified working class
underachievement at school to be the result of lack of encouragement from parents allied
to poor housing conditions, the sociologist Basil Bernstein carried out a study in 1960
entitled Language and Social Class. His findings suggested that working class children
received poor language learning experiences in the home and so were linguistically
deprived when they reached school. The suggestion was that the working class speak a
restricted code or public language. Some of the characteristics of this being:






shorter sentences
narrower vocabulary
repetitiveness
more use of question tags (‘isn’t it’, ‘you know what I mean’, ‘ken’)
greater use of gesture
greater use of ‘swear’ words.
What is being suggested by both Douglas and Bernstein is that poor socialisation in the
family is seen as the main cause of lack of success in school.
Cultural capital
The issue of restricted and elaborated language codes led to the development of the idea
of cultural capital by the sociologists Pierre Bourdieu and Jean-Claude Passeron in
their work Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture (1977). The idea here is
that the middle classes have access to more intellectual pastimes, reading material and
political awareness as a result of their better language use. This raises questions of socalled good and bad socialisation and working class and middle class cultures.
Therefore, some children learn from their family how to use the formal language that is
required by teachers and others and they learn what counts as an ‘intelligent’ activity.
They learn how to progress through the system, how to make informed judgements about
good schools and how to choose the subjects and courses that will get them a good job
or into higher education. The continuing existence of private education in the UK is
obviously related to class.
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Paul Willis’ 1977 study, Learning to Labour, discussed the way in which education
prepares working class boys for the world of work. Willis observed a group of working
class boys in a secondary school in the Midlands. The ‘lads’ resisted the school’s
attempts to control them by constantly ‘having a laff’ and not conforming to the norms and
values transmitted through the formal and hidden curricula. They referred to pupils
who did conform as ‘earoles’ because they listened to teachers. The ‘lads’ decided that
school was a waste of time for them and that they knew what the future had in store –
dead-end, meaningless jobs. In essence, the ‘lads’ in Willis’ study would have been
perceived to be lacking in cultural capital.
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The ‘hidden curriculum’
Social class is also thought to influence the hidden curriculum. The hidden curriculum
is claimed to reflect society’s norms and values and prepares individuals for their place in
society and their future work role, in the following ways:

Hierarchy: the hierarchy in school can be seen to reflect the hierarchical structure of
society at large.

Competition: schools encourage competition between students, through sport and
exam results. So, schools reflect the value that society places on competition and
prepares students for their place in a competitive society.

Social control: the hidden curriculum – of rules, regulations, obedience and respect
for authority – is one mechanism of social control that reflects those operating in
society at large.

Gender role allocation: there is a claim of a link between subject choice and
expectations and gender in the education system. Could this be changing, however,
as girls’ results and expectations rise?

Lack of satisfaction: Marxists claim that much of the school day is taken up with
boring and meaningless activities. Students have little say in the content of the
subjects they study or in the overall organisation of the school day. Equally, following
the same timetable week in, week out, may lead to a sense of boredom and
powerlessness. So, schools, it is argued, prepare students for boring and repetitive
jobs. In this way, it is claimed there is a link between students’ experience of school
and many employees’ experience of work.
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Student Activity: Differential educational achievement and social class
This activity should test your understanding of how Marxists might explain that differential
educational achievement is based on someone’s class background.
1. Education in the UK crushes creativity and individuality, and turns pupils/students into
conformists. Discuss.
2. Who makes the rules in your educational establishment and for what purpose? To
what extent do you benefit from these rules?
3. Can you suggest alternative rules?
4. Marxism is a conflict theory. What conflict takes place within the education system in
the UK?
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Aspect: Differential educational achievement and gender
The focus for feminists has moved away from educational performance to a less apparent
manifestation of the hidden curriculum, namely a gendered curriculum. This is the
idea that males and females are encouraged to study different subjects. Some subjects,
such as Physics, Chemistry and Accounting are seen as male dominated/orientated
subjects; others, such as Human Biology and Home Economics are seen as female
dominated/orientated subjects; others still, such as English, are seen as gender neutral.
During the latter part of the 19th century when state education was first introduced, one of
the main concerns was to encourage girls to attend schools in preference to entering
domestic service or other such employment. Once girls were established in schools there
did not appear to be any attempt to focus on their achievements. However, since the
1944 Education Act there has been a growing concern with:
1. Gender differences in the curriculum.
2. Differences in exam results between the sexes.
3. Issues of discrimination against girls throughout the education system.
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Sociological studies – differential educational achievement and gender
In 1983, Dale Spender carried out a study entitled Invisible Women. She found that
men controlled the education system and, therefore, importance was placed on male
experience and knowledge. The curriculum and interaction in the classroom were
considered to be biased in favour of boys. An example was and continues to be the
teaching of ‘History’ to the exclusion of ‘Herstory’. Also, men occupied most promoted
posts in schools. Gender bias did not only come from male students gaining more
attention, but also in behaviour of male teachers and students to female staff and
students. Spender’s findings led her to conclude that experience in education was a
preparation for ‘real life’, because women experienced bias in other areas of life.
Sue Sharpe, in the 1994 updated version of her book (first published in 1976), Just Like
a Girl: How Girls Learn to be Women, returned to the schools where she had
interviewed 15-year-old working class girls then and compared them with girls in 1994.
The most remarkable change she found related to the girls’ changed views of marriage,
which had dramatically dropped in popularity. Over three quarters of the girls she
interviewed had said ‘yes’ to marriage in 1976. By 1994, this had dropped to under half.
Most girls did want to get married, but saw it as something to be approached with
extreme caution. There was more emphasis on careers and employment with girls
putting more emphasis on themselves. The girls saw independence as much more
important.
Becky Francis carried out a study in 2000 called The Gendered Subject, where she
found that things had improved even more. There had been big improvements in female
achievement in schools, with girls overtaking boys in many subjects. However, the
improvements were partly attributed to increased choice of subjects for girls, but
significant problems still remained. Francis found that boys still dominated classrooms
and teachers still tended to leave girls to themselves while giving more attention to the
boys.
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Student Activity: Differential educational achievement and gender (1)
The focus for feminists has moved away from educational performance to a less apparent
manifestation of the hidden curriculum, namely a gendered curriculum. In this activity
you should consider the existence of a gendered curriculum and what can be done to
address it and change it.
1. What is a gendered curriculum?
2. What is ‘girl power’ and how has it contributed to any changes, if any, regarding
gendered differential educational achievement?
3. How do you think ‘Herstory’ would differ, if at all, from ‘History’?
4. Recent studies, such as The Gendered Subject by Becky Francis (2000), have
suggested girls are doing better than boys in many subjects. However, Francis also
suggested that many teachers still gave most attention to boys. Why do you think boys
still get most attention in classrooms?
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Student Activity: Differential educational achievement and gender (2)
Let’s look at two case studies, and decide on their importance. The boy and girl share
the same name and the same age. You have to consider whether they share the same
life expectations.
Case Study 1
Charlie is 17 years old and is with a careers adviser considering his future life. This is
what his school report says about him:
 he is popular with staff and other pupils
 he is good-looking
 he is hard-working and diligent
 he likes helping other people
 he is ambitious – but ...
 he would like to start earning money soon.
He has Higher passes in: Maths (B), English (B), Geography (C), Art and Design (A).
Now answer the following questions:
1. What do you think Charlie will be doing by this time next year?
2. What do you think Charlie will be doing in 10 years time?
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Case Study 2
Charlie is a good-looking girl aged 17 years, who is about to leave school. Here are her
particulars: she is interested in helping people; she is attractive and popular with her
friends; she is a careful and a methodical worker; she is well liked by staff and pupils; she
would like to earn money as soon as possible.
She has Higher passes in: Geography(C), Art and Design (A), English (B), Maths (B).
Now answer the following questions:
1. What would you expect Charlie to do when she leaves school?
2. What would you expect Charlie to be doing in 10 years time?
Now compare the case studies and your answers.
Were your expectations for Charlie any different from the ones you had for Charlie?
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Single-sex schools – do they make a difference?
Feminists, in general, suggest that the foundation for later educational achievement is laid
in the family and society in general, before boys and girls even set foot through the school
gates. It is suggested that pupils are more likely to succeed if they believe that they are
in control of the learning process. Boys are at an advantage over girls because of gender
bias in society. One possible solution to this gender bias could be that boys and girls are
educated separately. Many educationalists argue that single-sex schools are better for
girls. Study the arguments below.
Boys and girls educated together
1.
Promotes understanding and tolerance.
2.
Prepares young people for adult life, eg. university or workplace.
3.
It is natural and leads to a healthy social development; single-sex schools often lead
to difficulties integrating later on.
4.
Boosts self-confidence and feelings of togetherness, not just socially, but
academically and in areas of sport and hobbies.
Boys and girls educated separately
1.
Exam results seem to indicate that girls do better when taught separately (especially
in science subjects).
2.
In mixed classrooms girls receive less attention than boys. Moreover, boys tend to
take most of the positions of responsibility in a mixed school.
3.
Girls become more self-confident and assertive when taught separately.
4.
Girls do not suffer socially – they still see and meet boys outside school.
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Student Activity: Gender and education
This activity is meant to address the question of whether boys or girls achieve better
educationally in single-sex schools. This is a difficult question that will require reflection
on your own experience.
1. Which type of school did you attend? Which of the above arguments seem to fit in with
your experience?
2. In a recent survey, parents said they wanted co-education for their sons, but single-sex
for their daughters. Why do you think they said this?
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Aspect: Differential educational achievement and ethnicity
A concern with educational achievement and ethnic background led to the government
sponsored Swann Report of 1985 – officially called Education for All – that concluded
that racial discrimination and social deprivation in society in general were major
contributory factors to differential educational achievement due to race and ethnicity. The
main factors thought to contribute to the debate about differential educational
achievement and ethnicity are out-of-school and in-school factors.


The out-of-school factors are claimed to centre on cultural backgrounds. It has been
suggested that growing up in a predominantly white society can lead to low selfesteem and subsequently low educational achievement for children from ethnic
minorities.
The in-school factors are claimed to centre on the content of the curriculum. The
argument being that the curriculum reflects the majority culture and history.
The question of differential educational achievement and ethnicity is complicated by the
following problems:


The general term ‘ethnic minorities’ conceals differences in cultural background and
achievement between students.
In some instances there is difficulty distinguishing between class and gender and
ethnicity with regard to educational achievement.
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Sociological studies – differential educational achievement and ethnicity
Bernard Coard wrote a short study of the education system in England in 1971 entitled
How the West Indian Child is Made Emotionally Subnormal. He observed and
interpreted all the ways in which he thought West Indian culture and language was
ignored or treated as second-rate and not fit for any interaction in schools. He recorded
the attitudes expressed in many schoolbooks of the time and noted the racist
stereotypical attitudes of many of the teachers. This study was very influential in
highlighting racism in schools in England.
In a further study in 1990 called Race, Ethnicity and Education, David Gillborn’s
observations were that African-Caribbean pupils received a disproportionate amount of
punishment from teachers. Even when pupils from different ethnic backgrounds were
engaged in the same behaviour, it was the African-Caribbean pupils who were criticised
and blamed by teachers. Gillborn suggested that many teachers were not aware of their
behaviour. For him, the source of the problem was in the way teachers responded to the
pupils’ style of dress and speech. Gillborn considered this to be a challenge to the
teachers’ authority. Gillborn called this ‘the myth of the black challenge’. The outcome
was reinforcement of negative labels and the development of deviant careers.
In their 2000 study, Rationing Education, David Gillborn and Deborah Youdell,
suggested that racism continued to disadvantage ethnic minorities. They studied two
comprehensive schools and found a situation where education was rationed. In the
schools, many black pupils were considered to have little or no chance of achieving
academically and were effectively written off by teachers and the schools. As a result,
they did not receive extra help directed at pupils considered to be borderline when it
came to passing exams.
The general findings of studies on racial discrimination in schools concur with the
government sponsored The Swann Report of 1985 – officially called Education for All –
that concluded that racial discrimination and social deprivation in society in general
were major contributory factors to differential educational achievement due to race and
ethnicity.
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Student Activity: Ethnicity and differential educational achievement
In this activity you should consider whether the past can inform the present regarding the
question of educational achievement and ethnicity. The UK is claimed to be a
multicultural society today. However, it is argued that racist stereotypes still persist. You
should consider whether these stereotypes do still exist or whether change is occurring in
the UK today.
1. Many racist stereotypes are based on biological and colonial ideas. What are these
ideas and how can they be challenged and overcome?
2. What does ethnocentrism mean?
3. What are the claimed out-of-school and in-school factors said to affect educational
achievement for ethnic minority students.
4. David Gillborn speaks of ‘the myth of the black challenge’. What is the myth of the
black challenge?
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Student Activity: Essay question
In the external exam you are required to complete an essay on either class stratification
or education, worth 30 marks. This activity is practice for the exam.
Question:
It is debated whether the study of differential educational achievement is still relevant in
the UK today.
Is the study of differential educational achievement still relevant in the UK today?
(30 marks)
In your answer you should:
Include an introduction detailing features of the education system in the UK and changes
that have taken place within it.
(approx 6 marks)
Explain at least two sociological theories of education you have studied, giving their
strengths and weaknesses.
(approx 10 marks)
Evaluate at least two sociological studies that examine an aspect of education associated
with differential educational achievement – choose one from class, gender or ethnicity.
(approx 10 marks)
Give a conclusion in which you should evaluate the debate and consider whether the
initial question can be answered.
(approx 4 marks)
NB. The purpose of this assessment is to demonstrate your knowledge and
understanding of, and ability to analyse and evaluate, relevant theories. You are also
required to demonstrate your ability to link theories to studies and aspects relevant to the
topic, while also analysing and evaluating the links.
For an award at Grade A candidates should be able to demonstrate detailed knowledge
and understanding of most of the relevant material required for a complete answer to the
question. For an award at Grade A there should be evidence of integration and in-depth
analysis of relevant theories, studies and an aspect of life, including evaluative and critical
points.
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