The Pennsylvania State University
INSYS 527
Designing Constructivist Learning Environments
Dr. Susan M. Land
Spring 2003
Case Study Paper
Goal-Based Scenario and Case-Based Reasoning
By
Kuo-Chuan (Martin) Yeh
CONTENT
Theoretical Foundations and Overview of Topic ................................................... 2
Problem / Need Addressed by the Approach........................................................... 2
Features, Principles, and Methods ............................................................................. 4
Description of examples ............................................................................................... 5
Design implications ....................................................................................................... 6
Reference.......................................................................................................................... 7
Theoretical Foundations and Overview of Topic
Case-Based Reasoning (CBR) means learning by/from previous experiences or
cases (Kolodner and Leake 1996). Reasoners use cases stored in their memory as
resources of suggesting a possible solution when they face a new problem. As a result,
learners perform better by adapting and refining previous experiences because they can
avoid same mistakes and know what to focus. “Cognition develops through the
refinement and transformation of mental structure” (Piaget and Inhelder 1969). In other
words, Cognition is built through the process of developing and organizing experiences
during social interactions. This structures became the foundation of constructivist theory
which emphasizes that learning happened when learners heavily involved in authentic
situations. CBR is a model that provides theory and structure framework, and helps
instructional designer creates a constructivist learning environment that learner can
develop and interpreate ill-defined domain in a open-ended environment. Two other
important factors, except case itself in CBR, are indexing and feedback. Indexing scheme
is as prominent as individual’s case library, if not more important. A good indexing
scheme can help learner to see the revelant of past experience and current one; therefore
the performance will rely on how he or she reason current situation, then select
appropriate strategies by relate the problem to previoius experiences. Learner can also
relate cases in different domains if it will help he or she to solve problems. That is, some
strategies and experiences can be used in several domains. Case library can be expended
only then this reasoner receives feedbacks, external or internal, and generates a success or
failure case. In this way, the case can be properly stored and be useful later. Without
feedback, the case can not be concrete enough to suggest problem-solving strategy.
Goal-based scenario (GBS) is a case-based pedagogical approach for learning
(Schank, Berman et al. 1999). It emphasizes hand-on problem solving process in an
authentic situation. It also values the failure because it is the source of learner reasoning
of why he or she failed and how can he or she improves. The scenario must be authentic
and motivating to foster deeper understanding and ensure useful knowledge transfer. GBS
can be either in computer-based or traditional learning environments, although many
examples are done in web-based case. Because GBS does not limit learners to a
prescripted outcome, the assessment is different from traditional pencil-and-paper method
and could be very challenging. As a result, GBS evaluates how much does learners
discovered during the practice instead of how much does they learn and memorize.
Problem / Need Addressed by the Approach
Traditionally, cognittion theories “emphasize how general-purpose abstract
operators are formed and applied, CBR makes concrete cases, representing experience”
(Kolodner and Guzdial 2000). The fact that traditional theories of cognition address
abstraction makes knowledge retention and transformation less effective. Knowledge that
is seperated from real world is less likely to be applied and, hence, more difficult to
memorize. Many traditional learning environment is focus on delivering knowledge and
this makes learning became fragemented. Therefore, learners can not applied learning to
real world problem-solving, especially when the problem involves in more than one
domain knowledge. Consequently, learners are less interested in learning because it
seems useless for the daily life. Furthermore, the traditional learning environments teach
students broad knowledge than deep one, which also hamper their problem-solving skills.
Knowledge. Therefore, we need a strategy that is both motivating and concrete.
On the other hand, CBR theory suggests that learner learns from interpretation
of experiences. First, this model is congruent with Piaget’s theory which believes that
“the activity emanating from a child influences subsequent development of the child’s
structures” (piaget’s theory, chapter 3). Both theories prompt learning through cognition
constructing to encourage learning and help knowledge retentation. Through the
equilibration process, students adapt and organize what they already know and what they
need to learn such that new problem can be solved or new concept can be understood. In
a GBS learning environment, students no longer working on the prescripted knowledge
and outcomes. Each student can study the problem from different perspectives at various
level regardless their prior knowledge. Therefore, it is more adaptative and authentic than
traditional approach. It’s also a big boost of motivation which is lacking from previous
learning theories in a sens that learner now has more control over procedures and
contents. What CBR goes further than constructivism is that the cognition model defined
by CBR can provide advice and predictions that can be put into simulation on a computer
as a test of idea (Kolodner and Guzdial 2000).
As an approach of CBR, GBS provide a hands-on experience that students
practice and learn in an authentic environment. GBS clearly defines goals, missions,
scenarios, and provides feedbacks and resources which gives learner a sound grounding
so that students can get involved immediately and won’t be turn out if a subject is too
difficult for them. In terms of helping instructional designers and teachers, GBS also
provides a greate framework and guideline such that novice designers and junior teachers
can design and teach such an environment without exceesive research or o assistants from
outside of classroom, school, or organization.
Features, Principles, and Methods
CBR, as a cognition model, has some components that we should focus on:
((Kolodner and Guzdial 2000)
The Case:
A case represents specific knowledge tied to a context, and it varies from sizes,
shapes, and perspectives. The aggregration of cases which stored in individual’s memory
is this individual’s case library. The case library is an important source when learner is
facing similar problems or situations, and it leads to an initial solution of a problem or
interpreation of a situation.
The Case Index:
Every libray needs a indexing scheme, individual’s case library has no
exception. Reasoner need a good indexing scheme to help him/her retrieve experiences
and context that are recuring in order to suggest an initial solution for a problem. The
critical point for indexing is to distinguish cases from each other. Other thatn that, a good
indexes for CBR should have two properties: abstract enough to retrieve a revelant case
in a variety of future situations; concrete enough to be easily recongnizable in future
situations. ((Kolodner and Leake 1996)
The Case Processor:
Case processor has following responsibilities: (1) understanding and indexing
individual’s experiences; (2) locating an appropriate case in memory; (3) applying an
appropriate solutions in a new problem or situation; and (4) learning from the feedback.
Case processor is an dynamic component that acting as an interface between case library
and individual.
Although CBR emphasize concrete experience that can be manipulate directly,
it does not exclude abstraction. It uses abstraction conecpt to prompt the productivity of
using concrete experiences. In other words, individual uses abstrct concepts to draw
similarity from experiences and use them in a more efficient way for indexing and
application..
In Schank’s paper (Schank, Berman et al. 1999), seven components were
proposed to complete GBS design:
I.
The Learning Goals: learning goals should be authentic and related to
students, and usually falls into two categories: processing knowledge and
content knowledge.
II. The Mission: mission describes what learners should pursue and ,hence,
should be motivational for students. It must also be realistic and requires
the skills and knowledge you wish to impart.
III.
The Covery Story: cover story gives learner a background story about the
mission to be accomplished. This should give learners enough
opportunities to practices the skills and seek the knowledge which should
be taught. Again, the covery story should be interesting and motivating.
IV. The Role: the role describes who the student will play in the cover story.
The role should be important for students and during playing this role they
can learn what you intended to. The best design for role is one that student
will become in the future so they will be more interesting and willing to
involve.
V. The Scenario Operations: scenario operations should cover all tasks that
student should do to complete learning goal. This is the process that
studnet participates in his or her own learning.
VI. Resources: resources should be provided to guide student to complete his
or her tasks. There should be enough information and should be
well-organized. Generally, the resources are provided via stories.
VII. Feedback: feedback is essential in GBS because this method values failure
without feedback, one will never be able to create his or her own case
library.
Description of Examples
(1)
Multimedia Goal-based Scenario for Learning to Diagnose Fetal
Abnormalities (Chee, Sosa et al. 1999): This project, created in Singapore, is a
teaching tool based on GBS to teach medical students about fetal
abnormalities. They was inspired by the fact that student in medical school is
already being put into a learning environment which gives student many cases.
By studying these cases, students gain experiences and professional
interpreation of diagnosis and this strategy matchs GBS perfectly. They
created a computer application that presents learners a randomly selected case
from this person’s unsolved cases after he or she log on to the system. The
learner then study some existing cases (case library) and try to make a
decision by typing in his/her diagnosis. After evaluating the diagnosis, system
will give the learner a feedback, correct or incorrect. If the learner does not
make a right diagnosis, the system will enter a teaching mode and guide the
learner where else to focus and what are relelant cases which might help
him/her makes a correct decision. There is another part of this project: patient
management and consultancy. However, by the time the paper is published,
(2)
this part of project has not yet been finished.
Developing Goal-Based Scenarios for Web Education(Schaller,
Allison-Bunnell et al.): This project starts from these researchers saw gaps
between: Realism, where knowledge exists outside learner, and idealism,
which all knowledge is constructed by learner); passive (incremental learning)
and active (learner constructs knowledge) learning styles. They are proposing
using GBS as a bridge of these gaps. There are different kinds of formats that
can use GBS to achieve their goal:
i.
Narrative: It helps learners engaging to scenario by doing more
than telling a story. Example of this format is “In Search of the
ii.
Ways of Knowing Trail”. The players meet with several Africa
local children and must learn about the ecology and cultures of
the rainforest to reach their destination.
Simulations: Using a simulation world and inquiry-based
learning environment as a teaching strategy. For example,
“Frozen Features Digital Lab” which students shoose from
several questions to explore using data profided within the
activity, they need to come up with their own conclusion
however.
iii.
(3)
Creative Play: this is an open-ended activities that permit and
encourage learners to explore and test their ideas during the
process of practicing. Example of this format is “Art Tales:
Telling Stories with Wildlife Art”. In this example learners write
an original story or essay using museum artwork for inspiration.
Introduction to Programming to C++: This is a unfinished computer
programming course developed in Columbia University. The goal of this
project is to teaching learning beaic C++ programming. The learner plays an
entry-level programmer who creates working prototype of program by using
information from co-workers and team leaders. The learner goes through
seven steps: read task, create work, check work, submit work, review
feedback, reflect on task, during the learning process.
Design Implications
CBR suggests what individual learn is consciously constructed from learner’s
concrete experience. Learners not only are fully aware of the construction but also in
charge of how knowledge is constructed. As a result, learner involvement of CBR is
much deeper than traditional learning environment. In particular, CBR support two kinds
of learning supports: (1) supports for reflection (2) case libraries as a resource (Kolodner
and Guzdial 2000).
CBR supports for reflection: as a learning model, students in CBR need to use
cases that afford concrete, authentic, and timely interpretation to support learning. These
cases are aggregrated through interpretation of past experiences. In order to construct
case library, learners constinuously develop solutions from existing cases and modify
them after feedback. In the end, success or failure, learners will indexing this case using
their own indexing scheme and integrate it with current case library. This process requires
a lot of reflection. Before learner comes up with initial solution, he/she will search case
library according to current problem. When the initial idea is suggested, again, the results
of this solution from the past will be evaluated and the initial solution will be revised for
a better chance to succeed. After the solution is applied and feedback is received, learner
needs to index this experience by the context of the problem was given, the solutions that
had been tried, the feedbacks received, or any other context he/she thinks is important
with respect to this case. This indexing process requires learners to reflect the process
constantly.
CBR supports case libraries as a resource: case libraries provides learner
excellent resources for learning. Case library offers the opportunities for student to learn
from others’ experience and to share his/here experiences with other people. These cases
provide advices as a form of stories, vicarions experience using a conectp or skill, the lay
of the domain and guidance on what to focus on, strategies and procedures, and how to
use cases (Kolodner and Guzdial 2000). Cases are concrete and authentic because most
of them happened in the past. However, indexing these cases to be used in the future is
critical because a subtle difference can case huge diverse in outcome.
Reference
Chee, Y. S., R. Sosa, et al. (1999). "Multimedia Goal-based Scenario for Learning to
Diagnose Fetal Abnormalities." ED-MEDIA.
Kolodner, J. L. and M. Guzdial (2000). Theory and Practice of Case-Based Learning
Aids. Theoretical Foundations of Learning Environments. D. Jonassen and S. M.
Land, Erlbaum.
Kolodner, J. L. and D. B. Leake (1996). A Tutorial Introduction to Case-Based Reasoning.
Case-based reasoning : experiences, lessons & future directions. D. B. Leake.
Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press: 31-65.
Piaget, J. and B. Inhelder (1969). The psychology of the child. New York, Basic Books.
Schaller, D. T., S. Allison-Bunnell, et al. Developing Goal-Based Scenarios for Web
Education, Educational Web Adventure.
Schank, R. C., T. R. Berman, et al. (1999). Leraning by Doing. Instructional-Design
Theories and Models -- A new paradigm of instructional theory. C. M. Reigeluth.
Mahwah, NJ, Erlbaum. 2: 161-181.