Learning and teaching

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Reflections on language learning and teaching.
Phillip Charlier, National Development Initiatives Institute.
This is a brief summary of Chapter 6 of the CEFR but contains examples and expansions
taken from the writer’s own experiences and opinions. It is written primarily for English
teachers in Taiwan, and seeks to make the content of the CEFR more readable and
relevant to them. Questions, criticisms and comments are welcome and encouraged.
As teachers, how can we help our students to be able to build up competences necessary
for communication? How can we plan curricula, activities and tasks to help this process?
First, we have to know what it is that learners have to learn or acquire. Recognizing that
the learner is a ‘social agent’; what knowledge, skills and attitudes do they need to have
in order to fulfill the tasks and social activities expected of them?
As teachers and assessors, we like to separate language skills in convenient categories –
reading, listening, writing and speaking, but each category can support the others. For
example, our goal might be to ‘learn to speak English’ but the process of learning to
speak can be greatly facilitated by learning to read and write the language and visa versa.
If our goal is to be able to read and write, knowledge of the sounds and pronunciation of
the words that we read and write will be of great help. Each of the skills can be seen as a
separate objective but also as a means to help us achieve other objectives.
It is important to note the differences in the way knowledge is organized in the native
language and the target language. As a more advanced learner, the teacher should use his
or her knowledge and experience of these differences to bring awareness to the students.
Each word, expression or phrase in the two languages does not perfectly match. There are
differences in meanings, which are sometimes slight and sometimes quite large. It is
better to make learners aware of these differences at an early stage. Take the example of
the Chinese expression ‘借 過’. A direct translation into English would give us ‘borrow
pass,’ which doesn’t make any sense and has no meaning. The real translation would be
‘may I pass,’ but we still need to extend the learners knowledge by giving them a phrase
that is more functional and socially appropriate for the target language and culture, which
would be ‘excuse me’ or ‘excuse me, may I pass.’
Regardless of individual examples, the teacher has to decide, what is best to teach the
learner at this stage of learning. Is it better to teach a particular fact or skill now or let the
learners find out for themselves in the future? Obviously, some things are better taught
early, but we can’t teach everything at once.
One area that is important to teach early is pronunciation. It is important to concentrate
on those phonetic differences between the languages that always cause problems, that is:
the sounds or phonemes in the target language that are absent from or different to the
sounds or phonemes in the native language.
These decisions will be affected by various factors. It will depend on the teacher’s own
knowledge, L2 abilities and teaching styles. It may be restricted by the demands of the
curriculum or other factors. It will also depend on the age and stage of the learners, their
own world knowledge, cognitive maturity and other personal factors.
There should be an awareness of the development of competences beyond the purely
linguistic. There are non – verbal communication skills that can be used to supplement
verbal communication such as the use of body language, gesture and mime.
Learning another language is an insight, not only into a different culture but also into
different ways of thinking. Becoming aware of a language different from your own
makes you more aware of the special characteristics of your own language and culture
and informs your own personality and sense of identity. For example, without learning
another language, how can you know what is general about all languages and what is
particular to your own? As we draw on our existing competences in order to learn, we
also further develop those competences. The skills we practice along with the growing
awareness and knowledge that we develop will accelerate the rate at which we learn
linguistically and culturally, not just in the target language but also in our native
language. The language learner will develop knowledge of ‘how to learn’ and will
develop the capacity to interact and relate to others and enter into new situations with
more confidence and experience. While learning a particular language may be the
objective of a course of study, the movement toward that objective can lead to the
development of multiple competences and functional competences that go well beyond
the specific limited objective.
At times, we need to focus on the development of strategies to accomplish tasks that have
a linguistic component. At these times, the focus or objective is the strategy itself, rather
than the language function. We may for example, when preparing students for delivering
a speech in the target language, teach them how to stand and face an audience, use cue
cards or organize information in a particular way, all of which contribute to the general
and specific non – linguistic competences that can be utilized while using the target
language or native language. This applies both to communication strategies and learning
strategies.
Thus, when we plan a task or activity, it is well worth considering not only the linguistic
component that we need to teach, such as necessary vocabulary and grammar, but also
the general competences that can contribute the overall education of the learner. The
learner should be aware of the fact that they are not only learning to communicate in
another language but are also developing skills that will help them in other areas as well.
It is also well worth considering the content of lessons and activities. We may play the
role of a waiter in a restaurant, for example and learn how to describe dishes and the
correct ways to address customers but what if we decide to make the restaurant an Italian
restaurant, or French, Indian or Mexican? We have the opportunity of opening our mind
to the foods of diverse cultures and to broaden our understanding of the world that goes
far beyond the purely linguistic content.
The processes of language learning
The process of learning a language is what happens in a language classroom or through a
conscious effort on the part of the learner to gain knowledge of the target language.
Language acquisition on the other hand, refers to the more natural process of gaining
knowledge and ability by direct exposure to texts and partaking in communicative events
in the target language. Acquisition is the process by which we learn our own native
language or acquire a language through immersion in a culture. It is recommended that
opportunities for acquisition are exploited or provided. Activities that provide
opportunities for acquisition are ones that don’t focus too much on limiting the texts to
purely comprehensible input or familiar vocabulary. The texts used should be authentic
and concern should not placed on understanding every word or statement. Activities that
promote acquisition are; reading for pleasure or information, watching news or videos
(without native language subtitles), listening to songs or listening to or partaking in
conversations with proficient speakers. Strategies to promote and improve acquisition
include learning how to read a text and draw meaning from it without understanding
every word or statement in the text. Texts should not be so difficult that no meaning is
able to be drawn out but the focus is on teaching learners to concentrate on what the do
understand, rather than worrying about what they don’t understand.
Learning to learn
Learners, especially students in compulsory education, rarely learn proactively. They
usually reactively follow the expectations of parents, teachers and administrators. Years
of acculturation in the education system has made them passive when it comes to
learning. Rather than taking responsibility for their own learning, they expect teachers to
provide them with everything they need. This habit can persist into adulthood.
Autonomous learning needs to be promoted by ‘learning to learn’. Learning to learn is an
integral part of the language learning process. Learners should be made increasingly
aware of the way they learn and the options available to them. Different learners will find
that different learning styles will suit them. Some will prefer direct interaction and
conversation, others will prefer and benefit more from reading, and still others will learn
better by performing physical tasks.
At beginner levels of language learning, it may be assumed that most classes will consist
of a combination of presentations, explanations, drills and exercises with the native
language as the language of class management, explanation, and general communication.
It is important that over time, the use of the native language is reduced eventually to the
point where the target language is the only medium of management and instruction.
Along the way, many other methods and approaches can be used to facilitate learning and
acquisition. These include: direct exposure to the target language through; face to face
communication with a native speaker, overhearing conversation, listening to the radio,
recordings, etc., watching and listening to TV, video, etc., reading unmodified, ungraded,
authentic written texts such as newspapers, magazines, stories, public signs,
advertisements etc.; using computer programs, games, etc., interacting online. On the
way to be able to deal with the authentic texts, learners can be exposed to controlled texts
consisting of comprehensible or mostly comprehensible input designed for their level of
ability, participation in activities and exercises which are specially devised to teach or
reinforce certain points, etc. It is also important to promote and encourage autodidactic or
self – guided activities such as reading for pleasure, information or study.
Class time needs to be managed to include adequate time for expounding and
explanation, whole class question and answer sessions, group, pair and individual work,
the use of instructional media and the introduction and use of texts. Texts should include
both the official textbooks and, where possible, the use of authentic texts. Teachers
should also realize that their actions, attitudes and personal abilities are a very important
part of the dynamics of the learning environment. The teacher is a role model, which
students may follow in the use of the language and their own practice as language users
and future teachers. As well as developing teaching and classroom management skills,
teachers should reflect on their ability to engage in action research and reflect on their
experience, their knowledge and ability to teach sociocultural background information,
their intercultural attitudes and skills, knowledge and ability to develop students’
appreciation of literature and their ability to deal with individual learners with diverse
learning styles and abilities.
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