Figure 8.1 The energy gains and losses of the ocean. Positive (red) values indicate
energy gains while negative (blue) represent energy losses. Units are Watts per square
meter of area (Chapter 2).
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Figure 8.2 The yearly mean transport of energy by the atmosphere and ocean as a
function of latitude for the Northern Hemisphere. The insert shows the radiation budget
of the planet as discussed in Figure 2.20. (remove "Radiative Forcing" and put "Total
Transport", also combine the figures, maybe only showing the northern hemisphere
part of the inset)
Figure 8.3 Vertical profile of temperature in the oceans indicates three zone, the
surface zone, the thermocline and the deep zone.
Figure 8.4 The three zones, deep zone, thermocline and surface zone, appear at all
ocean regions; however, the depths are a function of latitude.
Figure 8.5 Sea surface temperature distributions across the globe. 1) Western coasts in
the subtropics and middle latitudes are bordered by cool-water. 2) Western coasts in
tropical and subtropical latitudes are bordered by warm-water. 3) Eastern coasts in the
mid latitudes are bordered by warm-water currents. 4) Eastern coasts in polar regions are
bordered by cool-water.
Figure 8.6 The major ocean surface currents. In general, warm waters flow poleward
or westward. Cold currents, except the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, tend to flow
towards the equator. The major surface water currents. Warm waters are represented by
red arrows and cold currents by blue arrows. Poleward moving currents tend to be warm
water and equator moving currents are typically cold waters. (If it doesn't make the
figure too busy, include a simple representation of atmospheric winds, as from
figure 7.5)
Figure 8.7 The North Atlantic gyre is comprised of four currents, North Equatorial
Current, Gulf Stream, North Atlantic Current, and the Canary Current. These surface
currents are driven by the Trade winds and the Westerlies (orange arrows).
Figure 8.8 The Ekman spiral in the water is a rotation of current direction and decrease
in speed with depth. The body of water is divided into a set of layers. The top layer is
driven by the surface wind and each layer below by frictional drag of the layer above.
The direction of the water in each layer flows rotates to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere and decreases in magnitude.
Figure 8.9 A detailed view of the Gulf Stream as seen from the NASA MODIS
satellite on October 13, 2000 (SSEC Direct Broadcast).
Figure 8.10 The meandering nature of the currents generates cold and warm eddies.
(Can color scheme so that cold waters are blue and warm orange and the main
current red, as in figure 8.9.)
Figure 8.11 Surface winds along coastlines cause upwelling. (Modify to make coast
look like coast of Peru, and wind to be part of a surface high pressure, also show
thermocline, as in figure 8.13)
Heating
Heat exchanges with
atmosphere cool the water
Surface water
Thermocline
Deep water
Equator
Pole
Figure 8.12 Idealized model of the deep water currents, which form because of density
differences in the ocean waters below the surface.
Figure 8.13 Usually, the trades winds cause the equatorial surface waters to move
westward, piling up warm water in the Western Pacific. During an El Niño event, the
winds weaken and the warm water propagates eastward. (Include more of Australia,
and show upwelling better and surface winds. Note that water temps are related to
colors. See Ahren's hardcover, figure 11.19)
Figure 8.14 Satellite observations of changes in sea level height from the average
during an El Niño event. Tropical waters in the western Pacific are below normal while
those over the now warm waters of the eastern tropical Pacific are above normal.
Figure 8.15 The El Nino results in a shift of the precipitation which modifies the flow
of the jet stream. (Can we combine these figures into two panels - normal, el nino {we
will do la nina in 8.19}?)
Figure 8.16 Changes in global weather patterns associated with an El Niño event.
(Change Northern Hemisphere Summer with June, July, August, and Northern
Hemisphere Winter with December, January and February.)
Figure 8.17 Changes in snowfall between El Niño winters and all other winters. A
decrease in snowfall during El Niño event can be disastrous to winter recreation areas.
Figure 8.18 Average sea surface temperatures (in degree C) and averaged departures
from normal for the equatorial Pacific for three Decembers, 1993, 1997 and 1998. El
Niño and La Niña conditions prevailed in 1997 and 1998 respectively. The surface wind
speed and direction are shown has arrows.
Figure 8.19 La Niña effects on US winter weather. (Combine from set shown in
Figure 8.15)
Figure 8.20. Tropical Storm Xina in the Pacific, viewed from space in 1985. [Plate 10
in The Home Planet, Addison-Wesley, 1988.]
Figure 8.21. Wind damage due to Hurricane Andrew just south of Miami, Florida in
August 1992. [Cover photo of: Andrew! Savagery from the Sea, Fort Lauderdale SunSentinel, Tribune Publishing, 1992. Photo by Carl Seibert.]
Figure 8.22. Infrared satellite
image of Hurricane Mitch in the western Caribbean Sea on October 26, 1998, showing
(a) a close-up view with isobars overlaid and (b) a view of the cyclone in relation to other
weather patterns at the time. Notice the tight packing of isobars, the nearly circular eye,
and the difference in the hurricane’s structure versus other tropical and extratropical
weather systems. Mitch later moved inland over Central America; its flooding rains there
caused one of the worst disasters in Western Hemisphere history, killing tens of
thousands of people. [Will need some help later from CIMSS folks to get the isobars
right. Images from CIMSS, Steve’s organization.]
Figure 8.23. Photograph of the eye wall of Hurricane Vera taken from a “hurricane
hunter” aircraft in 19??. [Photo by Robin Moyer, located on
http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/tropic/photos/photos.html . Definitely need permission. See
Web site for instructions in this regard and availability of higher-resolution image.]
Figure 8.24. Schematic view of the processes involved in fueling a hurricane.
[Modified quite a bit from Figure 6 of Kerry Emanuel’s “Toward a General Theory of
Hurricanes,” July-August 1988 American Scientist, p. 376. My changes are in erasures
and in the all-caps text I added. Also needs to clearly indicate stronger winds above the
“MORE EVAP” label. Will need redrafting and probably several iterations to get right.]
Figure 8.25. The minimum possible central pressure in a “perfect” tropical cyclone
for average September conditions, based on the hypothesis that hurricane formation and
intensity are tied directly to sea surface temperatures. Notice where tropical cyclones can
and cannot occur based on this hypothesis (red regions). [From Bister and Emanuel’s
Web site at http://www-paoc.mit.edu/~emanuel/pcmin/climo.html Will need to change
so that red areas are some less obvious, more neutral color; they are not the focus of the
image. Would also be good to be able to label the percentages of storms that occur in
each basin, a la USA Today Weather Book, p. 134. Need to merge these two figures, the
bottom represents the 26.5 isotherm and the arrows indicate the typical hurricane paths.]
Figure 8.26. Wind speeds recorded near Corpus Christi, Texas, during the passage of
Hurricane Celia directly over the anemometer on August 3, 1970. [From p. 208 of
Simpson and Riehl’s The Hurricane and Its Impact, LSU Press, 1981.]
Figure 8.27. The lower-level and upper-level wind flows in a hurricane in conditions
(a) favorable and (b) unfavorable for growth of the storm. [Take this figure, from Nese
and Grenci’s intro-level text Figure 11.10, and redraft x 2. Here’s how: (a) should look
like this image, except make it more schematic and with a more obvious anticyclone at
the top. (b) should have a jet stream blowing through the top of the storm, tilting the
system and blowing the anticyclone downstream and making it less prominent. The
upward motion and the low-level circulation in (b) should be weaker than in (a).]
Figure 8.28. An airborne radar view of Hurricane Hugo at peak intensity over the
northeast Caribbean in September 1989. The white lines indicate the flight paths of the
“hurricane hunter” aircraft (see Box 8.n+1), which measured total storm winds (see wind
barbs) at various points along the flight paths. The brightest colors indicate the most
intense thunderstorms in the eye wall. [From
http://www.publicaffairs.noaa.gov/photos/1989hugorad2.gif ; credit to
NOAA/AOML/HRD.]
Figure 8.29. Schematic view of how a tropical cyclone’s forward motion affects the
speed of the total wind associated with the storm. [From Dr. Chris Landsea’s Web site:
http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/tcfaqD.html#D6 ]
Figure 8.30. Visible satellite picture of tropical disturbances in the Gulf of Mexico
and Caribbean Sea (top and right) and an easterly wave in the eastern Pacific near the
coast of Central America (bottom left). Winds derived from cloud motions have been
overlaid. Notice the better organization and the enhanced convergence and rotation of
winds in the wave versus the disturbances. This wave later became Hurricane Guillermo;
hurricanes can and do happen in the eastern Pacific, in fact more often than in the
Atlantic in most years! However, they are less well known because most of them die at
sea without hitting land. [From Dave Raymond’s Web site. May need permission,
although original image is just standard-from-the-Feds.]
Figure 8.31. Hurricane Georges at different stages in its life cycle, as seen in infrared
satellite pictures. See text for details on changes in its appearance and strength. [From
CIMSS, at http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/goes/misc/mgeorg2.gif ]
Figure 8.32. The relationship between Hurricane Floyd in September 1999 and the sea
surface temperatures beneath it, as determined by satellite. Circles denote Floyd’s
position and wind speed; colors indicate the ocean temperatures. [From
http://fermi.jhuapl.edu/hurr/99/floyd/floyd09sep7dsst_25_32.gif ; figure will be courtesy
Applied Physics Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University.]
Figure 8.33. The names, dates, paths, and life cycle stages of all tropical storms and
hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean basin in 1995, a modern record-setting year for the
number of storms. [Will almost certainly want to redraft. Make background less
important, paths more important. But will want to keep all the storms on there, with
names; life cycle stages good too.]
Figure 8.34. Before-and-after photograph illustrating Hurricane Andrew’s wind
damage at Fairchild Tropical Garden south of Miami. The hand-held postcard shows
what the scene in the photograph looked like before the hurricane. [Photo from p. 68 of
Andrew! Savagery from the Sea, Fort Lauderdale Sun-Sentinel, Tribune Publishing, 1992.
This is my way to update and make fresh the great-but-too-old Camille Richelieu
Apartments photo that appears in virtually every other text.]
Figure 8.35 A storm surge rushes water inland like a sudden, very high, windblown
wave. Storm surges are short-lived phenomenon that can add more than 20 feet of water
to coastal sea levels.
Figure 8.36. Storm surge damage in Galveston in September 1900. Little is left but
timbers as far as the eye can see. [From Galveston archives, see credit on photo.
Appeared in and scanned from Washington Post review of Isaac’s Storm, p. 32 of
National Weekly Edition on Oct. 4, 1999.]
Figure 8.37. A flooded subdivision in Greenville, NC following the heavy rains of
Hurricane Floyd in 1999. [From FEMA Web site:
http://www.fema.gov/hu99/imgs/1292NC01.jpg .]
Figure 8.38. The tracks of the Galveston Hurricane of 1900 and Hurricane Andrew in
1992. These storms were similar in location of origin, strength and severity, but took
different paths due to different wind patterns that steered them. (The Galveston path
shown, from National Geographic in 1900, is incorrect around southern Florida because
the U.S. Weather Bureau had no observations from the Florida Keys or Cuba when the
storm passed through.) The storms also differed greatly in the loss of life, due to
advances made in hurricane detection and prediction during the 20th century. [Will want
to combine these two figures somehow. Galveston storm path is from National
Geographic in October 1900, p. 390.]
Figure 8.39. The last image of Hurricane Andrew from the National Hurricane
Center’s weather radar before it was blown off the roof of NHC’s headquarters in Coral
Gables, Florida shortly before 5 am on August 24, 1992.
Figure 8.40. A comparison of the number of observed tropical storms and hurricanes
versus the number predicted by Prof. Bill Gray’s statistical methods at the beginning of
hurricane season. The flat line is the number expected based on a long-term average that
does not take into account El Niño cycles and wind shear, which Gray’s method does.
[From Chris Landsea’s Web site, I believe. Credit Bill Gray and Chris Landsea. Will
want to redraft, it’s a scan to begin with.]