CHAPTER SUMMARIES
Chapter 1: Communicating at Work
Ensuring Success in the New Workplace – Succeeding in today’s world of work demands
that you read, listen, speak, and write effectively.
Heightened Global Competition – Communication is more complicated with people who
have different religions, customs, and lifestyles.
Flattened Management Hierarchies – Flatter organizations demand that every employee
be a skilled communicator.
Expanded Team-Based Management – Formation of teams forced technology specialists
to communicate constantly with business specialists.
Innovative Communication Technologies – E-mail, voice mail, fax, video conferencing,
and the Web are revolutionizing the way we exchange information.
New work environments – Global competition, restructuring, and mobile technologies are
encouraging flexible working arrangements such as telecommuting and hoteling.
Increasingly Diverse Workforce – Communicating with workers who differ in race,
ethnicity, gender, and age requires new attitudes and skills.
Thriving in the Age of Knowledge
- Knowledge workers deal with symbols, such as words, figures, and data.
- Constantly changing technologies and work procedures mean continual
training for employees.
Examining the Process of Communication
- Communication is the transmission of information and meaning from one
individual or group to another.
- The Communication process has five steps
o Idea
o Formation
o Message
o Encoding
o Message
o Transmission
o Message decoding
o Feedback
Sender has Idea
Sender Encodes Idea in Message
Message travels over channel - Channels are the media, computer, telephone, letter, fax,
and so on that transmit messages.
Receiver Decodes Message
Feedback to Sender
Overcoming Interpersonal Communication Barriers
Obstacles That Create Misunderstanding – Barriers to successful communication include
bypassing, differing frames of reference, lack of language or listening skills, emotional
interference and physical distractions.
Bypassing – Happens when people miss each other with their meanings.
Frame of Reference – Miscommunication often results when the senders’ frame of
reference differs markedly from the receivers.
Lack of Language Skill – Successful communication requires good oral and written
language skills.
Distractions - Emotional & Physical
Overcoming the Obstacles
- To overcome obstacles, communicators must anticipate problems in encoding,
transmitting, and decoding.
- Good communicators ask questions to stimulate feedback.
Communicating in Organizations
Internal and External Functions
- Internal communication often consists of e-mail, memos, and voice messages.
- External communication generally consists of letters.
- Organizational communication has three basic functions:
o To inform,
o To persuade, and/or
o Promote goodwill.
New Emphasis on Interactive Communication
Oral Communication – Minimizes miscommunication but provides no written record.
Written Communication
- Provides a permanent record but lacks immediate feedback.
- Written messages demand good writing skills, which can be developed
through training.
Avoiding Information Overload and Production Meltdown – The large volume of
messages and communication channel choices overwhelms many workers.
Improving the Flow of Information in Organizations – Free exchange of information.
Formal Channels – Follow an organizations chain of command.
Downward Flow – Job plans, policies, instructions, feedback, and procedures flow
downward from mangers to employees.
Upward Flow – Feedback from employees forms the upward flow of communication in
most organizations.
Horizontal Flow – To improve horizontal communication, companies are training and
rewarding companies.
Informal Channels
- Informal organizational communication transmits unofficial news through the
grapevine.
- Employees prefer to receive vital company information through formal
channels.
Facing Increasing Ethical Challenges
- Ethical awareness grows as companies recognize that ethical practices make
good business sense.
- The business world suffers from a poor public image resulting from unethical
behavior by some organizations.
- Employees revealed common ethical violations.
- Ethical behavior means doing the right thing given the circumstances.
Five Common Ethical Traps
- The False Necessity Trap
- The Doctrines of Relative – Filth Trap
- The Rationalization Trap
- The Self-Deception Trap
- The ends justify the Means Trap
Goals of Ethical Business Communication
- Telling the Truth
- Labeling Opinions
- Being Objective
o Facts are verifiable, opinions are beliefs held with conviction.
- Communicating Clearly
o “Plain English” laws require simple, understandable language in
policies, contracts, warranties, and other documents.
- Giving Credit
o Plagiarists use the ideas of others without giving credit.
 Refer to originator names with in the text.
 Use quotation marks.
 Document sources with endnotes footnote or internal reference.
Tools for Doing the Right Thing
- Acting ethically means doing the right thing given the situation.
- Is the action you are considering legal?
- How would you see the problem if you were on the opposite side?
- What are alternate solutions?
- Can you discuss the problem with someone whose advice you trust?
- How would you feel if your family, friends, employee, or coworkers learned
of your actions?
Strengthening Your Communication Skills – You can improve your communication skills
by making use of the model documents, practice exercise procedure, tips strategies,
summaries, and checklists.
Chapter 4: Preparing to Write Business Messages
Approaching the Writing Process Systematically
The Basics of Business Writing
- Purposeful, Economical, and Reader Oriented
- Business writers seek to express rather than to impress.
The 3X3 Writing Process for business Messages and Oral Presentations
Prewriting
Writing
Revising
Analyze
Research
Revise
Anticipate
Organize
Proofread
Adapt
Compose
Evaluate
Adapting and Altering the Process
- Working with Teams
- Working with Technology
- Computer technology helps you generate ideas, conduct research, and
organize facts.
Analyzing the Task
Identify Your Purpose – Most business communication has both primary purpose and
secondary purposes.
Selecting the Best Channel
- Importance of the message
- Amount and speed of feedback required
- Necessity of permanent record
- Cost of the Channel
- Degree of formality desired.
Anticipating the Audience
Choosing Communication Channels
Profiling the Audience – By profiling your audience before you write, you can identify
the appropriate tone, language, and channel.
Responding to the Profile
Adapting to the Task and Audience – Ways to adapt to the right words and tone,
spotlighting reader benefits, cultivating a “you” attitude, and using sensitive, courteous
language.
Spotlighting Receiver Benefits – The most successful messages are receiver-focused.
Cultivating the “You View”
- Use bias-free language.
- Gender, age, and disability
Expressing Yourself Positively – Positive language creates good will and gives more
options to readers.
Being Courteous
Simplifying Your Language – The simpler the language the better.
Using Precise, Vigorous Words
Checklist for Adapting a Message to its Audience
- Identify the Message Purpose
- Select the most appropriate form
- Profile the audience
- Focus on reader benefits
- Avoid gender and racial bias
- Avoid age and disability bias
- Express ideas positively rather than negatively
- Use short, familiar words
- Search for precise, vigorous words.
Adapting to legal responsibilities
Investment Information – Careful communicators should familiarize themselves with
information in four areas: investments, safety, marketing, and human resources.
Safety Information – Warnings on dangerous products must be written clearly.
Marketing Information – Sales and marketing messages must not make claims that cannot
be verified.
Human Resources Information – The safest employment recommendations contain
positive, job related information.
Chapter: 10 Negative Messages
Strategies for Breaking Bad News – The sting of bad news can be reduced by giving
reasons and communicating sensitively.
Goals in Communicating Bad News
- Communicating bad news, key goals include getting the receiver to accept it,
maintaining goodwill, and avoiding legal liability.
- Acceptance
- Positive Image
- Message Clarity
- Protection
Using the Indirect Pattern to Prepare the Reader
- The indirect pattern softens the impact of bad news by giving reasons and
explanations first
- Buffer
- Reasons
- Bad News
- Close
Avoiding Three Causes of Legal Problems
Abusive Language – becomes legally actionable when it is false, harmful to the person’s
good name.
Careless Language – includes statements that could be damaging or misinterpreted.
The Good-Guy Syndrome
- Avoid statements that make you feel good but may be misleading or
inaccurate.
- Use organizational stationary for official business only and beware of making
promises that can’t be fulfilled.
Developing Bad-News Messages – To reduce negative feelings, use a buffer opening for
sensitive bad-news messages.
Buffering the Opening
- Best News
- Compliment
o Openers can buffer the bad news with compliments, appreciation,
agreement, relevant facts, and understanding.
-
Appreciation
Agreement
Facts
Understanding
Apology
Presenting the Reasons
- Be cautious in Explaining
- Citing Reader or Other Benefits if Plausible
o Readers accept bad news more readily if they see that someone
benefits.
- Explaining Company Policy
- Choosing Positive Words
- Showing That the Matter Was Treated Seriously and Fairly
Cushioning the Bad News
- Techniques for cushioning bas news include positioning it strategically, using
the passive void, implying the refusal, and suggesting alternatives or
compromises.
- Positioning the Bad News Strategically
- Using the Passive Voice
- Accentuating the Positive
- Implying the Refusal
- Suggesting a Compromise or an Alternative
Closing Pleasantly
- Closings to bad-news messages might include a forward look, an alternative,
good wishes, freebies, and resale or sales promotion information.
When to Use Direct Pattern
- When the receiver may overlook the bad news.
- When organization policy suggest directness.
- When the receiver prefers directness.
- When firmness is necessary.
- When the bad news is not damaging.
Applying the 3X3 Writing Process – is especially important in crafting bad news
messages because of the potential consequences of poorly written messages.
Analysis, Anticipation, and Adaptation
Research, Organization, and Composition
Revision, Proofreading, and Evaluation
Refusing Routine Requests
Rejecting Requests for Favors, Money, Information, and Action
- Compliments can help buffer the impact of request refusals.
- Routine request refusals focus on explanations and praise, maintain a positive
tone, and offer alternatives.
Declining Invitations
Sending Bad News to Customers
Handling Problems with Orders – In handling problems with orders, the indirect pattern
is appropriate unless the message has some good-news elements.
Denying Claims
Refusing Credit
- Goals when refusing credit include maintaining customer goodwill and
avoiding actionable language.
- Avoid language that causes hard feelings
- Retaining customers on a cash basis
- Preparing for possible future credit without raising false expectations
- Avoid disclosures that could cause a lawsuit
Managing Negative Organization News
Announcing Bad News to Employees
- Internal bad-news memos should use the indirect pattern to convey news that
adversely affects employees.
- Organizations can sustain employee morale by communicating bad news
openly and honestly.
Saying No to Job Applicants – Letters that deny applications for employment should be
courteous and tactful but free of specifics that could trigger lawsuits.
Presenting Bad News in Other Cultures – may require different strategies.
Chapter 8: Routine Memos and E-Mail Messages
Writing Routine Memos and E-Mail Messages
- Developing skill in writing memos and e-mail brings two important benefits.
- Well-written documents are likely to achieve their goals.
- Such Documents enhance image within the organization.
- E-mail messages and interoffice memorandums are favorites for internal
communication.
Characteristics of Successful Memos and E-Mail Messages – Routine memos inform
employees, request data, give response, confirm decisions, and provide directions.
To, From, Date, Subject Headings – Guideword headings help readers immediately
identify the date, origin, destination, and purpose of a message.
Single Topic – Good memos and e-mail messages generally discuss only one topic.
Conversational Tone
- The tone of memos and e-mail messages is expected to be conversational
because communicators are usually familiar with one another.
- This means using contractions.
- Yet, the tone should be professional.
Conciseness – Effective memos contain guideword headings, focus on a single topic, are
concise and conversational, and use graphic highlighting.
Graphic Highlighting
- Business people are writing more messages than ever before.
- A systematic plan helps you write faster and more effectively.
Analysis, Anticipation, and Adaptation
- Phase 1 prewriting
- Analyzing the purpose of a message helps determine whether a permanent
record is required.
Research, Organization, and Composition
- Phase 2 writing
- Check files, gather documentation, and prepare your message.
Revision, Proofreading, and Evaluation
- Revise for clarity
- Proofread for correctness
- Plan for feedback
Organization of Memos and E-Mail Messages
Subject Line
- In letters a subject line is optional; in memos it is mandatory.
- It should be the central idea.
- Provides quick identification for the reader and for filing.
- Direct memos contain a SUBJECT line, an opener stating the main idea, a
body with the explanation and justification, and an action closing.
Opening – Most direct memos convey non-sensitive information and thus frontload the
main idea in the opening.
Body
-
Closing
-
Provides more information about the reason for writing.
Explains and discusses the subject logically.
Design data for easy comprehension by using numbered lists, headings, tables,
and other graphic highlighting techniques.
Memos should close with:
o Action information including dates and deadlines,
o A summary, or
o A closing thought.
Putting It All Together
Using E-Mail Effectively
Smart E-Mail Messages
- Get the address right.
- Avoid misleading subject lines.
- Be concise.
- Don’t send anything you wouldn’t want published.
- Don’t use e-mail to avoid contact.
- Never respond when you’re angry.
- Care about correctness.
- Resist humor and tongue-in-cheek comments.
- Limit any tendency to send blanket copies.
- Use design to improve readability of longer messages.
- Consider cultural differences.
- Double-check before hitting the Send Button.
- Protect against e-mail break-ins.
Formatting E-Mail Messages
Guidewords – The position of TO, FROM, DATE, and SUBJECT vary on depending on
your e-mail program.
Salutation – Salutations for e-mail messages are optional and practice is yet unsettled.
Body
-
The body of an e-mail message should be typed with upper and lowercase
characters never in all uppercase or all lowercase characters.
Cover just one topic and limit length to three screens.
Closing Lines – May include the writer’s name, title, and organization.
Kinds of Memos
Procedure and information Memos and E-Mail Messages – Typically flow downward and
convey clear information about daily operations.
Request and Reply Memos and E-Mail Messages
- Follow the direct pattern in seeking or providing information.
- Overused and long-winded openers bore readers and waste their time.
- Direct opening statements can also be cheerful and empathic.
Confirmation Memos and E-Mail Messages
- Confirmation memos provide a permanent record of oral discussions
decisions, and directives.
- Include names and titles of involved individuals.
- Itemize major issues or points concisely
- Request feedback regarding unclear or inaccurate points.
Checklist for Writing Routine Memos and E-Mail Messages
Subject Line
- Summarize the central idea.
- Use an abbreviated style.
Opening
-
State the purpose for writing.
Ask questions immediately.
Supply information directly.
Body
-
Closing
-
Explain details.
Enhance readability.
Supply graphic highlighting.
Be Cautious
Request action.
Summarize the memo or provide a closing thought.
Avoid cliché endings.
Chapter 12: Report Organization and Presentation
Interpreting Data - Sorting, analyzing, combing, and recombining to yield meaningful
information.
Tabulating and Analyzing Responses – Numerical data must be tabulated and analyzed
statistically to bring order out of chaos.
Tables
-
Usually summarizes numerical data from questionnaires or interviews.
After assembling data prepare a preliminary tale to see what the information
means.
Sometimes data become more meaningful when cross-tabulated.
This process allows analysis of two or more variables together.
The Three Ms: Mean, Median, Mode (Average)
- Three statistical concepts help organized data and describe it.
- Average usually intends to indicate the mean or arithmetic average.
- Median represents the midpoint in a group of figures arranged from lowest to
highest.
- Mode is simply the value that occurs most frequently.
- Range represents the span between the highest and lowest values.
Correlations – between variables suggest possible relationships that will explain research
findings.
Grids – permit analysis of raw verbal data by grouping and classifying.
Drawing Conclusions in Reports
- Conclusions summarize and explain the findings in a report.
- Interpret the conclusions to the report problem.
- Relate the conclusions to the data presented.
- Do not introduce new material.
- Number the conclusions and present them in parallel form.
- Be objective; avoid exaggerating or manipulating the data.
- Use consistent criteria in evaluating options.
Writing Report Recommendations
- Effective report conclusions are objective and bias-free.
- Effective recommendations offer specific suggestions on how to solve a
problem.
- Make specific suggestions for actions to solve the report problem.
- Prepare practical recommendations that will be agreeable to the audience.
-
Avoid conditional words such as maybe and perhaps.
Present each suggestion separately as a command beginning with a verb.
Number the recommendations for improved readability.
If requested, describe how the recommendation maybe implemented.
When possible, arrange the recommendations in an announced order, such as
most important to least important.
Detailed recommendations are written only when the report writer is
authorized to do so.
Organizing Data
- Informational reports are typically organized in three parts,
introduction/background, facts/findings, and summary/conclusions.
- The direct pattern is appropriate for informed or receptive readers, the indirect
pattern is appropriate when education or persuading.
Ordering Information Logically
- Organizing by time, component, importance, criteria, or convention helps
readers comprehend data.
- Organizing by level of importance saves the time of busy readers and
increases the odds that key information will be retained.
Criteria – To evaluate choices or plans fairly, apply the same criteria to each.
Convention – Organizing by convention simplifies the organizational task and yields
easy-to-follow information.
Providing Reader Cues – Good openers tell the readers what topics will be covered in
what order and why.
Introduction
- Tells the purpose of the report
- Describes the significance of the topic
- Previews the main points and the order in which they will be developed
Transition - expressions inform readers where ideas are headed and how they relate.
Headings
-
Provide organizational cues and spotlight key ideas.
Headings should be brief, parallel, and ordered in a logical hierarchy.
Use appropriate heading levels.
Capitalized and underline carefully.
Balance headings within levels.
For short reports use first or second level headings.
-
Include at least one heading per report page.
Keep headings graceful.
Illustrating Data with Graphics – Effective Graphics clarify numerical data and simplify
complex ideas.
Matching Graphics and Objectives
Tables
-
Permit systematic presentation of large amounts of data, while charts enhance
visual comparisons.
Provide clear heads for rows and columns.
Identify the units in which figures are given.
Arrange items in a logical order.
Use N/a for missing data.
Make long tables easier to read by shading alternate lines or by leaving a
blank line after groups of five.
Bar Charts
- Enable readers to compare related items to see changes over time, and
understand how parts relate to a whole.
- Keep the length of each bar and segment proportional.
- Include a total figure in the middle of a bar or at its end if the figures helps
and does not clutter the chart.
- Start dollar or percentage amounts at zero avoid showing to much
information.
Line Charts
- Illustrate trends and changes in data over time.
- Begin with a grid divided into squares.
- Arrange the time component horizontally across the bottom; arrange values
for the other variable vertically.
- Draw small dots at the intersections to indicate each value at a given year.
- Connect the dots and add color if desired.
Pie Charts
-
Most useful in showing the proportion of parts to a whole.
Begin at the 12 o’clock position.
Include, if possible, the actual percentage.
Use four to eight segments for best results.
Distinguish wedges with color, shading, or cross-hatching.
Keep all the labels horizontal.
Flow Charts
- Help the reader visualize the process.
- Ovals designate the beginning and end of a process.
- Diamonds denote decision points.
- Rectangles represent major activities or steps.
Organization Chart – show the line of command and thus the flow of official
communication from management to employees.
Photos, Maps, and Illustrations – Computer technology permits photographs, amps, and
illustrations to be scanned directly into a report.
Incorporating Graphics in Reports
- Effective graphics are accurate and ethical, avoid overuse of color or
decorations, and include titles.
- Evaluate the audience.
- Use restraint.
- Be accurate and ethical.
- Introduce a graphic meaningfully.
- Choose an appropriate caption or title styles.