Summary of:
Pierce, B. & White, R. (1999). The evolution of social structure: why biology matters. Academy
of Management Review, 24, 843-853.
Summary by Malia Prietto and Amanda Douglas
For Dr. Mill’s Psyc 452, Fall, 2008
Evolutionary psychology is a relatively new field that utilizes the basic concepts of
evolutionary biology when studying human behavior. Evolutionary psychologists ask the
question why we behave the way we do, and they find their answers hidden within the genes of
our evolutionary ancestors. In this article, Pierce and White are interested in human social
behavior. For example, why do humans exhibit certain social patterns within structured
organizations? According to evolutionary psychology, we must look to our distant ancestors for
clues to this question.
Human behavior, even social behavior, is often the outcome of the interaction between
perceived environmental cues and innate psychological mechanisms. These innate mechanisms
are rooted in our evolutionary ancestors who were known to have engaged in social groups for
millions of years. Through the process of natural selection, psychological mechanisms that
assisted in the survival of our ancestors “have become genetically encoded and continue to
influence the social behavior of our species in contemporary times” (Pierce & White, 1999, pp
843). Therefore, even though we may not live in a hunter-gatherer environment today, we still
tend to think as if we do. Luckily human behavior is flexible. Our innate mechanisms are
domain specific—that is, “tailored to solve specific problems and activated only when certain
cues are perceived” (Pierce & White, 1999, pp 844). The large number of mechanisms and the
specificity of each one allow humans to be quite flexible in their behavior.
In order to examine the relationship between one’s environment and social behavior,
Pierce and White studied humankind’s closest evolutionary relative: the nonhuman primate.
Previous research has discovered that monkeys and apes live in one of two different types of
social structures. The first type “form stable troops of dominant and submissive members that
travel together. Those who attain and maintain dominance do so through overt acts and displays
of aggression” (Pierce & White, 1999, pp 845). This type is called agonic and is characterized
by a clearly hierarchical structure. The submissive members always keep a close eye on the
dominants, being sure to never stray too far. And when danger threatens, they gather together
and look for the dominant’s protection. The second type, known as hedonic, is much more
variable and flexible. They often split up into groups in order to collect food, and enjoy a festive
reunion when they meet again. Rank is not so important in the hedonic groups, and when danger
threatens they often gather together. Both of these types of social groups have been observed
within one species of chimpanzees. Which type the chimps subscribed to depended upon their
resource context.
Resource context is very important because it can make or break one’s survival. Four
characteristics of the resource context have been consistently linked to social behavior. The first
is distribution—that is whether resources are scattered throughout the area or clustered together.
Researchers have discovered that clumping resources together leads to more aggressive behavior
because members of the same group are likely to be competing for the same resource. The
second characteristic is visibility. In environments where the visibility is high, such as the
savanna, more competitive behavior is exhibited. In environments with more covering and less
visibility, animals can search for food without worrying about their competitors. The third
characteristic is the predictability of the resources. When resources are predictable, monkeys
tend to forage together in large groups. When it is less predictable, they will forage by
themselves or in small groups. The fourth characteristic is timing—that is whether the
consumption of resources occurs immediately or after a period of waiting. These four variables
affected the way in which our ancestors conducted their relationships, and to some extent they
still influence us today.
The modern world is much more complex than the world our ancestors developed in, but
this does not change the fact that we are made out of the same thing. We still have the same
innate mechanisms, however the environment is drastically different. Therefore we still tend to
behave in similar manners as our ancestor, though now we are not on the savanna but rather in
the city. For example, mechanistic human organizations are similar to agonic groups of monkeys
because they are hierarchical and place high importance on authority, rank, and control.
Additionally, organic systems can be compared to hedonic groups because relationships are
nonhierarchical and authority flows depending on the current task. These findings could have an
important impact on leaders of organizations. For instance, it is possible for an employer to
foster a more hedonic or agonic type of relationship with his employees. It simply depends on
the way he runs his business. The same could be said in a school or any other social structure.
This article asserts “humankind has evolved different forms of social structure in
response to the survival challenges present in our ancestral environment” (Pierce & White, 1999,
pp 850). These adaptations remain with us to this very day and influence our current behavior.
This implies that our behavior and social structures may not even be logical or rational, but
rather they worked for our evolutionary ancestors.
OUTLINE
A. Introduction
a. Environmental cues
b. Evolved psychological mechanisms
i. Domain specific
c. Humans are social beings
B. Looking at our evolutionary ancestors
a. Social structures
i. Agonic
ii. Hedonic
b. Resource Context
i. Distribution
ii. Visibility
iii. Predictability
iv. Timing
C. Human Parallels
a. Organizational structures
i. Mechanistic
ii. organic
Test Questions
1. Which is NOT a characteristic of resource context?
A. Timing
B. Visibility
C. Amount
Answer: C
2. Having innate psychological mechanisms means that
A. Humans have no free will
B. Humans act like monkeys
C. Humans are influenced by their evolutionary ancestors
Answer: C
3. If an employer wanted to promote a free-flowing, nonhierarchical working environment, he
should try to simulate a _______ atmosphere
A. Organic
B. Mechanistic
Answer: A
True/False
1. Evolved psychological mechanisms are domain specific. F
2. Our evolutionary ancestors were not social beings. F
3. More than one type of social structure can be found in a single species. T