Student Motivation: The implications for teachers and
schools and the strategies teachers can use to affect it
University of New Hampshire
INTRODUCTION
When considering a research topic for a colloquium, many ideas crossed my mind
and made it onto paper. This brainstormed list quickly whittled down to just two choices:
classroom management and student motivation. Both of these issues are central to my
growth as a teacher and personal goals for improvement. Assuming that classroom
management could be solved with student motivation, I chose student motivation as the
focus of my research. Little did I realize that classroom management is a critical
component in motivating students to learn.
I was and still am a very motivated student. I consider myself intrinsically
motivated to learn. As a child, I wrote the beginning of a Hardy Boys mystery novel,
traced and copied information out of atlases, and conducted chemistry experiments in my
house, with no impetus from my teachers. I loved to learn and that love never ceased
when I left the confines of the school building. Throughout my schooling, I could not
understand why so few students were motivated like I was. Classmates complained often
about the content, the workload, and the teachers. I loved most of my teachers, the topics
we studied were incredibly interesting, and the workload never seemed like much of a
burden, at least until late high school. In essence, I loved school and found joy in
learning. Why doesn’t everyone feel this way?
In my research, I sought to find out the answer to this life-long question of mine
and to find out how teachers can transform students into motivated, happy learners. If I
can bring my own joy of learning to my students, I think the climate of my classroom
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would benefit tremendously. Though this is ultimately idealistic, bringing some
semblance of that utopia into the classroom is a goal of mine.
All teachers and administrators should be concerned with motivating their
students. I would contend that nearly all of them are concerned with this particular issue,
though it may take a back seat to the content and meat of the regular school day and
curriculum. What we teach has become paramount, at least in the eyes of society and
those not absorbed in the every day functioning of schools, to how we teach. Teachers are
under tremendous pressure to teach an abundance of content every year. This is a noble
and worthy cause but teachers must be equally dedicated to the individual student and her
or his needs, goals, and desires. If teachers can meet these, then motivation will become a
more naturally occurring phenomenon. If teachers are unable to motivate their students, it
is nearly impossible to meet our goal for students to learn the content we are teaching.
Therefore, it is vitally important that teachers understand what motivates students and
how to motivate them. I think any teacher would agree that motivating students is a
concern of theirs and an obstacle to meeting their goals as teachers.
Administrators should also be very concerned with motivating students.
Administrators have the responsibility of ensuring that their schools meet local, state and
national curricular standards and that the schools are safe and secure places for learning.
Most probably aim to fill their schools with competent teachers who can teach content
effectively, who can control the classroom environment, and who can help their students
meet their own potential. Increased motivation is associated with academic achievement,
reduced behavioral issues, and future success. These are all goals of the school
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administrator and should convince him or her that motivating students to learn is in her or
his best interests.
Most schools are faced with numerous outside pressures to perform at basic levels
of competency. This external motivation is well intentioned but can sap the internal
motivation of administrators, teachers and students. This external onus puts pressure on
administrators, who put pressure on teachers, who then put pressure on their students to
perform or face consequences. Student performance goes all the way back up the
bureaucratic chain until a reward or punishment is issued by the government, which
affects everyone below it. This is one cause for a lack in students’ motivation to learn.
The center of control has been taken from them and control has been administered from
above.
Administrators also have their own goals, not necessarily those that are dictated to
them from above. These additional pressures trickle down to the students. Teachers have
many of their own goals, which are placed upon the students. The net effect of all these
goals upon their shoulders can be overwhelming for students, resulting in a decreased
motivation to learn for learning’s sake. Admittedly and fortunately, many administrators
and teachers try to alleviate the pressure on those below them by getting less worked up
about meeting the goals of those above them.
Today’s schools have a lot pressures placed upon them. This pressure, as it
trickles down, adversely affects student motivation and undermines everyone’s goals. If
schools look first at what makes students want to learn, for learning is natural, and build
upon this desire, schools can meet many more of their goals than if they create
ultimatums from the top of the chain of command and pass them all the way down to the
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students. This issue of motivation is extremely pertinent to today’s schools because it
affects the schools’ ability to meet its own goals.
With all of this in mind, I sought to answer a few questions about student
motivation, seeking to find what motivates students and specifically what strategies
teachers can use to increase student motivation. The scope of my research did not include
such factors as parental influence, natural temperament, or the effect of peers because I
wanted to find out what teachers could do to affect motivation. Teachers do not often
have control over these outside factors. My overriding question was: At Deerfield
Community School (DCS), what affects 4th, 5th, and 6th grade students’ motivation to
learn material taught in school?
In Deerfield, teachers are required to cover certain material at each grade level, as
dictated by state and district requirements. Ultimately, students do not have endless
choice in what they can study in school. Given that caveat, I wondered how students
could be convinced that they wanted to study the topics required at DCS. Further, if they
didn’t really want to study the topic, how could teachers convince students that the topic
is necessary and worthwhile, thus motivating them to do their best?
I broke up my umbrella question into three sub-questions. The first sub-question I
sought to answer was: What do 4th, 5th, and 6th grade teachers at DCS do to motivate their
students to learn what they are teaching? Specifically, I was looking for the strategies that
teachers are currently employing to motivate students and determine, through a review of
literature on the topic, whether teachers were using appropriate and effective strategies or
whether there was room for improvement. The implications for me in studying this
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question were to recognize and evaluate the strategies used by fellow teachers so that I
could assimilate them into my own teaching in order to better motivate my students.
Doing a review of the literature gave me the opportunity to look at an even broader array
of strategies that were not necessarily being employed at DCS.
My second sub-question was: What do students find motivating about their
teachers? A student’s idea of what they find motivating about teachers is invaluable in
adapting teaching styles to meet their needs. Though students may have a rudimentary
idea of what helps motivate them, their comments help to identify the aspects that
motivate them at that time. Their comments are sort of a measuring stick for their current
concept of motivational strategies and to what degree they are currently internally or
externally motivated.
My third sub-question was: Do intrinsic or extrinsic motivations work better for
students in the long run? In a school world of extrinsic, top-down motivators, this
question in vitally important. Are we doing the right thing by giving students all these
external motivations? I hypothesized that intrinsic motivation works better in the long run
because rewards are not always present in the workforce or even in school. In the absence
of rewards, do “rewards-conditioned” students do as well? If intrinsic motivation is the
ideal form of motivation, then what changes can or should we make to the existing school
structure and classroom structure to foster a transition from external motivators to
internal ones?
All of these questions were designed to provide educators, myself included,
insight into what we can do to help motivate students and help them with long-term
growth and success. I am personally interested in the topic because of its potentially
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extensive ramifications in my classroom. All teachers and administrators likely have a
similar interest in this topic as well. This paper seeks to answer some of the many
questions that could be asked about what teachers can do to motivate students and the
virtues of doing so.
LITERATURE REVIEW
When doing a survey of the literature about motivation, I was looking to answer
my research questions. I specifically looked for strategies that teachers use that have been
proven effective by researchers. I also investigated students’ perceptions of their teachers
in order to answer the question of what students find motivating about their teachers. A
large portion of the research I found dealt with the question: is intrinsic or extrinsic
motivation more beneficial for students in the long run? More generally, I looked at what
factors affect students’ motivation to learn. In doing this research, a survey of books,
pamphlets, speeches, research syntheses and academic journal articles was conducted.
Teacher Strategies
Teachers use many strategies to try to motivate their students. Some have been
shown to be more effective than others. In fact, some of the practices teachers use serve
to de-motivate students to learn.
There are many factors that inhibit motivation in students. A teacher who has a
work orientation, where the goal is to get work completed in a timely manner, often
backed up by a reward, and then moves on to the next task inadvertently de-motivates
students (Burden, 2000). The student may be motivated to complete the work but the
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motivation to learn is undermined. Teachers who use extrinsic motivators can
unwittingly shift students’ motivation from learning to meeting an externally determined
standard of acceptability. Highlighting students’ abilities also inhibits motivation. If
success is seen more as a result of ability than of effort, students will cease to put forth
the effort required to successfully complete a given task. Publicly giving feedback to a
student or announcing a grade will alienate a student and diminish their desire to learn.
Competition is seen as a huge detriment to learning (Boekaerts, 2002). When students are
motivated by competition, they are not concerned with meeting their own potential but of
attaining more praise, higher grades, or greater recognition than their classmates. The
student who is rewarded most often by means of competition can thrive in this
environment. But the vast majority of students are looking up to a standard they feel they
cannot meet and become dejected, which results in waning motivation. In fact, avoiding
failure becomes a greater motivator than attaining success (Givvin, 2001).
The research suggests a wide range of ways in which teachers can help build their
students’ motivation. According to Abraham Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of needs,
motivation to learn would fall under the realm of self-actualization. All needs below this
level must be met before we can begin to focus on learning. The first needs that students
must fulfill are their physiological needs. Hopefully these are provided at home or by the
school (school breakfast). Teachers can be cognizant of students’ comfort by adjusting
the classroom thermostat. Secondly, the classroom cannot be chaotic because that would
violate the need for safety and security (Crump, 1995). Therefore, classroom
management is a key element in motivating students. Self-esteem and socialization are
extremely important aspects of all students’ lives. If we can build students’ self-esteem
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and help them to build relationships with their classmates and with their teachers,
students will be more motivated. This is true throughout a person’s life. Adults who say,
“I have a best friend at work,” are happier with their job, more engaged, and more
productive (Thottam, 2005). Students’ perception of themselves largely dictates whether
they will succeed. If they possess an ability for self-affirmation (“I can do this”), their
chances of success skyrocket. When they perceive that their teachers care about them,
students feel accepted and inspired to work hard. When students have strong relationships
with their classmates, their self-esteem rises and their optimism and self-efficacy rise
with it. Teachers must show that they care about their students. Also, teachers must help
students make connections with their peers and promote collaboration and civility by
providing group work where everyone is accepted. Giving students tasks that they can
succeed at also raises their sense of self-esteem. If all of these needs are met, Charla
Crump (1995) argues, the foundation will be set for motivating students to learn.
Though students cannot have total freedom to choose their education, teachers
should provide them with some choice in what they learn, how they learn, and when they
learn the material (Burden, 2000). Students might choose from a menu of options in
choosing a topic to learn about, ways in which to demonstrate their knowledge and
understanding, and the order of the steps to learn their topic. Students should also be
permitted to develop their own goals for their learning. When students have the authority
to create their own goals rather than having them imposed upon them, they take greater
responsibility for them and are more likely to meet the goals (Boekaerts, 2002). Teachers
must help students break down large goals into smaller measurable goals that can be used
as milestones toward reaching their ultimate goals.
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When teachers introduce new topics to students, they must catch student interest.
One innovative way to do this is called set induction. This requires the teacher to ask
what students already know and what their preconceived notions of the topic are. Then
the teacher can challenge student views, hint at inconsistencies in their thinking, and get
students’ appetites for knowledge grumbling (Burden, 2000). This is designed to capture
students’ initial interest.
Other strategies that teachers can use include highlighting the relevance of the
topic to students’ own lives and to future content, especially by using examples. Varying
instruction strategies during a single lesson keeps students on their toes and interested. If
we gather information about students’ existing knowledge of a subject, we can design
lessons with appropriate levels of challenge. Students need to have a lot of success if they
are to stay positive and motivated about learning, especially at the beginning of a lesson
or unit. Early success keeps students interested deeper into a topic. If they experience
failure from the outset, student motivation will be lost. Teachers must show interest in the
topics they are teaching. If we show excitement and expect excitement from students, we
are more likely to get it. Teachers must ensure that students are learning in order to
motivate them. The main ideas of a unit should be very evident, tasks should be
challenging but achievable, the content should be connected to prior content, the teacher
must elaborate on text readings to bring life to it, and students must be given ample
opportunity to show what they’ve learned (Burden, 2000).
Effort is considered an indicator of motivation. Many students, boys in particular,
attribute success to their ability, not their effort (Boggiano, 1991). In fact, students
naturally think effort is associated with performance but by age nine, they see ability as
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the primary determinant of performance (Boekaerts, 2002). Therefore, students must be
shown the connection between their efforts and their achievement. Monique Boekaerts
(2002) suggests having students predict the amount of effort it will take to successfully
complete a project. The students then do the project. Afterward, they compare their
predictions of the effort to the actual effort put forth and the level of success they
attained. The theory is that when students realize the connection between their efforts and
performance, they will become better at self-regulation and realize how much effort is
sufficient. This method could be particularly helpful for low-achievers because they tend
to blame their lack of success on a lack of ability (Boekaerts, 2002). When they realize
how much effort is required to be successful, they might put more work into their
projects.
Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation
The difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is a key element in
motivational research. Though many researchers give many extrinsic motivators as
examples of motivational strategies, most agree that intrinsic motivation is superior to
extrinsic motivation and that it is a long-term benefit to students. Motivation as a whole
can be succinctly described as “exciting the mind of the student to receive instruction”
(Crump, 1995). Extrinsic motivation is placed upon students and inspires them to
complete tasks with the promise of some reward or to avoid an undesirable consequence.
The effect of this type of motivation is that individuals only “exhibit behavior in order to
get some reward or comply with some external constraints” (Hilker, 1993). Intrinsic
motivation “refers to influences that originate from within a person which cause a person
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to act or learn” (Bomia, 1997). Intrinsic activities are “ones for which there is no apparent
reward except the activity itself” (Hilker, 1993). Paul Kawachi (2003) describes extrinsic
learners as ones who use activities as a means to an end and intrinsic learners as those
who are directly interested in the content.
There is an almost infinite array of extrinsic motivators used in schools today.
These include but are not limited to teacher and parent expectations, prizes, rewards,
grades, tests, progress charts, public feedback, awards, praise, slogans on the wall, ideal
work samples, and comfort or discomfort (Bomia 1997; Ediger 2001; Kawachi 2003).
Reward systems are abundant and used heavily. Extrinsic motivators can be beneficial for
students in the short term (Hilker, 1993). They can spark student interest. But, used over
longer periods of time, extrinsic motivators can inhibit a child’s natural desire to learn. In
fact, given a reward for a task that was naturally enticing for a child reduces future
motivation and interest (Hilker, 1993).
Extrinsic learners are usually ego-oriented which means they are motivated to
demonstrate their own ability to succeed or motivated to avoid failure (Boekaerts, 2002).
Students with this type of orientation are predictably low scorers on achievement tests
(Boggiano, 1991) and exhibit surface levels of understanding (Kawachi, 2003). They
choose easy tasks that they are sure they can succeed at, meaning they get a good grade
or receive praise from the teacher (Hilker, 1993).
The widespread use and underlying problems with extrinsic motivation are
actually perpetuated by the upper levels of school administration. The federal and state
governments base the distribution of tax dollars and aid to some degree on student test
performance and they sometimes threaten school closure or takeover if scores do not
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meet some minimal level. Report card scores are often published and compared with
other schools. Merit pay is based upon student tests (Ediger, 2001). All of these factors
pressure school administrators and teachers to push their students to learn what is
essential to pass these standardized tests. In turn, many teachers use similar motivation
techniques to get these results out of their students. The focus on learning and mastery
has taken a backburner status in our society.
Intrinsic motivation is considered preferable by most researchers in this survey of
the literature. Intrinsically motivated students make the lives of their teachers much
easier. They require less prodding, perform better, and have a natural enthusiasm for a
broader range of subjects. There are many ways in which intrinsic motivation manifests
itself. An intrinsically motivated student seeks out challenge, thrives given autonomy and
choice, has higher self-esteem, puts forth abundant effort, and sets personal goals
(Boekaerts 2002, Hilker 1993). Teachers use many strategies that promote intrinsic
motivation. These include giving students autonomy, instilling in students an expectation
for success, showing students that their work is directly related to their achievement
(instrumentality), that effort is vitally important, by displaying an interest in the topics
themselves, expounding on the relevance of the content, and convincing students that
they are able to do things successfully (self efficacy) (Bomia 1997). By empowering
students, showing them that they can succeed, and giving them the support they need,
they can become highly intrinsically motivated. Using intrinsically motivating teaching
strategies move children from the extrinsic side of the motivation continuum to the
intrinsic side.
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There are specific ways that teachers can move toward the goals of intrinsic
motivation listed in the previous paragraph. When students work collaboratively, which
means they bring their own ideas to the table with a group of students and test their ideas
together, a lot of learning takes place. When teachers are enthusiastic about the subject
matter, some of that rubs off onto students. Students find audio-visual materials
motivating. They seem innately drawn to them (Kawachi 2003). By cutting down the
number of tasks and increasing the duration of them, students get more involved in a
topic and their depth of knowledge grows deeper (Miller 2003). Higher order thinking
should be promoted. It is more challenging and requires students to use their knowledge,
rather than simply store it. Examples of higher order thinking include applying
knowledge to new tasks, synthesizing and analyzing information, and evaluating the
material learned (Burden 2000). By challenging students, we increase their engagement
in the activity (Miller 2003). This is because students enjoy the activities, feel they have
put in a lot of effort, or they were able to be more creative. Finally, a student’s motivation
orientation can be affected by teachers (Hilker 1993). A motivation orientation is where a
student would fall on a continuum ranging from extreme extrinsic motivation to extreme
intrinsic motivation. If teachers use intrinsic motivation strategies, most students will
move toward being more intrinsic.
What Student Find Motivating About their Teachers
The final question I asked was what do teachers do that their students find
motivating. The literature gave some insight into this question. Janene Gorham (1987)
found that a group of twenty-two sixth grade students like teachers who: use a variety of
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instructional techniques (including field trips, games, and simulations), get excited about
topics, don’t teach from a book, allow students to move around, encourage group work,
allow hands on activities, give individual attention, do not repeat instruction after
students understand the concept, give students some freedom, smile, exhibit fairness,
control the classroom, and who address issues of fighting, bullying, and teasing. Truman
Whitefield (1976) found that students are very perceptive of their teachers. Students
recognize and dislike teachers who do not listen to them. Students know teachers are
listening because they “make eye contact, lean in closer, don’t interrupt, and don’t always
agree with what you are saying” (Whitefield 1976). Student also like teachers who are
nice and help them figure things out, rather than yell at them for wrong answers. All of
these desired attributes of teachers are consistent with the research about motivating
students to learn.
A final important note for teachers is that student motivation is not a constant. It
changes over time and across curricula (Givvin 1996). Even within a content area,
students’ motivation changes from topic to topic. The way in which the teacher instructs
each topic and the students’ own success with it at the time and in the past affect their
motivation. Givvin also found that student motivation is not easily observable. Their
reasons for being motivated or unmotivated are even less transparent. This points to
getting to know students better.
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RESEARCH DATA SOURCES AND METHODOLOGY
In doing my research, I used three sequential sources of data to answer the
questions about student motivation. The first source was a teacher survey (see Appendix
1) to determine what motivation strategies they use in their classrooms and to get names
of motivated and unmotivated students in their class. The second source was a student
survey (see sample in Appendix 1) designed to find out what motivates students, who
motivates them, and whether they enjoy learning outside of school. The final data sources
were observations and videos of teachers whom the surveyed students deemed motivating
or unmotivating. Using this source, I was able to document the strategies that teachers at
DCS use to motivate their students and classify them as extrinsic or intrinsic motivators.
The teacher survey, as shown in Appendix 1, was the first data source
administered. I wanted to find information from all nine 4th, 5th, and 6th grade teachers at
DCS about what strategies they employ in their classrooms to motivate students. I am
interested in teaching at these grade levels and therefore chose them as my target
audience and source of data. Teachers were given the surveys during the first week of
January and asked to fill them out during any free time they had. Within two weeks, most
of the surveys were handed back to me complete. Eight of the nine teachers eventually
completed the survey.
The first question asked of the teachers was how they identify a motivated
student. This question was intended to gather information about the perceptions teachers
have about the outward physical and social characteristics of motivated students as well
as less noticeable or less observable features. The second question asked if teachers put
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effort into motivating their students. This simple question was asked as a means to
determine the perceived value of teachers motivating students. The third question asked
for specific strategies teachers use to engage students in learning. This question assumes
that an engaged student is a motivated student. The fourth question asked for names of 4th
through 6th students whom that teacher is teaching or has taught in the past that they
would describe as particularly motivated or unmotivated. This question was intended to
provide a list of students to survey during the student survey portion of the research.
The second data source was a student survey. Using the names of the students
provided by their current and former teachers on the teacher survey, I gave surveys to a
total of fifty-two 4th, 5th and 6th grade students via their classroom teachers. Thirty-three
of those students were described as motivated students and nineteen were considered
unmotivated. Of the surveys given, forty-three were completed: twenty-nine motivated
students and fourteen unmotivated students. The respondents included ten 4th graders,
eighteen 5th graders, and fifteen 6th graders with at least one from all nine of the 4th, 5th,
and 6th grade classrooms. I solicited responses from motivated students because I wanted
to find out the nature of their motivation. I also surveyed unmotivated students to
determine what aspects of school may have lead to their lack of motivation. The surveys
were administered over the course of a month. Each classroom teacher was given the
freedom to give the survey in any way they liked. Some had students take the surveys
home, some provided in-class time, and at least one student was helped by his teacher in
filling out the survey (as a scribe).
The first question on the student survey asked students whether they like school
and to list three reasons to support their assertion. This question assumed that students
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who are motivated like school. The second question asked students if they like to learn
outside of school, excluding homework. Intrinsically motivated people tend to want to
learn for the sake of learning (Hilker 1993), and I assumed that this would lead to a desire
to learn outside of school. The third question asked students what they liked to learn
about. With this question, I was looking to see if school content reflected the interests of
students, though I did not ask and should have asked if they were given the opportunity to
study that topic in school. The fourth question asked for reasons that students like to
learn. This inquiry was designed to find the factors that motivate students and to compare
motivated vs. unmotivated students with regard to whether their motivational orientation
leans more toward the intrinsic or extrinsic. The fifth and sixth questions asked students
to name the teacher they wanted to work hardest for and the teacher they did not want to
work hard for in the past three years. It was assumed that working hard for a teacher was
an indicator of motivation, albeit an extrinsic one. The final question had specifically to
do with student choice. Students were asked first whether they are provided with choice
in school, a measure of DCS’s flexibility in giving students choices. It also asked students
if they would like choice and for their rational. This question was designed to determine
if students feel restricted by the curriculum or their teacher and whether they would like
to have some freedom of choice in school. Choice, or autonomy, is an intrinsic motivator
(Burden 2000).
The final source of data used in this research was observing teachers instructing in
their classrooms. The teachers observed were chosen based on students’ opinion of them.
Given the results of the student surveys, the teachers mentioned most frequently as ones
students wanted to work hardest for or for whom students did not want to work hard were
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chosen for observation. Only one teacher was definitively chosen as a teacher that
students did not want to work hard for. Their current and former students rated three
teachers very positively. Over the course of the final week of February, each of the four
teachers was observed in person once and video recorded once. Each teacher was
observed for a minimum of forty-five minutes during each session. The two fifth grade
teachers (one who students wanted to work hard for and one not) taught a math lesson
about division and a social studies lesson. The two sixth grade teachers (both of whom
students expressed working hard for) taught both of their lessons about the scientific
method, using a prescribed simulation. Using both sources of data, information about the
strategies employed by each of the teachers was documented and classified as intrinsic or
extrinsic motivation. Also, whether their classroom organization or instructional style is
considered motivating or de-motivating was assessed according to the motivation
literature.
Each of these sources of data was designed to look at particular aspects of student
motivation and what teachers do to affect motivation. The student surveys were designed
to gather data about their preferences. The teacher surveys were designed to look at
strategies and categories of motivation. The observations and videos were meant to see
teacher strategies in action and determine if they were primarily extrinsic or intrinsic
strategies.
RESEARCH FINDINGS
My research yielded many results that are consistent with the professional
literature about motivation. The first finding was that teachers at Deerfield Community
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School use more extrinsic than intrinsic motivators, both in their own opinion and from
what I observed. However, the extrinsic strategies do not outweigh the intrinsic ones by
much. Another interesting finding was the importance of social interaction to the students
surveyed. A large number of them highlighted that an important factor in their affinity for
school is the time they get to spend with their friends. A third finding was that an
overwhelming majority of students indicated that they would like more choice in what
they study in school. The fourth finding was that students whom teachers consider
motivated were more intrinsically motivated than the students described as unmotivated.
But DCS, as a school, may lean toward being extrinsically motivated. The final result of
the research was that students value teachers they consider nice and want to work harder
for those teachers. Motivated students also preferred challenging teachers.
All of the eight teachers surveyed for this project responded that they value and
try to motivate students. Given their responses to my question about what strategies they
use to motivate their students, I classified their responses as intrinsic or extrinsic forms of
motivation. Intrinsic motivators allow students to take control of their own learning. The
teacher imposes extrinsic motivators upon the students and the locus of control lies
outside the student. Table 1 shows a list of intrinsic strategies teachers use in their
classrooms, based on the teacher survey. Table 2 shows a list of extrinsic motivation
strategies used by teachers. Table 3 shows a list of strategies used by the four teachers
that I observed for two class periods each.
Some strategies were difficult to list as extrinsic or intrinsic. If teachers were
asked to clarify their responses, categorizing the strategies as extrinsic or intrinsic would
have been easier. Using my best judgment based upon the literature, the results show that
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62% of the strategies listed on teacher surveys were extrinsic motivation strategies. The
other 38% were intrinsic. The observations of the four selected teachers yielded slightly
different results. Approximately 53% of the observed strategies were extrinsic and 47%
were intrinsic. In both cases, teachers used more extrinsic motivation strategies than
intrinsic strategies. I did not find this surprising. In fact, I expected to see a larger
percentage of extrinsic strategies. This expectation was based solely on my own
experience as a student and the emphasis that my teachers put on rewards for good
behavior and academic accomplishments. I was pleased to see DCS teachers are
equitably distributed on the motivation continuum. Though intrinsic motivators are
preferable to external motivators, the teachers seem to be making an effort in the right
direction, both in theory and in practice.
Social interaction seems important to DCS 4th-6th grade students (see Table 5).
44% of the students surveyed put friends as a reason that they like school. This is an
incredible percentage considering the question was completely open ended (see Student
Survey in Appendix 1). An impressive 59% of motivated students put friends on their
survey as a primary reason for liking school. That is compared to 14% of unmotivated
students. In light of self-esteem and positive social interactions, I wonder if strong
friendships are a reason that some students like school and are motivated to learn. Or
perhaps students who succeed in school and have more optimism have more friends. As
one might expect, motivated students like school more than unmotivated students (79%
compared to 29%- see Table 4). The results indicate that all school staff should be very
aware of the importance of social interaction in the lives of children. They should also
make every effort to provide students with opportunities for positive interactions with
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their classmates. Though teachers cannot control the social lives of their students, they
can at least try to help foster and model friendship.
I asked students specifically about whether they would like to have more choice
about what they learn in school. Sixteen of the forty-three respondents either left this
question blank or misunderstood the question. The remaining twenty-six students showed
a strong affinity for choice in school (see Table 6). The nature of the choices was not
discussed. These results indicate that students want to have more control over what they
study in school. Though they cannot have complete control, perhaps if teachers provided
students with more choice, students would feel more satisfied with their school
experience. Though teachers are strongly restricted in what they can teach, how they
teach it and how students respond to it could be given to the student to choose more
often.
The students were asked for the reasons that they like to learn. The responses to
this question were categorized as extrinsic or intrinsic motivations. Motivated students
showed a stronger leaning toward intrinsic motivation (see Table 7). Of the students
surveyed, 56% of the motivated student responses were intrinsic and 42% of the
unmotivated students. Intrinsic responses included items such as: learning is fun,
interesting, enjoyable and exciting, it is challenging, allows one to make wiser decisions,
and helps one to know more. Extrinsic responses included: to get into college, to make
money, to get good grades, to pass 5th grade, to get a good job, and to be able to brag.
These results were a little surprising. I expected a larger gap between the two
groups of students. I figured that unmotivated students would be motivated by external
rewards to a much larger degree because their internal drive is not showing in school.
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Perhaps the external motivators are not working for the unmotivated students any more
than they are for the motivated students. In fact, another interesting and related result is
conveyed in Table 8. These are the responses to the question: Do you enjoy learning
outside of school (other than homework)? Unmotivated and motivated students were
equally likely to enjoy learning outside of school. It appears that the unmotivated students
are not universally unmotivated but simply unmotivated in school. Two and half times
more of the unmotivated student like learning outside of school than like going to school.
These students do enjoy learning. There is something about the school, the teachers, the
classroom environment or the content that discourages these students from wanting to
learn in school.
The final significant finding from the research is that students do want to work
hard for their teachers and they have a specific idea of what they like about them. Table 9
summarizes the results of the reasons students worked hard for their teachers. It was
assumed that working hard for teachers translates into teachers motivating their students.
The most motivating feature about their teachers was that they were nice. 25% of the
students put this as a response. Motivated and unmotivated students appear equally
enamored with this quality of teachers. Additionally, many motivated students indicated
that they appreciate a challenging teacher. Other reasons for working hard included: the
teacher is funny or effective, the use of grades, wanted to prove themselves to teacher, the
teacher had strict deadlines, and the work was easy.
All of these finding are informative and important for teachers and administrators
alike. Teachers will be interested to see that the body of 4th-6th grade teachers as DCS
uses a mix of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation strategies with their students and that
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teachers tend to use extrinsic motivation more often. Though this is not ideal according to
motivation research, the results are not strongly aligned with extrinsic motivators. The
importance of positive social interaction in school is a paramount issue with
repercussions for students’ perceptions of school and their motivation to learn. Also,
there is a strong desire among the student body at Deerfield Community School for more
choice in what they are learning. As one might expect, motivated students are more
intrinsically motivated than students deemed unmotivated, but not significantly so.
Finally, students want to work hard for teachers they consider nice. Additionally,
motivated students enjoy teachers who challenge them.
CONCLUSION
My research correlates strongly with the professional literature about motivation.
There are a plethora of motivation strategies recommended in the literature and many of
those are being employed at DCS. Social interaction is a key to the success and well
being of a child, as indicated in Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of needs and in the responses
solicited from students at DCS. An overwhelming majority of DCS students favor having
more choice in the things that they learn. The literature review also mentioned autonomy,
authority, or choice as a recommended strategy for engaging and motivating students.
Students are motivated for a variety of reasons. These include both intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation. Since the literature unanimously expresses the superiority of intrinsic
motivation, there is a need to shift the focus of both teachers and students from the
extrinsic end of the continuum to the intrinsic. Lastly, students at DCS work hard for
teachers they consider nice and ones who challenge them. These two qualities are also
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found in the literature about student perceptions of teachers and about strategies teachers
should be using to motivate their students.
Teachers and students at DCS seem correspondingly split between extrinsic and
intrinsic motivation. According to Hilker (1993), this makes sense because the motivation
strategies employed by teachers do change the motivation orientation of their students.
Teachers at DCS use extrinsic motivations such as grades, rewards and punishment,
praise, tests, and top-down instructional strategies. Students express extrinsic motivators
like getting good grades, going to college, making money in the future, and
outperforming other students. Teachers also use intrinsically motivating strategies such as
collaborative group work, allowing students to vote on topics, using a variety of
instructional strategies in one lesson, and providing high challenge activities and high
order thinking questions. These strategies are manifested in student intrinsic motivations
like their love of learning, desire for self-improvement, and seeking challenge.
Motivation is a central issue for teachers and students at DCS.
Social interaction was mentioned in several articles I read as essential to student
motivation (Burden 2000, Gorham 1987, Horn 1991, and Crump 1995). Students must
have positive social experiences in order to succeed in school, a very social environment.
Before students can learn, their need for social affiliation and for strong self-esteem must
be met. The students at DCS remarked that their friends are a primary reason for their
love of school. Among motivated students, this reason was prevalent. Very few of the
unmotivated students mentioned friends as a reason for liking school. Is this because they
do not feel accepted or they have low self-esteem? Students value social interaction and
the research indicates that teachers should provide a learning environment where positive
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social interchanges are frequent. Collaborative group work is a primary means to achieve
this goal. Other methods include providing a well-managed, safe and secure classroom
and addressing social issues that may result in one student feeling ostracized.
Students want choice. Most students in my survey indicated that they would be
happier if they were given more choice about the topics they study in school. The
literature indicates that student choice is indeed a motivator. In addition to giving choice
about topics, teachers could also give students choice in the people they work with, how
to learn the material, and the way in which they will demonstrate their knowledge.
Autonomy is a strong form of intrinsic motivation, an attribute that many teachers would
like to promote in their students. Based on these results, teachers should be giving
students more choice. With teacher patience and effort, student choice can become a
strong and positive motivation in our students. Given some responsibility for choosing
their own education path, students will feel more empowered and the potential for
creativity will rise beyond the current levels in school.
Students want to be in classrooms where they think the teacher is nice and fair.
When students feel they want to be someplace, they are more likely to be motivated to
participate in that environment. This participation and effort will manifest itself into
motivated students working hard for a teacher they respect. Additionally, students who
are motivated want to work hardest for teachers who challenge them with the content.
Therefore, teachers should challenge and stimulate their students with high order thinking
activities. How students perceive teachers is essential to their motivation, especially if the
student is extrinsically motivated.
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As I expected, intrinsic motivations are preferable to extrinsic motivations. My
own research and my review of the motivation literature gave me many of the strategies
for stimulating students’ intrinsic motivations. By being able to recognize the things that
teachers do that are extrinsic versus intrinsic, they are better informed and have more
control over the effects of their teaching. Knowing the ramifications, they can move
toward strategies that will promote more intrinsic motivation.
Something I did not expect was the level of interest that perceived unmotivated
students have in learning. They express distaste for school but enjoy learning at home just
as much as motivated students. Therefore, our unmotivated students are not lost causes.
They are still learning but are not thriving in the environment we provide them. We need
to do a better job connecting their interests to the school curriculum, highlighting the
relevance of school content to their lives and interests, and allowing students a chance to
use their interests in school. I think that having choice in school would be an incredible
benefit for the unmotivated student. Given the chance to control their own learning,
perhaps they will take more responsibility for it and begin to thrive in school.
This research has ramifications for schools and teachers. We should be moving
away from extrinsic forms of motivation (though not completely abandoning it) and
toward intrinsic means of motivation if we want students to take responsibility for their
own lives and learning. School and its governing body are inherently extrinsic. Society
has told schools that they must perform a certain function and it has indicated specific
ways to meet its goals. If society completely valued intrinsic motivation, schools would
not exist, and children would be left to pursue their own academic interests on their own
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time and in their own way. However, society has imposed many of its values upon its
youth and school is a primary conduit for perpetuating those values. Given that, schools
can still strive to provide students with the greatest amount of autonomy possible, in
hopes that the student will undertake the responsibility for his of her own learning. This is
an ideal that most teachers wish for.
There are a few things I would do differently if I were to redo this project. First,
given time, I might have interviewed teachers and student instead of surveying them.
Through interviews, I could have ensured that there was no confusion about the questions
and I could have asked follow-up questions. I would also have liked to have the
opportunity to track down students and teachers whose answers I had questions about.
Doing a follow-up interview or just asking for clarification would have been helpful.
The questions on the surveys could have been asked differently, providing me
with more insights and concrete data. There are four particular questions I would have
like to ask or revise before asking students. The first thing I would have liked to know
was if students had the chance in school to study the things that interest them. This would
have been particularly helpful with the umotivated students because the lack of
opportunity to study their interests may be a root of their distaste for school. When I
asked students which teachers they have wanted to work hardest for, I assumed that
teachers extrinsically motivated the students. This question was worded in such a way
that there was no room for students to say they work hard simply because they want to.
Many of the motivated students answered this question with, “I’ve wanted to work hard
for all of my teachers.” Does this mean that they are extrinsically motivated or that they
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work hard because they are dedicated to their own learning? I did not want to ask
students what motivates them about their teachers because I felt that the word motivation
would have confused them and made the question harder to answer. Since I associate
hard work (or effort) with motivation, I worded the question that way. On the question of
choice, I later realized that I would like to know what types of choices students want. I
found that they want choices about which topics to study. What about choices in how
they study, whom they study with, and when they study each topic? I would have liked
more insight into the types of choices students want.
My personal research into student motivation at DCS shed no light on what makes
students umotivated. This is a question that would need an entirely new line of research
and thinking. My research showed me what motivates students but not the reasons that
particular students do not like to learn in school. I could assume from the literature that
students’ lack of motivation is a result of over exposure to extrinsic motivators, but that is
a very narrow view of student motivation. I would like to know why students think they
aren’t motivated to learn.
I have a notion that the home environment has a lot to do with student motivation.
A further topic of study might be to set up an experiment where teachers and parents
team up with the aim to boost students’ intrinsic motivation. There could be a control
group (at DCS this would likely be students taught by a teacher who uses nearly equal
amounts of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation), a group of students that have a teacher
who is dedicated to trying primarily intrinsic motivations over the course of a year, and a
third group of students who have both teachers and their parents trying to use intrinsic
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motivators over the same period of time. The results of this experiment would be
fascinating to see.
Another experiment might look at one teacher who uses primarily extrinsic
motivators and one who uses primarily intrinsic motivators and track their students over
the course of the year to see how their motivation orientation changes. Or perhaps follow
a group of students over a longer period of time to see how different teachers affect their
motivation.
The impact of a teacher’s motivation orientation is an indicator of their students’
motivation orientation. If, as a school system, most teachers lean toward either extrinsic
or intrinsic types of motivation, the motivation orientation of the student will be strongly
correlated. Researchers purport that we should be providing students with the foundations
for intrinsic motivation and moving away from extrinsic means of motivating the
children. Teachers and administrators alike should take this piece of advice seriously. It is
their responsibility to know what the latest research on the topic of motivation in saying
about how we should be instructing our students. Intrinsic motivation has had numerous
professionally qualified advocates for many decades. Yet, even at a progressive school
like DCS, teachers still use a greater proportion of extrinsic motivators than intrinsic
ones. Educators should be moving in the direction of improving students’ intrinsic
motivation. Researchers have shown that student motivations can be changed over time.
It is up to teachers to recognize their own strategies, categorize them as extrinsic or
intrinsic, and change their practice accordingly. I think that all educators are interested in
motivating their students. The means to do so are at our disposal, if only we take a
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focused look at our own practice. Though not all students will become motivated despite
their teachers’ best efforts, many can be motivated. Finally, we must strive to motivate
students to learn, not just to complete their work.
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