Introduction to General Linguistics
Hubert Truckenbrodt
Phonology 2:
Vowels: Articulation and transcription
1 German vowels
The German vowel system is fairly complex, but relatively systematic. The vowels are distinguished
along a variety of dimensions: (a) tongue position in the mouth, (b) lip rounding (or its absence), (d) a
tense/lax contrast, and (d) length. In this section, you will learn about the German vowels, with
lessons that build up in a number of steps, from simple to complex. Once you have understood the
German vowel system, it will be easy for you to understand any other vowel system in the future.
1.1 Tongue position: front/back, and high/mid/low
The main articulatory distinctions for tongue position are front/back, and high/mid/low. These are
names for the highest position of the tongue in the mouth. The top surface of the tongue has a
roundish shape when a vowel is pronounced. The articulatory dimension front/back and high/mid/low
refer to the highest point of this roundish shape. With a front vowel, for example, the highest point of
the tongue is relatively far front in the mouth, with a back vowel relatively further back. Similarly,
with high/mid/low vowels, the highest point of the tongue is, relatively speaking, high in the mouth,
at a mid-height in the mouth, and low in the mouth.
(1) shows three important corners of the vowel space. The high front vowel [i] is at the upper
front corner of this vowel space, and the high back vowel [u] is at the upper back corner. [a] is
sometimes described as 'central', as the highest point of the tongue is neither clearly front nor clearly
back with [a]. However, we will see in later sections that there is evidence in the phonology of
German that [a] is a back vowel, once the vowels are divided into two classes 'front' and 'back'. This is
reflected in the way [a] is drawn in (1).
(1)
front
[i˘] hier
here
back
[u˘]
[a˘]
Hahn
rooster
Huhn
chicken
high
low
You can get a feeling for the tongue position of a vowel in your mouth if you use a straw (or a flat
lollipop), carefully position this on the front part of your tongue, and then say two vowels
alternatingly. For example, you can compare [i] and [u] in this way. Saying [uuu iii uuu iii uuu ...] you
will notice how the straw is pushed out of your mouth as you go from [uuu] to [iii]. If it sticks to your
tongue enough (here a lollipop may be better), it will also be pulled into the mouth as the tongue
retracts from [iii] to [uuu]. You can similarly compare [i] and [a] for height, and [a] and [u]. You
should be able to notice that [a] is lower than both [i] and [u].
There are languages that have only the three vowels [i, u, a]. Such a language is
Warlpiri, spoken by native people in central Australia.
To these three extremes in the vowel space, we can add the mid vowels [e] and [o], as in (2).
[e] is front, like [i], but not as high as [i]. [o] is back like [u], but not as high as [u]. Both [e] and [o]
are higher than [a].
p. 1, Intro Ling, Phonology 2: Vowels – Articulation and transcription
(2)
front
hier
here
[e˘] Heer
army
back
[u˘]
[i˘]
Huhn
chicken
[o˘] Hohn
scorn
[a˘]
Hahn
rooster
high
mid
low
Spanish has the five vowels distinguished in (2) and no additional vowels (apart from a long/short
distinction).
1.2 Rounding and backness
Of the five vowels in (2), [u] and [o] are rounded, which means that they have crucial lip rounding,
while [i], [e], and [a] are not rounded. In a vowel-system like this, such as the Spanish one, it is not a
coincidence that only the back vowels [u] and [o] are rounded while the front vowels are unrounded.
This has to do with the acoustics of these sounds:1 There is a sense in which rounding and backness
'sound similar' (and look similar, in an acoustic computer analysis of the sound). In a sense, rounding
increases the way back vowels sound like back vowels. If rounding were added to a front vowel, this
front vowel would also sound a bit like a back vowel in this respect. Therefore, if the back vowels are
rounded and the front vowels are unrounded as in Spanish, front and back vowels are particularly easy
to distinguish in the way they sound: back vowels sound particularly 'back', and front vowels do not at
all sound 'back'. Even languages with more complicated vowel systems (such as English, that we will
briefly look at below) have the front vowels unrounded, and rounding reserved for back vowels.
However, rounding and backness, though they sound similar, do not sound identically, and
there are also many languages that show additional combinations of rounding and backness. German
is one of these languages, in that it has front rounded vowels. These are orthographic 'ü' and 'ö',
transcribed as [y] and [O] (as well as their 'lax' counterparts that we will see below).
(3)
high front rounded: [y], orthographically 'ü', as in: Hügel, [hy˘gl], 'hill'
mid front rounded: [O], orthographically 'ö', as in: Höhle, [hO˘l´], 'cave'
The following table integrates these vowels, and integrates the distinction of rounding.
(4)
front
unrounded
[i˘] hier
here
[e˘] Heer
army
rounded
[y˘]
Hügel
hill
[O˘]
Höhle
cave
back
unrounded rounded
[u˘] Huhn
chicken
[o˘]
Hohn
high
mid
scorn
[a˘]
Hahn
rooster
low
The table shows that [y] ('ü') is similar to [i] in tongue position (high and front), but distinct from it in
lip rounding, and that [O] is similar to [e] in tongue position (mid and front), but distinct from it in lip
rounding. It may help you remember how [y] and [O] are pronounced if you consider the orthography
1
The script of last year speaks of Japanese here. This is not correct. Japanese has no high back rounded vowel.
The Japanese high back vowel is the unrounded
, which is found in Polish,Russian, and many other
languages.
p. 2, Intro Ling, Phonology 2: Vowels – Articulation and transcription
(writing): Going from 'u' to 'ü' and going from 'o' to 'ö' in both cases means 'becoming front, but
leaving everything else the same'. Thus, 'ü' is like 'u' in that it is high and round, but 'ü' is front, unlike
the back vowel [u]. Also, 'ö' is like 'o' in that it is mid and round, but 'ö' is front, unlike the back vowel
'o'. Thus, you can think of the 'umlaut' dots (written on top of 'o' and 'u' in 'ü' and 'ö') as turning a
vowel into a corresponding front vowel.
1.3 Tense and lax vowels
The next important distinction is more subtle. This is the distinction between tense and lax vowels.
With the exception of [a], all vowels in (4) are tense, and have a lax counterpart. In German, the
distinction between tense and lax vowels is to some extent connected to the distinction between long
and short vowels (more on this below). (5) shows examples of minimal contrasts between tense (long)
vowels with lax (short) vowels.
(5)
tense lax
[i˘] - [I]
[e˘] - [E]
[u˘] - [U]
[o˘] - [ç]
[y˘] - [Y]
[O˘] - [ø]
ihn - in
Heer - Herr
Mus - muss
wohne - Wonne
Hüte - Hütte
Höhle - Hölle
him, in
army, mister
mush, must
live (1.sg), bliss
hats, cottage
cave, hell
In addition to the length distinction, there is, in all these pairs, a distinction in how 'strong' the
articulation is executed. The tense vowels have their articulation more strongly executed, while the
lax vowels have it less strongly executed (as though the tongue was more relaxed). [i] and [I] for
example, are both high front vowels. However, lax [I] is not quite as high up and not quite as far
front as tense [i]. Similarly, lax [E] is not as high up as the mid [e], and not quite as far front. The
distinction also applies to the amount of lip rounding: Lax [ç], for example, is not only lower than
tense [o] in tongue position, but the lips are also less rounded with [ç] than with [o]. This is a
difference in degree: both [ç] and [o] are rounded vowels nevertheless.
The German vowel [a] is usually classified as lax, and as having no tense counterpart. The
table in (6) adds the lax vowels to the table in (4), as well as the distinction between tense and lax.
(6)
front
tense
unrounded
[i˘] hier
here
lax
[I]
tense
lax
Hilfe
help
[e˘] Heer
army
[E]
(lax)
Hemd
shirt
rounded
[y˘]
Hügel
hill
[Y] Hülse
husk
[O˘]
Höhle
cave
[ø] Hölle
hell
back
unrounded rounded
[u˘] Huhn
chicken
Hund
dog
[o˘] Hohn
scorn
high
[U]
[ç]
[a˘]
Hahn
rooster
mid
Holz
wood
low
Notice also that lax vowels are often followed by double consonants in the orthography, as in
many of the examples in (5). Importantly, the double consonant of the orthography is not pronounced
longer than the single consonant of the orthography. Thus, the single and double consonants in Mus
p. 3, Intro Ling, Phonology 2: Vowels – Articulation and transcription
and muss, in wohne and Wonne etc. are both pronounced short. The double consonant of the
orthography is only a 'sign' that the preceding vowel is pronounced lax. Altogether, the pronunciation
is: Mus [mu˘s], muss [mUs], wohne [vo˘n´], and Wonne [vçn´]. Notice also, that there is not
always such an orthographic sign for a lax vowel. Thus, the vowels of in, Bär, Hals, Holz and many
other words are lax, with no following double consonant serving as a sign for this.
1.4 Short and long vowels
German vowels can be long or short. In some cases, this distinction can differentiate words, as shown
in (7).
(7)
Short vs. long lax versions of the vowels [E] and [a]
[E˘] näht
[E]
nett
[a˘] Saat
[a]
satt
sews (3.sg), nice
seeds, full
As mentioned, the distinction between long and short is often closely connected to the tense/lax
distinction. One effect of this is that that the lax vowels [E] and [a], as shown in (7), have long and
short versions, but that all other lax vowels are short in German.
(8)
The lax vowels [I, Y, ø, U, ç] are always short in German.
The tense vowels, on the other hand, all have a long and a short version. Long versions of tense
vowels were seen in (5) above, contrasting with short lax vowels. (5) is repeated as (9a) here. (9b) in
addition shows vowels that are short and tense. These are less frequent than the vowels illustrated in
(9a), but they do occur.
(9)
a.
tense lax
long short
[i˘] - [I]
[e˘] - [E]
[u˘] - [U]
[o˘] - [ç]
[y˘] - [Y]
[O˘] - [ø]
b.
tense
short
ihn - in
Heer - Herr
Mus - muss
wohne - wonne
Hüte - Hütte
Höhle - Hölle
[e]
[u]
[o]
[y]
[O]
[i]
vital
mechanisch
kulant
Moral
düpieren
möblieren
vital
mechanical
accomodating
moral
to dupe
to furnish
Notice that all vowels in (9b) occur in an unstressed position. This has to do with a regularity about
the length-distinction with tense vowels: In German, if a vowel is tense and stressed, it is long.
Therefore, the rare short occurrences of tense vowels are all in unstressed positions, like in (9b).
Some remarks on orthography, tense/lax, and long/short
Orthography is generally not of primary interest in phonology, and the relation of orthographic
spelling to pronunciation is less than regular. Nevertheless, in this introductory discussion, it may be
helpful to see some 'typical' connections between writing and pronunciation, even if these cannot
always be applied. Please read them and use them if they are helpful. However, these connections to
the orthography will not be part of the final exam.
Tense [i] and lax [I] are both spelled 'i' in the orthography. However, we often find indicators
of length with tense [i], such as the 'ie' in Biene [bi˘n´] and the 'ih' in ihn [i˘n]. Now, tense [i] can
be long, but lax [I] is never long (see (8) above). Therefore long "i-sounds" are necessarily tense, as
in Biene [bi˘n´] and ihn [i˘n]. However, there is not always such an indication of length in the
orthography, even with long tense vowels. For example, there is none in Maxime [maksi˘m´].
p. 4, Intro Ling, Phonology 2: Vowels – Articulation and transcription
Therefore, an orthographic sign of length with an "i-sound" usually points to a tense vowel. However,
when there is no sign of length, a vowel may be either tense or lax.
Similarly with the tense and lax variants of the vowels corresponding to orthographic 'u', 'o',
'ü', and 'ö'. The lax versions of these vowels cannot be long by (8). Therefore, when these vowels
show '_h' as an indication of length in the orthography, they are normally tense: Huhn [hu˘n], Mohn,
[mo˘n], führen [fy˘r´n], Möhre [mO˘r´]. Similarly with orthographic double vowel as in Moos
[mo˘s]. However, there is not always such an indication of length: Buch [bu˘x], Ton [to˘n], Hügel
[hy˘gl], löten [lO˘tn]. Again, then, an orthographic indication of length with these vowels is an
indication for the tense version of the vowel; however, no orthographic indication of length is no clear
indication for anything.
The "e-sounds" [e] and [E] are different from the preceding vowels both in the pronunciation
and in the orthography. In the pronunciation, lax [E] can be long as well as short, as was seen in (7).
In the orthographic spelling, lax [E] is spelled either 'e' or 'ä'. Often, 'ä' is pronounced long, with or
without a following orthographic 'h'. Thus spät and (er) späht are both pronounced [SpE˘t].
Mädchen is pronounced [mE˘dC´n]. However, 'ä' can also stand for a short [E], as in Klänge
[klEN´]. Short [E] is spelled as orthographic 'e' in other words like Hemd [hEmt] and lenken
[lENk´n]. Tense [e] is orthographically spelled 'e' in the normal case, often with signs of length, as
in Meere [me˘r´] or Kehle [ke˘l´], and sometimes without, as in Venus [ve˘nUs]. The "esounds" also show considerable variation among speakers (and dialects). There are many speakers
who do not distinguish between [e] and [E].
In all this mess, one regularity that seems to have only one exception is this: When a vowel is
spelled 'ä', it is pronounced [E˘] or [E]. (The exception is the diphthong (see below) 'äu', for example
in Häuser.) With this, let us return to our divide for memorizing pronunciation: 'Dots on 'ü' and 'ö'
"make a back vowel into a front vowel."' Does this carry over to 'a' and 'ä'? The answer is: almost, but
not exactly. Going from 'a' to 'ä', we make the back vowel 'a' [a], into the front vowel 'ä' [E]. However,
'ä' [E] is not the exact front counterpart of 'a' [a]. The exact front counterpart of [a] would be a low
front vowel (which does not exist in German). Instead, the vowel corresponding to written 'ä' is a mid
front vowel. Nevertheless, all three of 'a', 'o', and 'u' are pronounced as back vowels, and all three of
'ä', 'ö', and 'ü' are pronounced as front vowels. They have dots on top, like the front vowel 'i', [i/I],
which also has a dot on top. (Careful, however: the vowel [e] is also a front vowel, but does not have
a dot. Thus, orthographic dots indicate front vowels, but not all front vowels have orthographic dots,
'e' being the exception).
1.5 Schwa [´]
There is a further vowel in German, called schwa, and transcribed [´]. It occurs in Wege [ve˘g´],
Belag [b´la˘k] and many other words of German. Schwa is never stressed in German, while all
other vowels, also lax vowels, can be stressed. There are many words in which schwa occurs in
careful pronunciation, but not in more casual pronunciation. For example, it occurs in the careful
pronunciation of legen and Laden, [le˘g´n] and [la˘d´n], but not in the more casual
pronunciation of these words, [le˘gN] and [la˘dn]. Schwa can be thought about as a vowel with no
properties: The tongue seems to lie in the mouth in a relaxed position. Schwa is neither front nor
back; the tongue is in a mid position between front or back instead. Schwa is also not high or low, but
also mid in that dimension. It also lacks rounding.
2 A brief comparison of the German and the English vowel system
In this section, we briefly compare the German and English vowel systems. (10) shows, on the left, a
summary of the German vowel system. In each pair, for example [i I], the first member of the pair is
tense, the second lax. Lip rounding is indicated by larger circles around the sounds that are rounded.
The front rounded vowels are written separately below the 'core' of the chart.
p. 5, Intro Ling, Phonology 2: Vowels – Articulation and transcription
On the right, you see a similar table for the American English vowels, with examples of
variation, and an example for each vowel. Notice the following similarities and differences:
(a) Similarity: English, like German, has the high (tense and lax) vowels [i, I, u, U]. So,
German Niete [ni˘t´] and English neat [ni˘t] are similar, fit [fIt] is used in both languages,
German nun and English noon are both pronounced [nu˘n], and the vowel in English put [pUt] also
occurs in German kaputt [kapUt].
(b) Similarity: English, like German, has the mid lax vowels [E, ç], as well as schwa. Short [E]
occurs in English neck [E] and German necken [nEkN].
[to be added: comment on long/short distinction of [E, ç]].
(c) Difference: English does not have the tense mid vowels [e] and [o]. Instead, it has the
diphthongs [eI] and [oU], which German lacks. (These are written in the table for American English
in (10) for reasons of comparison; other diphthongs are discussed separately below.) Thus, a word
pronounced [be˘t] must be German (here: Beet) and cannot be English. Inversely, a word
pronounced [beIt] cannot be German, and must be English (here: bait). Likewise, [bo˘t] must be
German (Boot), and [boUt] must be English (boat).
(d) Difference: English does not have the front rounded vowels of German ([y, Y, O, ø]),
corresponding to German orthographic 'ü' and 'ö'. Thus, when you hear [køln], you know it's
German (the town Köln) and not English.
(10)
German
front
i
I
e
E
back
u
U high
[´] o
ç mid
a
plus:
"ü"
"ö"
front
y
Y high
O
ø mid
American English
front
back
i
I
u
U high
eI E [´] oU ç mid
√
low
Q
A
low
examples of variation:
Midwest, California: [A, ç] not distinguished
cot, caught (otherwise [kAt], [cç˘t])
British: distinguishes [A, Å, ç]: balm, bomb,
bought
[´U] instead of [oU]: boat, close
examples:
[i]
beat
[I]
bit
[eI] bait
[E]
bet
[Q]
bat, cat, sad, stamp,
[u]
boot
[U]
put
[oU] boat
[ç]
bought
[A]
hot, not, long, father,
[√]
butt, umbrella. thorough,
(e) Difference: Where German has the single low vowel [a], American English has a front low vowel
[Q] as in cat [kQ˘t], a back low vowel [A] as in hot [hA˘t], and a mid-low vowel [√] as in umbrella
[√mbrEl´]. Notice in particular that the [A] in hot is unrounded in American English, like a German
[a] and unlike German [ç]. British English is different and makes an additional distinction between
two low back vowels: unrounded [A] and rounded [Å]. In many cases, the unrounded [A] corresponds
to orthographic 'a', as in balm and plant [plA˘nt], while the rounded [Å] corresponds to
orthographic 'o' as in bomb and hot [hÅt]. Speakers familiar with different varieties of English will
p. 6, Intro Ling, Phonology 2: Vowels – Articulation and transcription
notice that [hA˘t] for hot sounds American, while [hÅt] for hot sounds British. Another very
noticeable distinction between American and British English is that between American [oU] and
British [´U] in words such as boat, Am. [boUt] and Br. [b´Ut]. English-German dictionaries
typically reflect the British pronunciation.
The additional low vowels of English are often lost on German speakers of English, even long
after if they master the pronunciation of [T]. The low vowel [Q] as in bat, [bQ˘t], and the mid vowel
[E] as in bet, [bEt] are hard to distinguish for us. Similarly with the distinction between [√] in
umbrella [√mbrEl´], [A] in plant [plA˘nt], and German [a], which is not as far back as English
[A].
Diphthongs (Br.: [dIfTÅN])
Finally, let us take a brief look at diphthongs. Simplifying a bit, you may think of them as a sequence
of two vowels, crucially within the same syllable. The simplification in this explanation is that, in the
phonological analysis, they are not always analyzed as two separate vowels, but sometimes as a single
unit with two different parts.
diphthong [G. Diphthong]: a sequence of two vowel qualities in the same syllable; classified as either
a single (changing) vowel or as a sequence of two vowels, depending on language and theory.
We have already seen the American English diphthongs [eI] and [oU] above, and the British English
diphthong [´U]. In addition to that, English has three diphthongs, which correspond closely to the
three diphthongs that German has. They are shown in (11). Notice that all English and German
diphthongs have a high lax vowel ([I] or [U]) as their second member.
(11)
diphthongs shared by German and English:
[aI]
[aU]
[çI]
German
bei
[baI]
Haus [haUs]
Beule [bçIl´]
English
bite
[baIt]
house [haUs]
boy
[bçI]
p. 7, Intro Ling, Phonology 2: Vowels – Articulation and transcription