AP World History
Mr. Soff
PART II
THE CLASSICAL PERIOD, 1000 B.C.E. – 500 C.E.: UNITING LARGE REGIONS
In the classical period, China, India, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East, East Africa, and Mesoamerica all saw the
development of large regional civilizations, and, in some cases, massive empires. These civilizations had not only the
greatest concentrations of people, but also influenced areas outside their control. Classical civilizations also had
important relationships with nomadic groups, mostly from central Asia, who traded with them and periodically attempted
invasion. For the most part, little contact existed between the regions, but for some, trade forged links, and sometimes
served to further an exchange of ideas. Syncretism, the combination of cultural elements such as an Indian sculpture of
Buddha clothed in Greek fashion, was often a result of this exchange. Syncretism was not the most common feature of
the classical period, but its occurrence hinted at what would be developed more fully later. The establishment of
distinctive cultural and institutional patterns was a key legacy of this period.
Big Concepts. The formation of the classical societies involved two striking features. First was the emergence and
standardization (within each society) of key cultural and religious traditions and second, in the political realm, was the
development of state and empires—again, with each society producing some characteristic political forms within this
category. Finally, as the period’s third overarching feature, the contacts that did develop among different regions
spurred trade and, to some degree, communication. All three of these features would affect world history long after the
classical period had itself ended.
Triggers for Change. Despite the lack of a clear transition, the classical civilizations that began to emerge about 1000
B.C.E. were measurably different from their river valley predecessors. While they built on earlier achievements, they
grew noticeably larger in their geographic, cultural, and economic reach. What allowed this greater reach was military
conquest, made possible by the introduction of iron tools and weapons, beginning around 1500 B.C.E. As larger empires
developed, leaders worked to tie their territories together both commercially and culturally. New trade links emerged,
sometimes aided by new infrastructure such as canals (China) or postal service (Persia). Religion and philosophy were
formalized and disseminated as part of training a cohesive elite. Each of the classical societies ultimately declined, some
collapsed altogether, Though these developments did not happen at exactly the same time, together they brought the
classical period to a close by 500 C.E.
The Big Changes. Each of the classical civilizations had its own social structure, religion, political system, system of
science, and styles of art. Comparisons of these differences, which have continued to the present day, form a vital part
of studying the classical period. To take one example: in the late 20th century the Chinese government proved
reasonably effective in mandating drastic changes in birth rates. The Indian government tried and failed to enforce
similar regulations. One significant factor in explaining the difference is the extent to which these populations considered
it the legitimate business of government to regulate personal life. The differences in attitude can be traced back to the
classical period. All of the civilizations that marked this period have proved to have lasting influence. Moreover, each
area developed a common culture, especially in ideology. Conquest was also a commonality. Each of these civilizations
had an impact on surrounding peoples, India had the largest commercial reach. Even more widely, nomadic peoples
were often attracted toward centers of civilization as immigrants, soldiers, or invaders. Some nomadic peoples facilitated
trade between civilizations. Finally, in each area, the achievements of civilizations inspired awe, at the time and later.
Great developments in philosophy, politics, and art in classical civilizations provided the foundations for subsequent
civilizations.
Continuity. Although technology was a factor in change, particularly iron, the era was not marked by widespread
innovation. In the rural world in particular, continuity was more common than change. Patriarchy remained the norm,
now integrated into new cultural systems. In general, some of the hallmarks of the earlier civilizations—money and law
codes for instance—were carried forward and further developed.
Impact on Daily Life: Old Age. A respect for the aged was common to all of the great cultural regions. It was seen as
a sign of good habits and wisdom. Furthermore, in groups where literacy was not common, the elderly could be a vital
source of information and cultural memory. Respect for the elderly was a sign of good manners in all the classical
societies. Confucianism in China placed special value on veneration of elders. The Mediterranean culture, that of
Classical Greece, Rome, and Hebrews, showed greater ambivalence.
Trends and Societies. Initial chapters in this section describe developments in each of the major areas, starting with
China in chapter 2. Chapter 3 concerns India, before turning back to the Mediterranean for the history of Greece and
Rome in chapter 4. Chapter 5 returns to the main classical centers, dealing with patterns of decline and concurrent
religious innovations, including the rise of Christianity.
Chapter 2: Classical China
Patterns in Classical China:
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Three dynastic cycles cover the many centuries of classical China: the Zhou, the Qin, and the
Han.
Political instability and frequent invasions caused the decline of the Zhou Dynasty and promoted
debate over China’s political and social ills.
In the last centuries of the later Zhou era, some of China’s greatest thinkers, including Kong fu
Tzu (Confucius) tried different ways to restore order and social harmony. Central to culture were
the family, filial piety, harmony reciprocal social relationships, and deference to social superiors.
Shi Huangdi, the brutal founder of the Qin Dynasty, centralized power in China and began
construction of the Great Wall.
Wu Ti, the most famous of the Han rulers, supported Confucianism and promoted peace.
Political Institutions:
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For most of recorded history, the Chinese people have been the most tightly governed people of
any large society in the world.
Political institutions became one of classical China’s hallmarks. Among the most permanent
aspects of Chinese culture was the belief in the unity and the desirability of a central
government in the hands of the emperor assisted by an educated, professional
bureaucracy.
Religion and Culture:
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Chinese culture began coalescing during the last, calamitous centuries of the Zhou rule. During
this time, three critical secular philosophies arose, each of which emphasized the role of
education to achieve social ends.
Confucianism, an ethical system based on relationships and personal virtue, became the
predominant philosophy.
Daoism taught harmony with nature and humble living. Lao zi was Daoism’s most popular
figure.
Legalism countered Confucianism by favoring an authoritarian state and harsh rule.
Art in classical China was mostly decorative, and appeared in many forms, including calligraphy,
carved jade and ivory, and silk screens.
Science and mathematics emphasized the practical over the theoretical, and the ancient Chinese
were particularly adept at astronomy.
Economy and Society:
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China’s classical economy focused on agriculture. All Chinese philosophies extolled the virtues of
the peasants and their world.
Sharp class divisions existed between 1) the landowning aristocracy and educated
bureaucrats—Mandarins, 2) the laboring masses, peasants, and urban artisans, and 3) the
“mean” people, or those without meaningful skills.
The state also fostered an extensive internal trade, even while maintaining some ambivalence
about merchants and commercial values.
Technological advances were plentiful, including ox-drawn plows, water-powered mills, and
paper.
Socially, China was hierarchical, deferential, and patriarchal, and tight family structure was
valued.
How Chinese Civilization Fits Together:
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China’s politics and culture meshed readily, especially around the emergence of a Confucian
bureaucracy.
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Economic innovation did not disrupt the emphasis on order and stability, and family structures
were closely linked to political and cultural goals.
Classical Chinese civilization evolved with very little outside contact. Though internal
disagreement existed, most Chinese saw the world as a large island of civilization (China)
surrounded by barbarians with nothing to offer except periodic invasions.
Key terminology:
1. Zhou dynasty:
2. Mandate of Heaven:
3. Qin dynasty:
4. Qin Shi Huangdi:
5. Warring States Period:
6. Confucius:
7. Lao zi:
8. Daoism:
9. Legalism:
10. The Great Wall
11. Han dynasty:
Focus Questions:
1. What was probably the most important political legacy of the Zhou dynasty?
2. How did the Qin dynasty differ from the Zhou dynasty?
3. What were some of the functions of government in Han China?
4. What did Chinese views of nature emphasize?
5. What were some of the innovations instituted by Shi Huangdi?
6. Why did the Chinese government accept Daoism?
7. Why did ceremony and hierarchy became important parts of upper-class Chinese life?
8. What were some of China’s key economic strengths during this period?
9. Which groups were considered “low standing” in official Chinese social hierarchy?
10. How were women treated in Han society?