Chapter 36: Comparing Vertebrates
Section 2: Form and Function in Vertebrates
Form and Function in Vertebrates

Vertebrates perform the essential functions of life with a variety of body
structures

Evolutionary processes have modified certain basic structures over time

As you move through the vertebrate classes from fishes to mammals,
_________________________________________ tend to become increasingly
_________________________
Movement

All
vertebrates
except
jawless
fishes
have
a
vertebral
column
_______________________________ made of numerous individual bones called
_______________________________
o Connected to one another by tough ligaments that allow the vertebral
column to bend to a certain extent
o ______________________________________________ are attached to
this
basic
supporting
structure
by
sets
of
bones
called
_________________________________________
o Most of the bones in the body can be made to move through the
__________________________________________________
that
are
attached to the bones

Fish and snakes
o Main body muscles are arranged into blocks that are positioned on either
side of the vertebral column
o Contract in _______________________, one after another
o Make the body bend rapidly ____________________________________

Amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals
o The position of the limbs relative to the body shifts toward the
__________________________
o The movement of the vertebral column when the animal runs changes
from a side-to-side motion to an up-and-down motion
Feeding

The ________________ of vertebrates show many adaptations for feeding

The organs of the digestive systems of vertebrates are equally well adapted for
different feeding habits
o _________________________________

Short digestive tracts with special enzymes that break down meat
o _________________________________

Long intestines and stomachs with bacteria that break down
cellulose
Respiration

_______________________________________________
o Use ___________________ for respiration

As water passes over the gill filaments, oxygen diffuses into the
blood in the capillaries and carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood
into the water

_______________________________________________
o Use ____________________ to breathe

When the animals inhale, oxygen-rich air enters the lungs

When the animals exhale, carbon dioxide-rich air is expelled
Internal Transport

Fishes and larval amphibians
o ________________________________________________________

Blood travels from the heart to the gills to the body and back to the
heart
o _______________________________________________

Vertebrates with lungs
o _______________________________________________________

Heart and lungs

Heart and body
Excretion

Excretory systems eliminate nitrogenous wastes and regulate the amount of water
in the body

Most vertebrates rely on ______________________ for excretion

Nitrogenous wastes are first produced in the form of _______________________
o Aquatic amphibians and fish

Ammonia diffuses __________________________________ into
the surrounding water
o Mammals, terrestrial amphibians, and cartilaginous fishes

Ammonia is changed into _________________
o Reptiles and birds

Ammonia is changed into ____________________________
Response

All vertebrates display a high degree of _________________________________

The size and complexity of the cerebrum and cerebellum increase as you move
through the vertebrate classes from fish to mammals
Reproduction

Almost all vertebrates reproduce _____________________________

In some vertebrates fertilization is external

In other fertilization occurs inside the body of the female

Vertebrates show three different modes of development
o _______________________________

Eggs develop outside the mother’s body
o _______________________________

Eggs develop inside the mother’s body but the embryos receive the
nutrients they need from the yolk that surrounds them, not from the
mother directly
o _______________________________

Developing embryos obtain nutrients directly from the mother’s
body