Self-Concept i
A Literature Review of Articles Relating to Adolescent Self-Concept
Heidi Guggisberg-Coners
FSHS 713: Adolescents and Their Families
Dr. Elaine Johannes
February 12, 2016
Self-Concept ii
Abstract
Understanding the self-concept of adolescents is essential in working with them as a
Youth Development Professional. Self-concept can be studied from a variety of
perspectives including, thoughts of the future, identity development, multidimensional
components, depressive symptoms, adolescent-focused programs, and bullying. Each
article reviewed provides its own examination of self-concept through the eyes of the
researcher(s) who presented it. The unfortunate truth is that we all know an adolescent
suffering from the inside out due to a negative self-concept. This is obviously a
worldwide problem that is evident in this literature review. These articles come from
many of the corners of the globe including, Australia, Great Britain, Scandinavia, and the
United States. It is up to the Youth Development professionals in this world to determine
how to best help those adolescents in need. Through further exploration, Youth
Development Professionals may come up with some unique ways of understanding and
perceiving adolescent self-concept.
Self-Concept 1
How do we think of ourselves? How do people believe in themselves? And, most
importantly, how do adolescents view themselves? As an adolescent, my self-concept,
self-image, and self-esteem were all poor. As an adult, I would like to help those who
suffer the way I did, to improve their self-concept. It is my goal to become a
motivational speaker for adolescents and earn a doctoral degree in Youth Development.
The unfortunate truth is that we all know an adolescent suffering from the inside out due
to a negative self-concept. This is obviously a worldwide problem that is evident through
the articles I will review. These articles come from many of the corners of the globe
including, Australia, Great Britain, Scandinavia, and the United States. It is up to the
Youth Development professionals in this world to determine how to best help those
adolescents in need. I will share information from my review of ten journal articles
relating to self-concept.
Adolescents in Sweden are concerned with “balancing and controlling one’s own needs
and wishes in relation to others,” according to Adamson, Hartman, & Lyxell (1999). It
appears that adolescents have already established self-love at an earlier time in their lives,
but they are most concerned with “how to be and behave in relation to others without
giving up too much of their own needs and wishes (Adamson, et al. 1999). To me, it
appears that these adolescents are trying to develop their self-concept in terms of others.
They need to determine who they are without giving up too much of themselves in order
to fit in with other adolescents. The identity development at this point is in attempting to
develop a balance between the intrapersonal and interpersonal parts of their identity. A
positive result of this development would be finding a balance that allows for flexibility
Self-Concept 2
in different situations. So, it would be best for adolescents to let their lives be ruled by
who they are and not who they wish to appear to be.
Adolescents in Sweden also are concerned with the future. As stated by Adamson,
Hartman, & Lyxell, “inability, or resistance, towards visualizing oneself in the future
could be connected to problems in the identity formation process.” For adolescents to
feel more comfortable in seeing themselves in the future, they need more contact with
adults. It appears that adolescents would like to discuss issues with adults who can not
only provide a sense of background, but also someone who can teach adolescents from
experience about how to interact with others. With this type of interaction, “they can
form a secure base from which the adolescent can explore her/himself and the world”
(Adamson, et al. 1999).
I agree with Adamson, Hartman, & Lyxell; every adolescent is dreaming of the future.
When I was an adolescent, I distinctly remember discussing the future with my friends.
We were all concerned about our future friendships, relationships, and careers. I also
believe it is difficult for adolescents to visualize the future, without some insight from
someone who has experience. According to Adamson, et al., in their research, “adults
other than family and relatives were very rarely mentioned” (1999). This would be true,
especially when family members are in close proximity to the adolescent. In my own
life, my parents were the only adult family members who lived in close proximity to me.
However, with my parents help, I had no trouble enlisting the assistance of elderly
neighbors in understanding the future. My parents introduced me to these adults when I
Self-Concept 3
was a child, so when I grew into adolescence, I felt free to seek advice about the future
from them.
Bracken et al. also studied adolescent identity development, but through the
multidimensional analysis of child and adolescent self-concept. Although the article was
written as a review of different instruments used to measure self-concept, it does
highlight some essential points about self-concept. First, the article states, “self-concept
is a construct underpinned by a substantial general factor. Once the influence of global
self-concept was removed, the instruments provided support for the six foundational,
context-dependent subdomains” (2000). Therefore, according to Bracken et al., one’s
self-concept includes how one views oneself in terms of social, competence, affect,
academic, family, and physical factors. Implications for future research, then, indicate
that self-concept is not a global entity, but rather as a compilation of the six different
factors. If self-concept is seen in terms of six factors, rather than a global concept,
interventions may be more successful. An intervention or treatment that tries to affect the
self-concept as a whole may not be effective. However, if the intervention focuses on
one factor of self-concept, it could be far more successful.
It seems rather logical that we would work with adolescents’ self-concept by breaking it
down into multiple dimensions or factors. Just like a physician does not treat the entire
body, but only the part that ails you, we should work on treating only one part of the selfconcept, not the self-concept as a whole. Each individual may have positive and negative
factors of their self-concept, so it is up to the Youth Development Professional to work
Self-Concept 4
with the part that needs improvement. By positively affecting the factors that are causing
the adolescent trouble, we can create a more balanced individual self-concept.
While Bracken et al. use six factors or dimensions of self-concept; Byrne uses only four
traits for construct validity (1990). These include general self-concept, academic selfconcept, English self-concept, and mathematics self-concept. In her research, Byrne
noticed subtle differences between the genders in the different traits of self-concept. For
example, academic self-concept differed significantly for boy and girls. Byrne’s
interpretation of her findings include, “adolescent boys’ ability to do well in mathematics
is perceived as the most important measure of success in high school. This perception is
so pervasive that conceptions of self with respect to English subject matter, overall school
ability, and indeed, overall general well being get assessed in terms of one’s ability in
mathematics. For adolescent girls, on the other hand, the distinctions are more clearly
differentiated; self-evaluations of their ability in one area appear to bear little on
perceived abilities in other areas (1990). Byrnes also concluded “whereas for boys
mathematics SC correlated higher with general and academic SC than did English SC, the
reverse was true for girls.”
In my experience, the conclusions Byrne drew from her research are true. As an
adolescent, I received poor marks in mathematics; however, I never perceived this to be
an indicator of how well I would perform in other areas of life. But, I too believed that
success in English was essential for success in other areas of my life. Since I did well in
English, it increased my general and academic self-concept.
Self-Concept 5
When reviewing the article by Cole, et al., we are again presented with a breakdown of
self-concept into different domains (2001). In this particular case, however, these
include: academic competence, physical appearance, behavioral conduct, social
acceptance, and sports competence. Cole, et al., examined self-concept within the
contexts of middle to late childhood, early adolescence, middle adolescence, and late
adolescence. Within the context of middle to late childhood, youth perceive positive selfconcept in the domains of academic competence, social acceptance, and sports
competence. It is during this life period that youth learn to value the roles and activities
in which they view themselves as competent, while devaluing the roles and activities in
which they view themselves as less competent. During this time in their lives, youth seek
out ways in which to continually enhance or preserve positive self-appraisals. However,
all things are not equal and during this time in life females are more likely to perceive
their physical attractiveness as declining and their self-image tends to diminish more
rapidly. Females do, however, view themselves as able to conduct themselves in a more
appropriate manner. According to Cole et al., “gender differences were evident in
directions consistent with gender-role stereotypes. Females perceived themselves as
better behaved than did males, and males regarded themselves as more attractive and
better at sports than did females” (2001).
Cole et al. also determined, “the mean levels of academic and sports self-concept dropped
significantly on entry into middle school” (2001). This decrease in self-concept may be
due to changes in one’s social group or poor fit between developmental stage and
Self-Concept 6
educational environment. Adolescents’ self-concepts did make a positive turn and
eventually become stable during middle school or early adolescence. However, “a
gender difference also emerged in self-perceived academic competence, with males
regarding themselves as more competent than did females” (2001). This lack of selfperceived competence improved with the transition out of middle school. The transition
to middle adolescence was associated with an improvement in social self-concept for
males and physical attractiveness self-concept for females. After this transitional period,
self-perceived competence reached a plateau. Cole et al., does warn about
overgeneralizing the results of this study because individual differences in such domains
may become unstable in the years to come. But, they did find support for the general
principle that self-concept improves and stabilizes over periods of time not interrupted by
dramatic developmental, social, and educational transitions” (2001).
In my own life, I must agree with Cole et al. It is true that during the times when my life
was dramatically changing, my self-concept was significantly influenced. The influences
came from within myself, from my friends, from my family, from the media, and from
other adults. It is important for all of these people to remember how important support is
during these times in one’s life. Now that my life is less interrupted by dramatic
developmental, social, and educational transitions, I do find that my self-concept has
greatly improved and stabilized.
Not only do periods of drama in our lives affect our self-concept, but depressive
symptoms also have an affect. As I mentioned earlier, self-image, self-concept, and self-
Self-Concept 7
esteem are issues that affect youth worldwide. An article addressing self-image and
depressive symptoms among adolescents was published in the Nordic Journal of
Psychiatry. Erkolahti et al. determined, “the more problems the adolescents had with
their self-image, the greater the number of depressive symptoms” (2003). As with
previous research, Erkolahti et al. determined that there is a close connection between
self-image and depressive symptoms. As well, teenagers with good self-image had only
a few depressive symptoms. In this study, self-concept was examined in terms of
Emotional Tone, Body Image, Emotional Health, Family Relations, and Sexuality.
Erkolahti et al. concluded, “Emotional Tone, Body Image, and Emotional Health were
scales on which girls had high correlations with depression. In boys, Emotional Tone and
Family Relations were the most significant self-image scales associated with depressive
symptoms” (2003). The researchers were unsurprised, however, to discover that
sexuality was less associated with depressive symptoms. Though, they did discover that
adolescents’ emotional beliefs about schooling and learning were significantly related to
depressive symptoms. It is the belief of Erkolahti et al. that more attention should be paid
to investigating the problems with self-image among teenagers, especially young girls
with depressive symptoms.
I too believe that it is necessary for Youth Development Professionals to pay attention to
investigating the problems with self-image among teenagers. In reality, teenagers can be
very harsh when critiquing one another. This constant belittling of one’s self by other
teenagers needs to be countered with a positive perspective on one’s self-image by a
constant reminder from adults within the adolescent’s frame of reference. This, of
Self-Concept 8
course, is just a beginning to the investigation of problems with self-image among
teenagers. If there were more investigations, then we would have a better understanding
of how to improve self-image among teenagers.
Gibson and Jefferson also agree with Erkolahti et al. “adolescents’ self-concept is
influenced by their relationships with family, peers, mentors, and community groups”
(2006). Gibson and Jefferson studied 78 adolescents who were participating in GEAR
UP (Gaining Early Awareness of Readiness for Undergraduate Programs) as the frame of
reference for their study. According to Gibson and Jefferson, “Results support the
influence of family, peers, mentors, and involvement in community groups on adolescent
self-concept” (2006). Positive influence from these groups relates to positive selfconcept. In a peer-to-peer interaction, females are sought more for support than males, so
Gibson and Jefferson recommend that counselors may need to work more with males on
communicating with other males in a mutually empathic manner. Although adolescents
named school, church/religious and athletic groups as places they found support,
adolescent self-concept may be suffering due to the lack of opportunity to make
connections within group settings. The majority of adolescents also did not name a
specific type of mentor. Adults are not identified as people to whom adolescents can go
for support, so they are seeking support more from their peers. It is unsurprising, then,
that parents and adolescents perceive parental involvement differently. Positive parental
involvement may involve the quality of the interactions between the child and parent
more than the amount of involvement. So, Gibson and Jefferson’s recommendation for
Self-Concept 9
those involved in GEAR UP is “emphasis on the quality of parental interactions with
their children may need to be included in the program” (2006).
As I recall, during adolescence I was more likely to turn to my peers for help in dealing
with the issues in my life, than I was to turn to the adults in my life. Although in
hindsight it seems like it would have been better to talk to someone who had been
through the experience, it seemed like those who were currently experiencing the same
things I was, would make for better confidants. So, I am not sure that adolescents will
name mentors as those who help to improve their self-concept because the advice of
peers seems so much more applicable to current life situations. Therefore, I believe that
it is necessary to improve peer counseling or peer education groups. These groups could
be improved with the suggestions of Gibson and Jefferson that counselors need to work
more with males on communicating with other males in a mutually empathic manner.
Similar to Gibson and Jefferson, Hay, Byrne, and Butler also studied a youth program.
This program, ABLE (Attribution, Behaviour, Life skills Education), “incorporates
problem-solving, conflict resolution, and a multidimensional framework to investigate
adolescents’ self-concept formation” (2000). According to Hay et al., “The adolescents
in the study made significant improvements in the areas of general self-concept, physical
appearance self-concept, and total self-concept” (2000). General self-concept and
physical appearance are linked to students’ level of confidence and self-worth. As well,
these improvements were maintained over time. Hay et al. explained that physical
appearance is highly desirable to adolescents. If their outlook on physical appearance is
Self-Concept 10
high, then they have an increase in positive perceptions of self, higher levels of social
competency and social confidence. Positive effects of the ABLE program were also
identified in physical ability, parent relationships, general school, opposite-sex
relationships, and same-sex relationships. The results of Hay et al.’s research supports
the idea that teaching students conflict-resolution skills has a positive influence on selfconcept formation. The increase in trustworthiness and honesty among ABLE
participants is thought to be the result of social bonding within the group.
Hay et al. believe “the ABLE programme provides a procedure that incorporates
problem-solving and conflict-resolution strategies with self-concept that can be included
in a teacher’s or counsellor’s programme for at-risk adolescents” (2000). To me, this
seems like a wonderful idea, considering that participants of the program have become
involved in school activities and are less frequently identified as social isolates. This
program has been implemented in Great Britain, but I can see how it could also have a
positive effect on adolescents in the United States. It is our responsibility, as Youth
Development Professionals, to research, review, and implement programs like ABLE for
the benefit of our youth.
Ortiz and Farrell examine one of the issues that require the U.S. to implement programs
like ABLE in their article, “Father’s unemployment and adolescent’s self-concept”
(1993). According to Ortiz and Farrell their study suggests “economic deprivation,
subsequent to father’s job loss, has a significant negative impact on parent/adolescent
relationships in general, and on the father/adolescent relationship in particular” (1993).
Self-Concept 11
However, their research does not show an enhanced perception of the mother, who is
forced to work outside of the home as a result of the father’s unemployment.
Adolescents’ self-concepts were not directly affected by fathers’ job loss and subsequent
economic deprivation, but the lack of funding had a negative impact on the self-concept
of the adolescent through its negative impact on the parent/adolescent relationship. So,
Ortiz and Farrell seem to believe that any intervention done to alleviate the issues, which
result from the father’s job loss, should be focused on the parent-adolescent relationship.
Ostgard-Ybrandt & Armelius presented more insight into the parent-adolescent
relationship. In their article, “Self-concept and perception of early mother and father
behavior in normal and antisocial adolescents,” comes to us from the Scandinavian
Journal of Psychology. Ostgard-Ybrandt & Armelius’ study claims, “the early behavior
of the mother is perceived more positively than that of the father. A positive self-concept
is related to a positive perception of the parent’s early behavior” (2004). According to
Ostgard-Ybrandt & Armelius, both boys and girls perceive the mother as more positive
than the father. They also explain that the antisocial adolescents tend to display an
autonomous or negative self-concept and seem to have a negative perception of early
parental behaviors. In normal adolescents, there does not seem to be much effect from
early parental behaviors. However, “A positive parental image may provide the child
with the fundamental tools for interpersonal interaction, and this image may be partly
unconscious and therefore resistant to change” (2004). The antisocial adolescents had a
more negative perception of early parental behavior for both parents, but it does not seem
to have as much of an effect on the adolescents’ self-concept as do some of the
Self-Concept 12
tumultuous incidences they have already experienced in life. However, Ostgard-Ybrandt
& Armelius still maintain, “a positive adolescent self-concept should be accompanied by
percepts of positive early parental care” (2004). They seem to believe that adolescents
with a positive self-concept will rate their perceptions of positive early parental care
higher, than adolescents with a less positive self-concept.
I too believe that parents have an effect on an adolescent’s self-concept, but I believe this
is difficult to determine from the aforementioned article. It was difficult for me to
determine from Ostgard-Ybrandt & Armelius’ article exactly what were their
conclusions. However, I do hope that their article will be useful to others researching the
parent-adolescent relationship in the future.
Salmivalli takes a look at the adolescent self-concept, as well. However, her perspective
is that of the self-concept and its relationship to their social behavior. In other words, she
tried to determine the self-concept of adolescents who bullied others. Bullies did score
high on social and physical self-concepts, in Salmivalli’s study. She explains, “Bullies
seem to think they are physically rather fit, and they also view themselves as being quite
popular in the peer group” (1998). Although peers do not seem to agree with the
popularity bullies perceive, it is true that bullies seem to realize they are behaving against
the norms. Salmivalli further explains bullies as “their image comes near to what is
known about adolescents with conduct disorder (including high level of behavioral
problems, negative relationship with their families, and a view of themselves as attractive
and quite well-liked)” (1998). Those adolescents Salmivalli found to be assisting and
Self-Concept 13
reinforcing the bully, have a low self-concept and are following someone whom they
perceive as strong or frightening. Unfortunately, there are also the victims of bullying.
The victims do not feel socially accepted and are often correct in their assessment. The
victims also have been found to be physically weak. However, according to Salmivalli,
“victimization correlated positively with one domain, which was behavioral-conduct SC”
(1998). As a result of their positive behavioral conduct self-concept, victims feel they are
accepted and respected at home. Finally, Salmivalli explains those adolescents who
defend the victims of bullies. These adolescents seem to consider themselves above
average in all areas of self-concept. Salmivalli states, “It seems plausible that their high
self-regard gives these adolescents the freedom and generosity to defend others without
being afraid of being victimized. Being a ‘hero’ in this way may also further boost their
view of themselves in a healthy way” (1998).
Thanks to Salmivalli and the authors of the other articles I reviewed, I was able to better
understand the multiple factors that make up an adolescent’s self-concept. I am also
more aware of how self-concept affects adolescents’ social behavior. However, I do not
believe that I am much farther along in my goal of collecting knowledge that will make
me a more credible motivational speaker. I guess I am not sure exactly for what types of
materials I am looking. It may just be essential to continue to gain knowledge about
youth development in order to boost my credibility as a motivational speaker for
adolescents.
Self-Concept 14
I have shared information from my review of ten journal articles relating to self-concept.
This is obviously a worldwide problem that is evident through the articles I reviewed.
These articles come from many of the corners of the globe including, Australia, Great
Britain, Scandinavia, and the United States. It is up to the Youth Development
Professionals in this world to determine how to best help those adolescents in need.
Although not as blatantly as I would have liked, through this review, I am able to better
understand, how we think of ourselves, how people believe in themselves, and, most
importantly, how adolescents view themselves.
Self-Concept 15
References
Adamson, L., Hartman, S. G., & Lyxell, B. (1999, March). Adolescent Identity – A
Qualitative Approach: Self-Concept, Existential Questions and Adult Contacts.
Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 40, 21-31.
Bracken, B. A., Bunch, S., Keith, T. Z., & Keith, P. B. (2000, November). Child and
Adolescent Multidimensional Self-Concept: A Five-Instrument Factor Analysis.
Psychology in the Schools, 37, 483-494.
Byrne, B. M. (1990). Investigating Gender Differences in Adolescent Self-Concept: A
Look Beneath the Surface. Applied Measurement in Education, 3, 255-275.
Cole, D. A., Maxwell, S. E., Martin, J. M., Peeke, L. G., Seroczynski, A. D., Tram, J. M.
et al. (2001, November). The Development of Multiple Domains of Child and
Adolescent Self-Concept: A Cohort Sequential Longitudinal Design. Child
Development, 72, 1723-1747.
Erkolahti, R., Ilonen, T., Saarijarvi, S., & Terho, P. (2003, December). Self-image and
Depressive Symptoms Among Adolescents in a Non-clinical Sample. Nordic
Journal of Psychiatry, 57, 447-451.
Gibson, D. M., & Jefferson, R. N. (2006). The Effect of Perceived Parental Involvement
and the Use of Growth-Fostering Relationships on Self-Concept in Adolescents
Participating in Gear Up. Adolescence, 41, 111-125.
Hay, I., Byrne, M., & Butler, C. (2000, February). Evaluation of a Conflict-Resolution
and Problem-Solving Programme to Enhance Adolescents' Self-Concept. British
Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 28, 101-113.
Ortiz, L. P., & Farrell, M. P. (1993). Father's Unemployment and Adolescent's SelfConcept. Adolescence, 28, pp. 937-950.
Ostgard-Ybrandt, H., & Armelius, B. A. (2004, November). Self-Concept and Perception
of Early Mother and Father Behavior in Normal and Antisocial Adolescents.
Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 45, pp. 437-447.
Salmivalli, C. (1998). Intelligent, Attractive, Well-Behaving, Unhappy: The Structure of
Adolescents' Self-Concept and Its Relations to Their Social Behavior. Journal of
Research on Adolescence, 8, 333-354.