Exam 2 study outline:
Remember to make your ‘cheat sheet’! But also do the reading from the book and read the notes I
have posted on-line for all these organisms!!!!!
**You may have one full page (not just a note card) one sided as a cheat sheet.
Fish:
 Be able to diagram the external anatomy of a fish
 Be able to define ovovivipary, vivipary, and ovipary
 Be able to compare and contrast different reproductive strategies (broadcast spawners, nest guarders,
brooders etc.)
 Be able to describe the three major classes of fish (agnatha, chondrichthyes, and ostiechthyes) and their major
characteristics – and evolutionary sequence. Be able to name some examples of fish in each group
(hagfish, sharks, bony fishes like rockfish). Who were the placoderms?
 Why were ‘ray fins’ as found in the bony fish so important?
 Be able to characterize some of the body shapes fish have, including fusiform, dorso-ventrally
 flattened, laterally flattened etc.
 Know the different feeding strategies (generalists, specialists, suckers, biters, gulpers etc.)
 Describe hermaphrodite (sequential and simultaneous hermaphrodite), and why it might be
 advantageous for some fish to be hermaphrodites.
 Be able to list some color patterns fish have (camoflauge, disruptive coloration, warning, countershading
etc..)
 Be able to describe the major sensory capabilities of fish, and in particular be able to describe the otolith (ear
bone) and its function (balance), and the lateral line and its function (senses pressure), and the ampulae of
lorenzini (sharks, rays) that sense electromagnetic fields.
 Be able to describe major ways in which fish maintain buoyancy (oil in liver such as in sharks, hydrofoil lift
and gas bladders such as in some bony fish)
 Be able to explain countercurrent heat exchangers and how some fish and mammals use this to keep muscles
‘warm’.
 Why was the ceolocanth (fish) so important? The lobed fined fished gave rise to tetrapods (4 legs)
Marine mammals and large nekton in general: be able to describe some major characteristics and
adaptations
Birds and reptiles:
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Be able to describe ways in which nekton (pelagic swimmers) have streamlined to swim more
efficiently (eg. tuna body shape, fins of sharks etc.)
Know the difference between the two major reproductive strategies (r-strategy = lots of young, low parental
investment, high mortality (death) in young, short lived, early age at reproduction, vrs. K strategy -= few
young, high parental investment, low mortality in young, long lived, older
reproductive age)
Be able to describe adaptations to an aquatic lifestyle (for ‘re-entry’ organisms)
Be able to describe some bird ‘lifestyles’ and feeding strategies, and give an example of a bird that fits that
description (eg. shorebirds feed from the ground – hard or soft substrate – usually have long bills and long legs.
An example is a curlew or an egret. Pursuit divers, plunge divers etc.)
Be able to describe major breeding strategies in sea birds (colonies on islands) and why that has led to
declines in population
Be able to describe a sea turtle life cycle and reproductive strategy, and the importance of nest sites
Be able to list some of the things sea turtles eat
Be able to list some of the important conservation challenges to sea turtles, and why they are in trouble.
Know the difference between an ectotherm (‘cold blooded’) and an endotherm (‘warm blooded’)
Know the re-entry time for sea turtles
What are some characteristics of truly aquatic sea snakes (ovoviviparous, flattened tail etc.)
What are examples of other truly marine reptiles (marine iguanas, salt water crocs?)
Marine Mammals:
 Be able to describe how marine mammals have adapted to be able to dive deep (diving physiology) : high
blood volume, myoglobin, cartilaginous ribs, ability to shunt blood, low heart rate)
 Know the orders and families of the marine mammals we studies (class mammalia)
 Know the major characteristics of Sea otters (Mustelids) (including time of re-entry, feeding reproduction
etc.) and some threats to them
 What is a genetic bottleneck?
Order Sirenia: Manatees and Dugongs
 Know when they re-entered the ocean, and who their closest terrestrial relative was (elephants!)
 For each, know some of the major life history characteristics: gestation, sexual maturity, food etc. and where
they live
 Know some of the major threats to these animals
Order Pinnipedia
 Know the general time frame that the three groups of pinnipeds (otariids, phocids, and odobenids
(intermediate) re-entered the ocean (how many millions of years ago)
 For the major groups of pinnipeds (seals, sea lions, walrus) know the major adaptations to aquatic existence
and their general breeding strategies and feeding behavior.
 Know what sexual dimorphism is
 Know some of the conservation issues faced by these animals
 Know the difference between seals and sea lions
 Why are some toxins such a problem with marine mammals? How do they accumulate those toxins? Why in
particular is it a problem with pregnant females?
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Order Cetacea:
 When did whales ‘re-enter’ the ocean.
 What are some major adaptations of cetaceans (whales and dolphins)?
 Be able to describe the major characteristics of the 3 families of Mysticetes and 6 families of odontocetes
(look at the notes on-line to help!)
 Be able to summarize the major behavioral differences (such as social behavior) and reproductive strategies
for the major families of whales and dolphins we talked about (see hand-out posted on line too)
 Know the major differences between mysticetes (baleen whales) and odontocetes (toothed whales)
 Be able to identify which family a dolphin or whale belongs to ( eg. gray whales are family Eschrichtiidae)
 What is the difference between porpoises and dolphins?
 Describe some feeding strategies of mysticetes (gulp feeding, straining, skimming, bottom feeding,
cooperative feeding such as in humpback whales)
 Know some of the conservation issues facing these animals
 How do dolphins make sounds?
GENERAL:
Know how to connect seabird and mammal life histories to ocean conditions, and why these are often
good indicators of ocean change. Ecological interconnectivity, and dependence of one trophic (feeding)
level on another.
Habitats:
Terms, concepts, and definitions(explanations):
 primary productivity : what is it and where is it highest and lowest. What are the two primary
sources of primary productivity (in shallow and in deep waters (chemosynthesis)
 Know the patterns of primary productivity in polar, temperate and tropical systems.
 detritus based food web (eg. in the deep sea)
 special deep sea communities - chemosynthesis
 Patchy distribution of resources
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zoothanthellae
Benthic
Epifauna (lives ON the bottom, or on other organisms)
Infauna (lives IN the bottom, in the mud etc.)
Deposit feeders (eat detritus)
Coral Bleaching
What is a wetland?
Abiotic and biotic factors affecting communities
Fringing, barrier and atoll reefs
Coral competition: they compete for sunlight due to their zooxanthellae
Coral feeding and reproduction. Feed at night (10% of their energy) and use products of
photosynthesis during the day (most of their energy needs!)
Mangrove community: role of mangroves in building islands and filtering sediment. Important
for coral reefs
Seagrass communities-important in stabilizing, and as nursery areas
Estuaries: the salt wedge, positive and negative estuaries
Coral reef community: be able to list characteristics of this ecosystem and threats to it. Keep in
mind the role of mangroves, and the characteristics of their habitats (warm, low sediments etc.)
Narrow tolerance ranges for coral animals
For the following, be able to list specific characteristics, ‘roles’they play (eg. trapping sediment, nursery
etc.), some organisms or types of organisms found in each, and be able to compare and contrast them.
For each, be able to discuss threats and conservation issues
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Deep sea community characteristics: keep in mind the lack of light, and the source of most food
(detritus from above). We talked about cold seeps and hydrothermal vents. We also talked a bit
about manganese nodules
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Resource extraction from the deep sea: oil, gas, manganese…
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What are sources of primary productivity in the deep sea (hydrothermal vents, chemosynthesis,
cold seeps etc.).
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Open ocean habitats: major characteristics and descriptions. Primary productivity in polar,
temperate and tropical seas
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Kelp forest ecosystem: keep in mind the role of urchins and sea otters. Also, some conservation
implications and problems
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Estuary/soft bottom community: keep in mind the role of burrowers (they oxygenate), and the
three communities of organisms (marine, fresh and brackish) and the salt water wedge
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Intertidal community: keep in mind the causes of zonation, and organisms characteristic of each
zone (including algae). Fundamental vrs. realized niches like mussels and sea stars
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Coral reef community: keep in mind the role of mangroves, and the characteristics of their
habitats (warm, low sediments etc.). Also, the important role of zoothanthellae, and problems
coral reefs face today). Why are coral reefs important? What phylum and class are reef building
corals in? How do corals reproduce?
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Mangrove communities
Be able to describe intertidal zonation in Monterey Bay area intertidal communities (4 zones). Be able to
discuss the biotic and abiotic forcing that helps maintain these zones.
Be able to describe vertical zonation in a kelp forest, and what kinds of algae you would likely find in
each
Be able to characterize the effects of sea otters and kelp harvesting on kelp forest communities
Be able to list and describe environmental concerns for each of the habitats we covered, in particular be
able to describe specific threats to coral reefs
Humans and the oceans:
 Status of the worlds fisheries: know what is happening to our world fisheries (over fishing), and
some of the reasons why
 What is the trend in world catch (wild)?
 Aquaculture?
 What is happening to per capita catch (going down – not keeping up with world population
growth
 What is a CPU (Catch per Unit Effort)? And why is it problematic in determining status of fish
stocks?
 Why do fisheries often crash suddenly even though the ‘landings’ have seemed to be ‘healthy’ in
numbers?
 Be able to describe the types of fishing methods we discussed (Purse seiners, trawlers, long
lining, drift nets, traps and pots, dredging)
 Bycatch – what is it?
 Decline in many top trophic fishes, such as bluefin tuna and sharks – why?
 What are some ways we manage fisheries (marine protected areas, size limits, quotas, seasons
etc.)
 What is the EEZ (exclusive economic zone)
 What are marine protected areas? What kinds of fish do they NOT protect well
 How are most managed?
 Be able to summarize the research projects we talk about, and how they are contributing to our
understanding of ocean processes