Teaching Students Who Have a Learning Disability:
Strategies for Faculty, Tutors, and Learning Instructors
Located in 3702 Spruce Street (Stouffer Commons), Ste 300, the Learning
Resources Center provides comprehensive academic support for all undergraduate,
graduate, and professional students at the University of Pennsylvania. All services are
free and confidential. The center is comprised of two offices: the Office of Learning
Resources and Student Disabilities Services.
Office of Learning Resources:
The Office of Learning Resources provides academic support and individual
instruction in reading, writing, studying, and time management. Learning Resources is
staffed by professional Learning Instructors who help students differentiate academic
concerns, realize academic strengths, and improve academic study strategies. Learning
Instructors work with students during one-on-one meetings to discuss study skills and
strategies for their various courses. They provide instruction and resources to improve
approaches to learning. Group learning opportunities are available through a variety of
interactive workshops. The Learning Center also offers support for students who know
or suspect they have a learning disability and wish to find ways to close the gap between
their academic achievement and their intellectual potential.
Student Disability Services:
Student Disability Services (SDS) collaborates with the Office of Learning
Resources to provide comprehensive academic support for students with disabilities. SDS
serves students from all of Penn’s undergraduate, graduate, and professional schools. It
provides services and programs for students with disabilities to ensure equal academic
opportunities and participation in University-sponsored programs. This office
coordinates the self-identification process and the provision of reasonable
accommodations, arranges auxiliary services, monitors campus accessibility, and refers
students to other appropriate University services and programs. In addition, SDS provides
consultation and guidance for faculty, advisors, and academic support staff so that they
may reasonably accommodate students with disabilities without compromising academic
standards and requirements.
Questions regarding the Learning Resources Center should be addressed to:
Director of Learning Resources
Office of Student Disabilities Services
3702 Spruce Street (Stouffer Commons), Ste 300
215-573-9235 (Voice), 215-746-6320 (TDD), 215-746-6326 (Fax)
http://www.vpul.upenn.edu/lrc/sds
e-mail: sdsmail@pobox.upenn.edu
Acknowledgements: This handbook was written primarily by Denise Marone, Ph.D with
contributions by Edie Johnston and the staff of the Office of Learning Resources
June, 2002
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Table of Contents
Introduction …………………………………………………………………………….. 3
Overview ……………………………………………………………………………….. 7
General Suggestions ………………………………………………………………………………….. 9
Oral Expression ………………………………………………………………………………………. 13
Listening Comprehension ………………………………………………………………………….. 15
Written Expression ………………………………………………………………………………….. 17
Reading Skills and Comprehension …………………………………………………………..….. 21
Math Calculation and Problem Solving …………………………………………………...…….. 25
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)………………………………………...…... 29
Reference and Additional Recommended Reading………………………………….……...….. 35
3
Introduction
The University of Pennsylvania web page states,
As a major research and teaching institution with an emphasis on undergraduate
education, Penn seeks students who will avail themselves of the rich academic,
cultural and social opportunities of the academic community. As an institution,
Penn prides itself on its enormous diversity—not only in the great wealth of our
undergraduate and graduate programs, but in the wide variety of students and
talents that such programs attract. The student who flourishes in the Penn
community possesses a history of strong academic excellence, a healthy degree of
motivation, and a well-developed interest and involvement in his or her
environment. (http://www.upenn.edu/admissions/undergrad/applying/)
The University of Pennsylvania is committed to providing equal educational
opportunities to its diverse population of students. Teaching Students Who Have Learning
Disabilities: Strategies for Faculty, Learning Instructors, and Tutors, produced by the
Learning Resources Center, is intended to serve as a concise guide for the Penn faculty
and staff who teach the diverse student population, which includes students who have
learning disabilities. This handbook is written to foster teaching strategies that enable
students who have learning disabilities to have better access to learning at the university;
a larger aim is to promote teaching strategies across the university that respect the
concept that all students have different ways of learning. Therefore, this publication
focuses on providing clear and practical suggestions that address specific learning
needs/areas that impact the learning of students with learning disabilities as well as
discusses pedagogy that will benefit all students.
This handbook may serve as a tool to assist faculty, TAs, tutors, and mentors in
reaching more students by incorporating various modes of teaching into their practice. In
addition, learning instructors are given suggestions for ways to help students take control
of their learning by becoming better equipped with the knowledge of how they learn and
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how to incorporate this knowledge into their daily studying. The goal is to promote
teaching strategies that tap into the talents of all of our students.
What is a learning disability? The Association on Higher Education and
Disability (AHEAD) defines a learning disability (LD) as:
A disorder which affects the manner in which individuals with normal or above
normal intelligence take in, retain, and express information. It is commonly
recognized as a significant deficit in one or more of the following areas: oral
expression, listening comprehension, written expression, basic reading skills,
reading comprehension, mathematical calculation, or problem solving.
Individuals with learning disabilities also may have difficulty with sustained
attention, time management, or social skills.
Federal legislation, Section 504 of The Rehabilitation Act, and the Americans with
Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990, assist college students who have a documented LD by
ensuring that reasonable accommodations are made for them at any postsecondary
education setting that receives federal funding. A reasonable accommodation, based on a
student’s documented learning disability and decided upon on an individual basis for
each course, allows the student who has a learning disability the “most integrated
experience possible” and does not compromise essential requirements of a course or
program (Scott, 1994, p. 410). Academic standards for students with learning
disabilities are in no way different for students without learning disabilities; the rigor and
expectations of the course are not compromised or watered-down.
There are a variety of accommodations students use. Some typical
accommodations for Penn students with a documented LD are: having extended time on
exams, taking exams in a different location to assure a distraction-free environment,
using a computer to type exams, obtaining copies of lectures notes from a classmate or
note-taker, and obtaining books on tape or from a reader. [Students seeking
5
accommodations should contact the Office of Student Disabilities Services.] A student’s
accommodations may vary from course to course depending on the requirements of the
course; for example, a student who has an expressive language disability might receive
double time on essay exams but no extended time for multiple choice exams.
Students who have learning disabilities are not a homogeneous group and their
experiences are different. The diversity among the general population of students also
exists among students with disabilities. Not only are there many variations of learning
disabilities—as addressed in this handbook—but there are also differences in the ways in
which a learning disability impacts a student’s learning. Moreover, since learning
disabilities may be identified at different stages of students’ academic careers, students’
understanding of their LD varies widely.
Some students enter college aware of their LD. They have had years garnering
strategies to compensate for the LD and have used these strategies to capitalize on their
strengths and to excel in their former academic settings. They know their learning
strengths and weaknesses and can anticipate which courses will be more problematic for
them and can thus use this knowledge to navigate through their courses. Some students
have had experience explaining their LD and how they learn and advocating for the
accommodations they need to learn and to demonstrate their knowledge. Other students
who have a learning disability, although aware of their LD, may not have developed
strategies that can be applied to different situations in the university. Similar to most incoming students, these students often have transition issues and would benefit from
refining their study strategies and learning how to adapt those strategies to the new
contexts in college.
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Other students, however, begin college unaware that they have a learning
disability. One reason that students do not know about the LD is that they typically
develop compensatory techniques in response to the nature of their learning difficulties.
As a result, they are often very successful in high school, rising to the tops of their
classes, by capitalizing on their strengths while avoiding their areas of disability. For
example, many high school classes assign reading that corresponds to the daily lectures;
students can attend to the lecture and do well on exams without ever reading the text. Or,
students who are unable to attend to and glean information from lectures learn the
necessary material by reading it; furthermore, many teachers often write notes on the
board, so students who have auditory processing difficulties are able to leave class with a
record of what was covered that day. However, because of the different academic setting
of college, the former compensatory strategies may no longer mask the LD.
This handbook discusses a variety of learning disabilities and ways that learning
disabilities impact student learning. As discussed, students experience their LD
differently—therefore, you are not expected to be able to gauge the impact a student’s
disability will have on a course. When a student approaches you and tells you that he or
she has an LD, a useful and valuable question to ask him or her is: “What does this mean
for you, and specifically, for you in this course?”
7
Overview
Teaching Students Who Have Learning Disabilities: Strategies for Faculty,
Tutors, and Learning Instructors is a collection of educational strategies that have been
helpful in working with students with learning disabilities. The strategies have evolved
over a period of time in response to specific needs brought by students and faculty to the
Learning Resources Center. They are rooted in practice, supported by theory, and are
already incorporated into the practice of many professors and teaching staff across the
university. Undoubtedly, many of the strategies in this handbook are already in your
repertoire of teaching strategies. You will find that these strategies, although written in
the context of teaching students who have learning disabilities, really fall under the
general category of “good teaching practices.” Integrating strategies such as these into
your pedagogy will help you anticipate the diversity of learning styles that students bring
to the university classroom.
The first few pages of the booklet are devoted to providing a synthesis of general
suggestions for teaching methods that will benefit all students in the classroom, including
students with learning disabilities. The majority of the booklet then explains and
discusses strategies that can be implemented to enhance the learning of students with
specific learning disabilities (which also enhance the learning of all students). These
specific sections are based on the areas named in the AHEAD definition of a learning
disability: oral expression, listening comprehension, written expression, basic reading
skills and comprehension, and mathematical calculation and problem solving. A section
is also devoted to Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), which, although not
technically a learning disability, sometimes accompanies a learning disability. While
8
each section is presented on its own for the practical purpose of highlighting the nature of
a disability in this area, the areas do not necessarily exist in isolation. Therefore, the
strategies and suggestions in different sections enhance one another.
Each topic begins with a description of the LD and some ways that it can impact
student learning. Following, there are strategy recommendations specifically for the
university teaching staff—faculty and TAs, tutors, and learning instructors. Since each
teaching role is different, the strategies appear in separate categories based on types of
instruction. In general, faculty strategies focus on group instruction (i.e. the classroom);
tutor strategies are aimed at personalized, one-on-one or small group instruction;
learning instructor strategies include ways to assist students in garnering personalized
learning and study strategies that are tailored to the ways in which they learn best and to
the expectations of their courses. TAs and mentors, who may find themselves in all of
these teaching descriptions at different times in their work, may find it useful to consider
suggestions from all three categories.
The handbook concludes with a list of suggested readings. Many of these
resources can be borrowed from the library of the Learning Resources Center.
9
General Suggestions
Below is a list of general suggestions that can be implemented into the daily
routine of a course in order to assist students in comprehending and retaining course
material. Some suggestions might have to be adapted according to discipline or type of
course (i.e. lecture, seminar, recitation, or lab), but they can serve as a foundation. Many
of them are already in the daily practice of professors and teaching staff across the
university and are, undoubtedly, in your practice. The premise for these suggestions is
the idea that students have different ways of learning and, therefore, benefit from
teaching methods that tap into different learning modalities. They are listed here in order
to emphasize how incorporating a variety of teaching methods will anticipate diversity in
the classroom as well as enhance the learning of all students, including students who have
an LD or ADHD.
Faculty

Make your syllabus available before registration and describe all course assignments
and expectations, due dates, grading procedures and policies, and format of exams.
This information will help students decide how the course corresponds to their
learning strengths.

On the syllabus, name required texts so students have time to obtain books on tape if
this is necessary. [Sometimes, obtaining books on tape can take months.]

Announce reading assignments well in advance so students have ample time to
prepare.

Begin class with an outline or agenda (or for a seminar, general topics to be
discussed) which is either written on the board or can be obtained before class from
the web.

Present assignments verbally as well as in writing. Announce any changes in the
syllabus also verbally and in writing.

Incorporate different ways of presenting material: through speech, gestures, and
writing. Incorporate visual aids (such as slides, graphs, charts, and pictures) into
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lectures. If appropriate, allow time for students to interact with each other through
questions and answers, or have students break into groups to discuss the material.

If lecture notes are posted on a web site, post them before the lecture so students can
review them and anticipate the day’s lecture. Having these notes to print and bring to
class allows students to focus on the content of the lecture rather than the process of
getting it all down.

Allow time, whenever possible, to answer students’ questions.

Help students recognize that the ways of knowing in you discipline may be different
than ways of knowing in other disciplines. Help students learn the particular ways of
reading, writing, and thinking within the discipline. One way to accomplish this is
by doing “think alouds” for students as you approach content and describe your
thought processes.

Make use of educational technology, such as a listserve and programs like
Blackboard, for students to interact with the material and each other outside of the
classroom.

At the end of class, facilitate a brief conversation to re-cap and highlight the main
points of the lecture or discussion.

Encourage students to form study groups to continue course conversations outside of
classroom.

Encourage students to review their lecture notes consistently throughout the course.

Encourage students: to make connections with assigned readings, previous lectures
and discussions; to compare and contrast information; to determine cause and effect
relationships; to apply concepts to real world examples; to visualize concepts; and to
map out information on a flow chart or time-line.

Repeatedly throughout the semester, encourage students to visit during office hours.

Schedule review sessions for exams. Announce the time of the review well in
advance so students can accommodate their schedules to attend.

Provide sample questions, practice exams, and information about the exam format.
Explain what makes a “good” exam answer and provide examples of such models.

Provide examples of what constitutes “good” writing for the course and the discipline
in general. Make explicit to students that your written feedback on assignments
should be incorporated into subsequent assignments.
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
Encourage students to capitalize on the extensive support services available at Penn,
including the Learning Resources Center (Office of Learning Resources and Office of
Student Disabilities Services), the Department of Academic Support Programs,
Counseling and Psychological Services, and the Writing Center. Refer students to the
library reference desk for assistance with library searches.
Tutors

Set up consistent times and places to meet. Meet in a distraction-free environment
where you can have a productive session.

Ask the tutee what he or she is having difficulty understanding. If the student shrugs
or states, “Everything!” ask questions to guide a specific response. Suggest that the
two of you look at a past homework assignments, lecture notes, or text excerpts as a
starting point.

Set goals at the beginning of every session.

Ask the tutee how he or she learns best and try to find ways of teaching to these
strengths.

Use multi-sensory techniques that combine listening, speaking, and reading. Think of
creative, alternative ways that the student can learn the material.

Take brief breaks as necessary.

At the end of the session, write (or have the student write) a brief record of what was
covered in the session. If possible and appropriate, set goals for the following
session.

Be aware of your communication style. For example, ask yourself, “How is my rate
of speech?” and “Am I attending to any signs of confusion in the tutee?”

Be sincerely encouraging and positive.
Learning Instructors

Alert students to the concept of academic literacies—the ways of reading, writing,
studying, and behaving within the various academic contexts of the university. Help
students understand that there are different ways of knowing and expressing
knowledge within different disciplines and that universities require students to switch
between different academic settings and “to handle the social meanings and
identities” of each (Street & Lea, 1998, p. 5).

Help students gain an understanding of their personal learning styles and find ways of
capitalizing on their strengths.
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
Explain to students the theories of metacognition (reflecting on what one knows and
then acting with this knowledge) and how this applies to their learning.

Encourage students to read thoroughly their course syllabi. Have students bring in all
syllabi to discuss the assignments and expectations of the course.

Have students put exams, quizzes, assignments, and paper due dates on one calendar
to get the entire picture of that course as well as the semester work as a whole.

In order to set and meet daily goals, find a time management system that works for
individual students (e.g., daily and weekly goal sheets, hour by hour time sheets,
planners, sticky notes, master “to do” lists, etc.)

With students, find a “game plan” for each course that incorporates the students’
learning strengths and the expectations of the course.

When addressing the writing process, emphasize the importance of knowing,
understanding, and adhering to the assignment.

Assist students in assimilating professor feedback into subsequent assignments or
papers (i.e., read through professors’ comments with the student).

Whenever possible, go through students’ past exams with them and ask, “What went
well and why?” and “What didn’t go well and why?” in order to refine the students’
study strategies and exam taking strategies for that course.

Encourage students to attend professor and TA office hours.

Guide students to become self-advocates. Role-play situations with students to build
their confidence (i.e., talking with professors).

Encourage students to form small study groups for their courses. Review strategies
for getting the most out of such groups.

Emphasize to students that “studying” is a semester-long process and not just what
happens the week before an exam. It encompasses attending class, taking notes in
lecture, reviewing lecture notes, reading, completing assignments, meeting with study
groups and tutors, meeting with the professor and TA, doing practice problems, etc.
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Oral Expression
Students who experience trouble with oral expression often report frustration that
they are unable to express verbally what they are thinking in a clear and organized way.
Often, their ideas are cohesive in their minds, but jumbled when they are spoken. Their
expression of ideas may be repetitive, recursive, not sequential, and unorganized.
Students may have difficulty retrieving the desired word, so instead, describe the sought
after word with many words.
In class, these students may not participate and may not ask questions even when
they are confused since shyness with verbal expression may accompany this learning
disability. Students may be self-conscious about their difficulty organizing cohesive,
clear statements in front of a group and benefit from having time to organize their
thoughts before participating; this can be achieved by extending “wait time” after calling
on a student to speak. Asking clarifying questions to guide the student expressing his or
her ideas is also helpful. Instructors should exercise patience and give students time to
express themselves and re-organize their language once they begin—this will foster a
more inviting learning environment for these students.
Faculty
1. Write an outline that contains key words and phrases on the board to assist students in
retrieving the necessary content vocabulary for the lecture/discussion.
2. Extend “wait time” after calling on a student to speak.
3. Ask clarifying questions to help direct student responses.
4. Allow students to volunteer to respond instead of calling on students randomly. If a
student consistently does not participate, privately discuss this with the student.
Together, brainstorm ways that you can help the student gain confidence in
participating. For example, as a scaffold, give students questions to guide their
reading and have them prepare answers for contributing to class discussion.
5. Provide questions to think about before a discussion.
14
6. During a lecture or discussion, anticipate students’ questions and pose them to the
group. Often, students have questions but are intimidated to ask them in a group
forum.
7. Incorporate educational technology such as list-serves or programs like Blackboard
into the course, giving students a way to express their contributions to their
classmates in a written format.
8. Incorporate written responses to reading assignments rather than only oral expression.
9. Encourage students to visit office hours.
Tutors
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
List the labels and terms needed for each assignment.
Develop questions/comments to bring to class discussion.
Extend time for the student to formulate answers.
Create vocabulary lists of key words and phrases.
Locate in the text the material that you explain orally.
If the student displays difficulty formulating questions or explaining what they are not
understanding in the course, help them by asking clarifying questions.
Learning instructors
Help students:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Learn new words in context in order to foster better word retrieval from memory.
Connect new words to visual images to access words when speaking.
Use mnemonic devices to remember material.
Develop strategies to monitor verbal expression. Ask self, “What is the main point,
what are descriptive details, etc.”
Get in the practice of jotting down notes before asking a professor a question or
contributing to discussion as a way of organizing thoughts for speaking in front of
others.
Gain cooperative learning strategies for working in groups.
Review different types of questions to ask in class as a way to participate in class
discussion.
Develop strategies if anxiety occurs when speaking, such as breathing and giving
themselves think time.
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Listening Comprehension
Often referred to as auditory processing, the ability to perceive and make
meaning of information obtained through the auditory system, listening comprehension is
the cornerstone of learning from lectures and discussion. Students who have this type of
disability may have difficulty discriminating between different sounds or sequences of
sounds, recognizing and interpreting what is heard, and comprehending and associating
meaning with sounds. Students may take in information incorrectly and fail to organize it
in a way that enables them to comprehend and retrieve it. This type of disability
infringes on comprehending information from lecture, hinders note taking and
participation in group discussions, and prevents successful learning from presentations
that only use oral language to convey the material.
Inaccurate listening comprehension undermines student learning. Students who
have learning comprehension difficulties benefit when instructors speak slowly and
clearly and, whenever possible, attend to facial signs of confusion. Their learning can be
enhanced when visual aids are incorporated into lectures, as well as when written
explanations accompany speech.
Faculty
1. Provide an outline at the beginning of a lecture so students are aware of the key terms
and points to guide their comprehension. If appropriate, begin the class with an
overview of the day’s topic or discussion points. If the lecture is a continuation of
previous lectures, briefly summarize those review points.
2. Note transitions to a new topic, such as pointing to the next item on an outline or
stating that you are switching to a different topic. This will help students who may
have been lost find their way.
3. Provide students with copies of notes, preferably before lecture, so students can
preview material before class and have an idea of what will be discussed.
4. Use visual aids in class, including graphs, charts, and examples.
5. Relate the lecture to reading assignments so students have a framework for
understanding the lecture/discussion.
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6. Provide written instructions to accompany oral instructions (i.e. any changes in
assignments, instructions for assignments, due dates, etc.).
7. State a summary of the lecture, or highlight key points of the discussion. Or instead,
facilitate a brief “wrap-up” discussion which highlights the main points discussed.
8. Use concrete, basic terms when introducing new terms in order to foster
comprehension.
9. Encourage a “buddy system” for students to share and review notes with one another.
Tutors
1.
2.
3.
4.
Isolate key words and terms and prepare a glossary with the students.
Use visual aids, including graphs, charts, and examples.
Review the class notes with the student and go over any gaps in the notes .
Correlate lecture note information with specific sections in text so student can read
for more information. Go through text together to locate such sections.
5. Have students restate new concepts in their own words to monitor comprehension.
6. Have the student write a summary of what you discussed at the end of each tutoring
session.
Learning instructors
Help students:
1. Develop visualization skills to comprehend and remember oral information.
2. Organize and review new material using rehearsal strategies.
3. Acquire note-taking strategies that work with the students’ strengths. Encourage
students to review notes frequently to foster consolidation in memory.
4. Preview the notes on the web, if available, before class.
5. Repeat new information aloud to reinforce the link between listening and language.
6. Build models and create drawings to better understand verbal explanations.
7. Develop reading versatility strategies to bolster comprehension of lecture material.
Focus specifically on previewing reading assignments if there is not time to fully read
the text before lecture.
8. At the end of the learning instruction session, have students write a list of what you
did at the session for the student to review later.
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Written Expression
There are a variety of ways that a writing disability manifests itself in student’s
learning. Some students have difficulty with the mechanics of writing, for example, with
spelling and grammar. Some typical examples are: no matter how many times they write
a certain word, they are unable to commit it to rote memory, or no matter how many
times they review the rules for using commas, they may not consistently apply the rules.
The content of their writing is masked in basic writing errors. Often, students who have a
reading disability also have these types of difficulties with writing. Other students have
difficulty with written expressive language. These students may present writing that is
unorganized and undeveloped. They might jump from one topic to another, go on
tangents that are not appropriate for the paper topic, or recursively revisit ideas that they
have already addressed. Students who express themselves clearly in face-to-face
interactions may hand in writing assignments that do not reflect their knowledge or
understanding of the material.
Another problem that arises from written expression difficulties includes writing
e-mail messages and contributing responses to Blackboard. While many students can
quickly get down their ideas and move on, students with writing disabilities may agonize
for hours to complete these seemingly basic requirements. Students have reported that
the pressure to write in these modes can be alleviated by instructors making clear that this
type of writing can be less formal than official papers.
Faculty
1. Provide examples of well-written papers, cases, and labs and explain why they are
well-written. Make clear to students any standard ways of writing for the discipline.
18
2. Explain the assignment topic orally as well as in writing. Provide expectations for the
assignment.
3. Provide opportunities for students to discuss their topics with you, perhaps setting a
deadline for topics to be submitted. Students with writing disabilities may avoid
doing the assignment out of lack of confidence.
4. Installing small deadlines for large writing tasks would benefit these students and
keep them on-track with the assignment.
5. Provide opportunities to read drafts or excerpts of papers.
6. Give specific feedback that can be utilized by students in future assignments.
Encourage students to incorporate your previous feedback into their next assignment.
7. Encourage peer review of papers.
8. Allow some exam questions to be answered in an outline rather than in fully written
essays. This alternate format frees students to focus on content rather than
presentation of content.
9. Incorporate class discussion into the lectures so students can express what they know
in ways other than writing.
Tutors
1. Ask questions to guide students’ writing if they have difficulty beginning or
developing topics they want to include.
2. Make sure the student understands the content. Have the student explain verbally
what they want to convey in their writing.
3. Provide examples of good writing models for specific courses and explain why they
are good examples.
4. Encourage use of thesaurus, dictionary, and work processing programs.
Learning instructors
1. Ask to see the assignment to help the student make sure he or she is answering the
question or meeting expectations. Continually return to the question or topic to
monitor if the student is on task.
2. Make sure the student has a clear understanding of the purpose of the assignment and
is aware of the audience. If the student is unclear, direct him or her back to the
professor or TA.
Help students:
3. Save tangent information in a separate file to be used for a future assignment. Know
when to delete information.
4. Find a writing process that works for them. Creatively find ways of writing in nonlinear ways for students who do not adhere to the traditional writing process.
5. Get a game plan for the assignment, map out a general time-line of steps needed in
order to meet the goal of finishing the assignment.
6. Break the writing assignment into manageable parts. If there are no deadlines
required by the professor, encourage the student to create them on his/her own, using
19
a reward program for accomplishing the deadlines. Encourage them to make others
aware of their self-created deadlines so others can ask how they are doing.
7. Use graphic organizers, such as clusters and webs, to organize and link ideas.
8. Use topic sentences as a way to organize ideas and structure paragraphs.
9. Use oral language to facilitate writing: discuss the topic with someone or record their
own thoughts on a tape recorder if appropriate for the student’s learning style.
10. Make a list of grammar rules to follow that are specific to the paper. Generate a list
of spelling words that are needed for the paper, but not committed to memory.
11. Garner strategies for essay exam questions. Encourage students to predict possible
essay questions and practice writing answers. Encourage students to write a brief
outline to organize their answer before writing an essay.
20
21
Reading Skills and Comprehension
Reading is comprised of two activities: decoding and comprehension. Decoding
entails recognizing and deciphering words while comprehension refers to the complex
process by which readers gain meaning from print. Students with learning disabilities
can have problems with either aspect or both, although students who have difficulty with
word decoding will most likely have compromised reading comprehension. Either
problem affects the student’s rate of reading (multiple readings are often necessary to
glean meaning from the text), making reading assignments even more daunting
considering the amount of expected reading at the college level.
Although dyslexia is sometimes used synonymously with “learning disability,” it
is actually a severe type of reading disability. Students with this disorder find it
extremely difficult to recognize letters and words and to interpret printed information.
Students who have dyslexia often have difficulties in other areas of learning as well, such
as in writing and mathematics. Students with dyslexia often have poor spelling, which
affects note taking, exam taking, as well as writing assignments. Basic math skills may
also be affected: for example, plus signs can be inadvertently perceived as multiplication
signs.
Reading problems affect not only the daily tasks of the course, but also examtaking. Correctly filling in scantron sheets may be problematic. Successfully completing
multiple choice questions may also be difficult: key words like all, except, and not may
not be deciphered; many choices repeat the same key words and students need to
decipher the different nuances between them; the amount of print in such a small space
can be visually overwhelming. Comprehending a long, complex question may be time-
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consuming and interfere with the student’s ability to answer the question in a timely
manner.
For lecture classes, students with a reading disability often benefit from reading
the assigned reading after the lecture. They then have a schema for the reading material
because they heard much of the material orally in class, which helps the comprehension
of the text. This, of course, is only an option if the class does not give pop quizzes or
routinely include discussions based on the reading assignments. Instructors who make
the expectations of class-time (i.e. unannounced quizzes) clear to students allow students
to better prepare their approach for the class.
Faculty
1. Accompany written assignments with verbal explanations
2. Connect text material with students’ prior knowledge, examples, and stories.
3. Summarize and paraphrase assigned readings, or give students time to discuss the
readings together in class. Provide opportunities for discussion and encourage
students to discuss readings outside of classroom.
4. Provide in-class opportunities for asking questions, summarizing, making predictions,
clarifying, and discussing multiple interpretations of text
5. As a scaffolding method, provide “thought questions” to guide students through dense
reading, encouraging students to do this on their own or with classmates for
subsequent assignments.
6. Use visual aids and outlines during lectures.
Tutors
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Help identify essential information in texts and highlight “must-read” excerpts.
Identify and connect fundamental terms and concepts.
Break large reading tasks into smaller ones.
Use texts written in clear, concise language when explaining new concepts.
Ask students to bring texts to tutoring sessions to discuss specific text excerpts.
Highlight the use of visuals in printed text, like diagrams and pictures.
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Learning Instructors
Help Students:
1. Develop reading versatilty skills, including previewing, summarizing, questioning,
and paraphrasing techniques. Turn headings into questions and search for answers in
the passage. Get a plan for each course’s readings (texts, bulkpacks, etc).
2. Become active readers who incorporate writing in the text as part of reading.
3. Go through every text and discover its format (use of bold, color, and italics).
Incorporate the structure of the text into student’s personal reading approach. Does
the text define key words, include thought questions, begin with an outline, end with
a summary or key concepts?
4. If there is no inherent structure to the text, help students find ways of organizing the
information. For example, incorporate color into reading assignments: color-code
headings and sub-headings. Or highlight definitions and key terms in one color,
supporting details in another.
5. Enhance comprehension using visualization techniques and visual aids,
6. Break long assignments into smaller chunks.
7. Use lecture notes to assist in text comprehension.
8. Prioritize readings and set purpose for reading: Ask: Why am I reading this (i.e. for
discussion, general knowledge, for the exam, for a paper)? This will guide the
strategies the student uses for that reading assignment.
9. Identify learning strengths and incorporate into a study plan.
10. Review and develop test-taking strategies: circle/box key terms, underline key verbs
or words. An overwhelming amount of print can be read line-by-line by using a piece
of paper to reveal only a selected amount at a time (by covering the rest of the written
text).
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25
Math Calculation and Problem Solving
There is a range of math difficulties that students with learning disabilities can
experience. Some students’ math performance is hindered by basic math facts and
operations. While performing mathematical functions, they may lose their place and write
numbers in the wrong column or forget a minus sign in front of a number. Students may
confuse operational symbols, copy problems incorrectly, or reverse numbers from one
line to another. Students who know how to solve a complex problem or equation often
do not get full credit because they lose points on basic math errors. Students benefit from
using graph paper, which helps structure their working space and allows them to keep
track of necessary spatial information. Also, using calculators allows students to focus
on the problem process rather than mechanical calculations.
Some students have difficulty with mathematical problem solving, or the kind of
thinking needed to work out mathematics problems. Students may process word problems
inaccurately, lack organized problem-solving tactics, or struggle to retrieve formulas
from their memory.
Many students who have math difficulties may have other learning disabilities as
well. There are many factors that go into the ability to solve math problems, such as
spatial relationships, visual-motor and visual-perception ability, concepts of directions
and time, and memory abilities (Lerner,1995, p. 487). Students who have difficulties
with sustaining attention may jump around and not perform the problem in a linear or
organized method.
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Faculty
1. Read the example problem aloud in addition to writing it on the board or viewing it in
text.
2. Use visual aids, such as graphs, charts, and formulas, to explain problems. If
applicable, draw a model or visual representation of the process for solving the
problem. Accompany visual presentations with verbal explanations.
3. As a way of modeling problem solving behavior, do a “think aloud.” Clearly explain
your thought processes as you decide how to approach solving the problem.
Paraphrase the problem aloud by stating important information. Hypothesize a plan
to solve the problem.
4. Review the steps and create a “model” for students to follow when calculating
subsequent problems.
5. Calculate the answer for the class by showing the steps, clearly writing them in an
organized and sequential fashion on the board or overhead projector.
6. Model how to check for accuracy of operations or correctness of response.
Demonstrate how to estimate the answer as a way of self-monitoring accuracy.
7. Introduce new concepts at a rate that encourages retention.
8. Continually review concepts. Relate new facts to previously learned material.
9. Whenever possible, relate material to concrete, real examples that are meaningful to
the students.
Tutors
1. Use examples with small numbers in parallel computation processes to focus on
procedure rather than computation.
2. Demonstrate alternative ways of solving and checking the problem to foster a deeper
understanding of the calculation. Encourage student to break the problem down into
steps and to follow the steps in an organized fashion.
3. Help students discriminate between various problem types. Encourage students to
keep a log of various steps to different problems, comparing and contrasting each.
Encourage students to keep a list of new calculations.
4. Demonstrate strategies for solving problems. Provide explicit assistance to students
so they can gain the confidence and the ability to approach problems independently.
5. Ask tutee to consistently “prove” answers to problems as a way of monitoring their
comprehension.
6. For problem solving, help students determine “the question” and identify necessary
information. Give the tutee question prompts to scaffold their performance (i.e. Ask,
“What is the necessary information?”).
7. Develop questions for the student to ask him/herself as a way to self-talk through the
problem. Formulate specific questions to ask depending on patterns of problems.
8. Isolate key words and terms and provide visual accompaniments to verbal
explanations.
9. Incorporate visual representations of the problem to be solved.
10. When discussing a new concept, relate it to material that the student already knows.
11. Whenever possible, relate material to concrete, real examples that are meaningful to
the student.
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Learning Instructors
Help students:
1. Approach problems one step at a time and present work in organized, readable
fashion. For students who are non-linear thinkers, develop ways of representing their
work that is readable, organized, and makes sense to the grader.
2. Develop strategies for processing the problem, such as finding key words, deciding
upon operations, knowing what is being asked. Write on the problem/question as a
way to process the information. Incorporate features like circling and boxing
important information. Incorporate color as a way to organize different information.
Assign meaning to specific color (i.e. highlight in blue key words to signify “what to
do”).
3. Summarize, paraphrase, and compare/contrast the salient features of a problem.
4. Visualize the problem and make visual representations to aid comprehension and
retention. Use different mediums, such as colored pencils and clay.
5. Become interactive with the problem. Apply to real-world situations and examples.
6. Group, relate, and label categories of information. Compare and contrast different
problems.
7. Explain the information to someone as a way to monitor and reinforce one’s own
understanding of the material.
8. Gain strategies for remembering and retrieving information
9. Gain test-taking strategies. Encourage students to do practice problems and tests
routinely throughout the course.
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29
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) affects learning and behavior.
Like a learning disability, ADHD is a hidden disability and therefore, has skeptics
regarding its existence. This syndrome has complexities and variations that make it
difficult to pinpoint “a” way that ADD “looks” or affects individuals. Although there is
not a known cause for the disorder, which is commonly referred to as ADD, researchers
have determined that it is a neurobiological condition. This syndrome is characterized by
inattention, impulsivity, and sometimes hyperactivity. The Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2000)1distinguishes
three sub-groups of ADHD.
Types:
Typical behaviors:
AD/HD Predominately Hyperactive-Impulsive Type
excessive energy; fidget and
have difficulty staying still;
may talk excessively; and
may interrupt others when
speaking
AD/HD Predominately Inattentive Type
may appear to be
daydreamers; often have
difficulty attending to details,
sustaining attention, and
following instructions.
AD/HD combined type.
Exhibit behaviors of both
types
Another reason that ADHD is scrutinized is the fact that at times, most people
experience the behaviors described as indicative of ADHD. However the symptoms of
ADHD are “present from childhood on, and with much greater intensity than in the
1
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th
edition, Text Revision). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
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average person, so that they interfere with everyday functioning” (Hallowell & Ratey,
1994, p. 3). Also, the name of the condition itself can be misleading: Hallowell and
Ratey have suggested that the term deficit in ADD is a misnomer—instead, it is an
attention inconsistency to attention variability since people with ADD can indeed pay
attention well at times (p. 11). As Murphy (1995) explains, “It is not that the adult with
ADD cannot focus on a given topic or task, it is that he or she is unable to do so
consistently over a sustained period of time” (p.12).
There are numerous ways that ADHD can infringe on a student’s academic
performance and his or her learning. The focus here is to discuss some ways that ADHD
manifests itself in students’ behaviors and then to address specific strategies for teaching
that will facilitate the learning. Some typical features of ADHD include: distractibility,
inattention to details, disorganization, distorted sense of time, and procrastination.
Distractibility hinders student’s ability to focus on the goal at hand. It impacts a
student’s ability to listen to and contribute to a lecture and discussion, complete reading
and other assignments, follow instructions, and follow through with a task. One student
explained that,
Every stimulus I experience, from the sound of a fan blowing to the flickering of a
florescent light bulb to the words the professor is speaking to the tapping of a
student’s pencil in the row behind me to an itch on my arm, comes at me with
equal intensity. It is very hard for me to filter out unimportant stimuli, for they all
assail me with the same force and all, at the time, seem of the utmost importance.
Disorganization impacts learning on several fronts. In terms of disorganization of
material items, syllabi and handouts may get lost, notebooks get left behind, and desks
are an abyss of papers. Students with ADD may complete assignments and then forget to
hand them in. Disorganization may also exist in expressive language: writing that jumps
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from one topic to the next without development or linear thought; or in a conversation,
jumping from one topic to the next without focus. Individuals with ADD may have a
distorted sense of time—they may continually show up late for appointments, or
generally not be aware how long certain tasks take. Many adults who have ADD perform
best under “pressure” or often feel a need to be pressured in order to focus and execute
the necessary task. This fosters procrastination. Unfortunately, this often means papers
are written the night before without ample time for revising or proofreading.
A common feeling among students with ADHD often is a pervasive feeling of
underachievement. They know that they have the potential to do better than they are, but
they are unable to show their knowledge on a test or a paper in the way that would earn
them grades that reflect this. These students often know what to do; the execution of
these skills is often where the difficulty arises. Students with ADD benefit from external
structure and organization which allows them to gain control of their academic
responsibilities and to perform successfully their desired tasks.
Students with ADHD, who often are unable to reign in their attention and
concentration to break a paper assignment into smaller pieces and use a writing process
that involves more than one draft, often find themselves writing papers the night before
the paper is due. Students with ADHD often find it difficult to begin early on tasks that
do not have a pressure surrounding them. Therefore, they may be unable to make the
deadline of the assignment; if they do, the paper might be frought with errors. Or,
perhaps the paper is written brilliantly, but on a topic different than that which was
assigned.
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Many of the specific strategies that benefit students with ADHD are addressed in
General Suggestions and as well as within specific learning disabilities sections (in
particular, Listening Comprehension and Writing). The strategies for teaching students
who have ADHD benefit all students as well.
Faculty
1. Provide students with a syllabus that includes all pertinent information for the course.
Reiterate to students to read the syllabus for the expectations of the course. Post the
syllabus on the web.
2. Provide oral and written instructions regarding assignments or any announcements.
3. Announce any changes orally as well as in writing, giving as much notice as possible
for changes.
4. Give clear and concise instructions. Clearly express expectations for assignments.
5. Incorporate different intonations in your speech and use gestures when speaking.
6. When speaking, try to limit tangents. If tangents are necessary, verbally state when
you are back to original topic.
7. Include mini-breaks in long classes.
8. Begin the class with a brief outline or agenda of material to be discussed. Even a
basic framework can assist student in finding their place if they were distracted and
lost focus on the lecture.
9. Consider alternating different formats in class (i.e. lecture followed by
question/answer session or small group discussion).
10. Incorporate different ways of presenting material into the lecture. When possible,
incorporate interactive learning.
11. Set deadlines that break large assignments into smaller parts. For example, a research
paper can have deadlines for topic and argument, annotated bibliography, a rough
draft, as well as a final draft.
12. Structure assignments when possible. For example, provide an outline structure of
lab or give an example of a paper topic.
Tutors
1. Meet at the same time and place each week.
2. Meet in a distraction-free environment.
3. Ask the student at the beginning of the session what the goals for the session are and
together prioritize and decide what are reasonable goals for the time constraint of the
session. Write a brief outline of the goals. If student gets off track, refer back to the
outline.
4. Make use of concrete reminders like lists, schedules, etc.
5. Stick to the work. If student wants to talk and socialize, politely state that you will
talk during the break or after the session if finished.
6. Take a brief break in the session.
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7. Refer to visual aids as much as possible to make oral language more concrete.
Learning instructors
1. Meet at the same time each week.
2. Encourage students to organize their bag the night before so getting out of the house
in the morning is not as much of a rush. Keep the bag and other “daily essentials” in
the same location (ex. in a basket near the door).
3. Encourage students to get a separate notebook for each class—if students lose one,
they haven’t lost everything.
4. Encourage students to take mini-breaks between switching courses when studying.
Help students:
1. Break assignments into smaller parts, creating deadlines for each task. Have the
student inform you of their goals so you can ask them about their progress during the
week.
2. Develop personal incentive plans for accomplishing tasks.
3. Structure their days. One way of structuring the day is by meals and by time of day,
like morning, early afternoon, late afternoon, evening, and night. Changing location
while transitioning from one task to another works well for some students.
4. Plan reasonable times to do not only academic work, but also life tasks, like doing
laundry and paying bills.
5. Find reliable routines that are not rigid, but instead provide a structure that enables
the student to accomplish his or her goals.
6. Prioritize responsibilities.
7. Set daily and weekly goals. Choose or make planners, hour by hour sheets, and goal
sheets that are tailored to the student.
8. Improve time management skills and find a system that works for them.
9. Filing systems that work for them.
10. Get in the daily habit of organizing and filing school work. Encourage students to
routinely spend ten minutes cleaning out and de-cluttering school bag.
11. Use color as a way of organizing and highlighting information.
12. Discuss different ways of taking notes. Discuss non-linear ways of note-taking, such
as using webs, if appropriate.
13. Find a writing process that works for them. A traditional, linear approach to writing
may not work for all students. However, even if the process is not linear, be sure to
emphasize the necessity of completing a draft with ample time to revise.
14. Be aware of time. Encourage students to carry a watch that beeps so they can be
aware of how much time has passed.
15. Discover how they study best: are they better at doing three subjects within a period
of time or do they prefer spending a large chunk of time on one task?
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References
Hallowell, E. & Ratey, J. (1994). Answers to Distraction. NY: Bantam.
Lea, M. & Street, B. (1998). Student writing and faculty feedback in higher
education: An academic literacies approach. Unpublished paper.
Lerner, J. (1995). Learning disabilities: Theories, diagnosis, and teaching
strategies (8th edition). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Murphy, K. & Le Vert, S. (1995). Out of the fog: Treatment options and coping
strategies for adult attention deficit disorders. NY: Hyperion, Skylight Press.
Scott, S. (1994). Determining reasonable academic adjustments for college
students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 27 (7), 403-412.
Recommended Reading
Armstrong, T. (2000). Multiple intelligences in the classroom (2nd edition).
Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Barkley, R. (1998). Attention deficit disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and
treatment (2nd edition). NY: The Guilford Press.
Brinkerhoff, L., McGuire, J., Shaw, S. (Eds.). (2002). Postsecondary education
and transition for students with learning disabilities (2nd edition). Austin, TX: Pro-ed.
Gardner, H. (1993). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences (Tenth
anniversary edition). NY: BasicBooks.
Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences: The theory into practice. NY:
BasicBooks.
Gregg, N., Hoy, C., Gay, A. (Eds.). (1996). Adults with learning disabilities:
Theoretical and practical perspectives. NY: The Guilford Press.
Hallowell, E. & Ratey, J. (1994). Driven to distraction: Recognizing and coping
with attention deficit disorder from childhood through adulthood. NY: Touchstone.
Mooney, J. & Cole. D. (2000). Learning outside the lines: Two ivy league
students with learning disabilities and ADHD give you the tools for academic success
and educational revolution. NY: Simon & Schuster.
Murphy, S. (1992). On being LD: Perspectives and strategies of young adults.
Colchester, VT: Teachers College Press.
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Quinn, P. (Ed.). (2001). ADD and the college student (2nd edition). Washington,
DC: Magination Press.
Smith, S. (1993) Succeeding against the odds: How the learning disabled can
realize their promise. NY: Jeremy P. Thatcher/Perigee Books.
Vogel, S. & Adelman, P. (Eds.). (1993). Success for college students with
learning disabilities. NY: Springer-Verlag.
West, T. (1997). In the mind’s eye: Visual learners, gifted people with learning
difficulties, computer images, and ironies of creativity (Updated edition). NY:
Prometheus Books.
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